JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE (1992) 7 (2) 109-1 24 0267-81 79/92/0201 09-1 631 3.

00
0 1992 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Influence of glacier hydrology on the

dynamics of a large Quaternary ice sheet
NEIL ARNOLD and MARTIN SHARP Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge CB2
3EN, England

Arnold, N. and Sharp, M. 1992. influence of glacier hydrology on the dynamics of a large Quaternary ice sheet. journal of Quaternary Science, Vol. 7, pp.
109-124. ISSN 0267-8179
Received 27 September 1991 Accepted 20 March 1992

ABSTRACT: The influence of glacier hydrology on the time-dependent morphology and flow
behaviour of the late Weichselian Scandinavian ice sheet is explored using a simple one-
dimensional ice sheet model. The model is driven by orbitally induced radiation variations, ice-
albedo feedback and eustatic sea-level change. The influence of hydrology i s most marked during
deglaciation and on the southern side of the ice sheet, where a marginal zone of rapid sliding,
thin ice and low surface slopes develops. Such a zone is absent when hydrology is omitted from
the model, and its formation results in earlier and more rapid deglaciation than occurs in the no- J ~ of Quaternary
~ ~ Science
~ I
hydrology model. The final advance to the glacial maximum position results from an increase in
the rate of basal sliding as climate warms after 23000 yr BP. Channelised subglacial drainage
develops only episodically, and is associated with relatively low meltwater discharges and high
hydraulic gradients. The predominance of iceberg calving as an ablation mechanism on the
northern side of the ice sheet restricts the occurrence of surface melting. Lack of meltwater
penetration to the glacier bed in this area means that ice flow is predominantly by internal
deformation and the ice sheet adopts a classical parabolic surface profile.

KEYWORDS: Glacier hydrology, Quaternary, Scandinavia, ice sheet dynamics.

Introduction lubricated bed and deforming substrate models of fast glacier

flow require high subglacial water pressures, and are therefore
critically dependent on the character and behaviour of the
It is now widely recognised that fast ice flow, as manifested subglacial drainage system.
by ice streams and outlet glaciers, plays an important role in To date, large scale, time-dependent models of Quaternary
the dynamics of the present-day Antarctic and Greenland ice ice sheets (e.g. Budd and Smith, 1981, 1982; Oerlemans,
sheets (e.g. Clarke, 1987; Hughes, 1987), and several authors 1981; Payne et a/., 1989) generally have not incorporated
have suggested that this role might have been equally representations of those processes that may permit fast flow
important in the case of Quaternary mid-latitude ice sheets to occur. Such models appear to be able to reproduce
(Hughes et a/., 1985; Dyke and Morris, 1988). Evidence in geologically determined ice-margin positions (and possibly
support of this includes reconstructed low-gradient ice surface also ice volumes) with a reasonable degree of accuracy, but
profiles (Mathews, 1974; Beget, 1986; Clark, 1980, 1985)’ they are less effective at depicting the distribution of velocity
localised zones of long distance erratic transport (Boothia within ice sheets. For instance, Mclnnes and Budd (1984)
type erratic trains) (Dyke and Morris, 1988), lobation of ice obtained good agreement between modelled and observed
sheet margins during deglaciation (Boulton and Jones, 1979; velocities at the grounding line of Ice Stream B, Antarctica,
Punkari, 1982, 1984) and evidence for rapid, asynchronous but found that modelled velocities decreased inland much
fluctuations of ice margins during overall retreat (Clayton et more rapidly than observed velocities. The Antarctic Peninsula
a/., 1985). The causes of fast flow are, however, less well Ice Sheet model of Payne et a/. (1989) also shows discrepancies
understood. It has been explained in terms of rapid sliding between modelled and observed ice velocities for the present
over a rigid, water-lubricated bed (Budd et a/., 1979; day, and some discrepancies over the distribution of floating
Iken, 1981; Kamb, 1987; Fowler, 1987a,b), motion over a and grounded ice. One possible explanation for these
deforming sediment substrate (Boulton and Jones, 1979; disagreements i s the rapid decrease of velocity away from the
Boulton and Hindmarsh, 1987), and of enhanced deformation grounding line in the model, which allows thick ice to remain
of glacier ice (Echelmeyer and Harrison, 1990). Since it i s in areas which in reality are now occupied by floating, rather
clear that both rigid and potentially deformable glacier beds than grounded ice. These problems arise primarily because
exist, it may be that all three mechanisms can operate, albeit water pressures calculated in these models relate to hydrostatic
in different parts of an ice sheet and at different times in its pressures imparted by standing water at the ice sheet margins,
history. It is important to realise, however, that both the rather than to subglacial drainage of basally and supraglacially
110 JOURNALOF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

derived meltwater. Oerlemans (1 982) included a relationship however, we have not attempted to adjust the parameterisation
between meltwater production at the base of the ice sheet of the model or the nature of the environmental forcing to
and basal sliding, in which sliding was evaluated such that which it is subjected to make model output consistent with
an ice sheet which experienced basal sliding would, for a available geological evidence. Equally, we have not tried to
given steady state, be half the thickness of one in which no investigate the sensitivity of model response to variations in
sliding occurred. The aim of Oerlemans' study, however, was environmental forcing.
to investigate, and to try to reproduce, asymmetric glacial
cycles and the controls on the periods of such cycles. As
such, it did not include an evaluation of the basal hydrological
system, and the effect this may have on sliding velocity. The The ice sheet model
failure of models that aim to simulate ice sheet dynamics to
reproduce the essential features of fast flow in reconstructions
of contemporary ice cover suggests that they will also fail to The models used in this study are based on a one-dimensional
model the evolution of fast flow through time. If this is so, it version of the continuity equation for ice thickness
i s unlikely that they will be able to predict accurately
dZldt = A - rn - dldx (Us+ u d ) z (1 1
the time-dependent evolution of the morphology and flow
dynamics of palaeo-ice sheets. Thus, if the aim of a given where Z is ice thickness, t is time, A is net mass balance, m
study is to assist in the interpretation of the geological record is rate of marine losses, U, is ice sliding velocity, U d is ice
left by those ice sheets, such models will be of limited value. deformation velocity and x is distance. This equation was
In the light of the above discussion, it seems desirable that solved using a forward-time, centred space finite difference
if time-dependent ice sheet models are to be used in such scheme with a 20 km grid size, and a 2.5-year time step.
studies they should incorporate some explicit treatment of Because of inherent instabilities in the finite difference scheme
subglacial hydrology and its influence on ice flow dynamics. used to solve the continuity equation (which are manifest as
As a first step in this direction, we have developed a one- high-frequency waves within the solution), it was necessary
dimensional model of an ice sheet resting on a rigid bed to smooth the model output periodically. This was done using
which includes a water-pressure dependent sliding law and a five-point weighted average of the form
evaluates the subglacial water pressure as a function of
Z:= 1/16(10Zi+4(Zi+1 +Zi-l)-Zi+2-Zi-z) (2)
meltwater discharge and the configuration of the subglacial
drainage system (major channels or a distributed, linked- where Zi is the value of ice thickness or bed elevation in a
cavity system). In this paper we seek to compare the response given cell. This procedure was carried out once every 10
to imposed environmental forcing of such a model with a iterations. Runs were also carried out with smaller time steps,
simpler model, which does not explicitly include subglacial and less frequent smoothing, to ensure that the smoothing
hydrology. This latter model is similar to the models of Budd was not unduly affecting model results.
and Smith (1981, 1982) and Payne et a/. (1989), in that it
treats the subglacial water pressure as dependent upon
hydrostatic pressure arising from marginal water bodies. A
schematic view of the full model is given in Fig. 1. The Ice flow
models are applied to a transect through the Scandinavian
ice sheet from the Lofoten Islands to Estonia, and to the last Ice flow is assumed to occur by a combination of internal
40 000 yr. deformation and basal sliding. Vertically integrated defor-
We stress that the goal of the paper i s to evaluate the mation velocity is calculated from basal shear stress, ?br
importance of the hydrology of an ice sheet in regulating its assuming simple shear, using the equation
response to environmental change. We hope that the study
will provide insights into ice sheet behaviour which will assist Ud = A T ~ Z (3)
in the interpretation of geological evidence. At this stage, where A and n are flow parameters, and i s calculated by

Figure 1 Outline of the structure of the full ice sheet model (Mqdel 2).
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 111

?b = p,gZ sin a (4) elevation and latitude), E is the ice-surface elevation, and m
= 1200 m. Changing insolation receipts over time were
where a is the ice surface slope and p, is ice density.
assumed to modify the value of E, (see below).
Sliding velocity is determined using the relation determined
Marine melting from the bottom of ice shelves is influenced
by Mclnnes and Budd (1984)
by many factors, such as sea-surface temperatures, salinity
U s = kI?d(N + k,N2) (5) and turbulence. Since very few of these could be determined
for the case of the late Weichselian Scandinavian Ice Sheet,
where kl and k, are flow parameters and N is the effecti.de a constant rate of melt of 0.5 m yr-I was assumed, following
pressure (ice overburden minus subglacial water pressure). Payne et a/. (1989). This simplification also was thought to
To prevent excessive changes in sliding velocity over short be justified given the aims of the paper.
distances, which might arise from approach to the ice sheet Iceberg calving from tidewater glaciers was shown by
grounding line or from variations in N linked to changes in Brown et a/. (1982) to be proportional to depth of water at
the subglacial drainage configuration, ice velocity is con- the margin of the glacier. Although their relationship is not
strained by imposing a maximum horizontal longitudinal strictly applicable to ice shelves, it is used here in the absence
strain rate of 0.004 yr-' (cf. Mclnnes and Budd (1 984)). This of any studies of calving rates from ice shelves. The relation
can be thought of as simulating the role of longitudinal stresses takes the form
and the buttressing effect of downstream ice (Mclnnes and
Budd, 1984). V, = 28.75 W (7)
If ice is found to be floating (i.e. Z < pw/pi x W, where where V, is the calving fiux in m yr-' and W the water depth.
W is the depth of water), ice flow in the resulting ice shelf
is approximated by using a prescribed constant horizontal
strain rate of 0.004 yr-'. This is the observed strain rate at
the grounding line of Pine Island Glacier in West Antarctica,
a floating ice tongue that is not buttressed by ice rises Me1twater discharge
(Mclnnes and Budd, 1984). This is a situation that seems
likely to be comparable to the Atlantic margins of the Meltwater discharge, which is required for calculations of
Weichselian Scandinavian ice sheet. It is thus assumed that, effective pressure, was calculated on the assumption that, in
within an ice shelf, ice velocity changes as a result of the ablation area of the ice sheet, all of the ablated ice would
spreading and thinning of the ice under its own weight, given reach the bed as surface-derived meltwater. It was further
an initial velocity at the grounding line. assumed that in the accumulation area, all of this water would
refreeze as it flowed through the ice sheet, and none would
reach the bed. This implies that the base of the ice sheet is
temperate in the ablation zone only, an assumption supported
by time-dependent thermomechanically coupled modelling
Mass balance
of ice masses (Hindmarsh et a/., 1989).
This assumption was tested in the current study as follows.
Mass balance of the ice sheet i s determined by the interaction
Hindmarsh (pers. comm.; 1990) has shown that for velocity
of four separate factors: accumulation due to precipitation on
due to deformation or sliding, the heat production over a
the ice surface, surface melt, basal melt from ice shelves,
column of ice i s
and calving of icebergs where the ice terminates in standing
water. H = pig dEldx Qi (8)
Accumulation rates, which must be considered largely
unknown for the area and time period concerned, were taken where H is the heating and Q, is ice discharge. It can then
to be equal to modern precipitation rates. The latter were be assumed that this heating occurs only at the bed of the
taken to be 90% effective (i.e. given the relative densities of ice sheet. This can then be compared with the temperature
ice and water, 1 m of precipitation in a given time period gradient needed to conduct the heat away
would be converted to 1 m of ice by the end of that period). H = K dTldx (9)
This approach, which minimises the complication of including
precipitation as an interactive variable and saves computing where K is the thermal conductivity of ice and dTldx is the
time, was also used by Budd and Smith (1981). Whilst this temperature gradient. If the surface temperature of the ice is
is undoubtedly a simplification of reality, it is justified here known, it i s then possible to calculate the basal temperature
on the grounds that we are not, at this stage, trying to as follows
use the model to precisely simulate reality. The initial Tb = T, + ZHIK (10)
accumulation values were modified subsequently by the
incorporation into the model of an 'elevation desert effect', where Tb is basal temperature and T, is surface temperature.
which simulates the reduction of precipitation observed at Oerlemans (1982) gives a relationship for the surface tempera-
high altitudes on modern ice sheets. Thus precipitation was ture of an ice sheet
reduced by a factor of two for every kilometre of ice surface
(1 1)
elevation above 2 km (cf. Budd and Smith, 1981).
Ablation (surface melt) was calculated using the regression where 7, is the temperature at the equilibrium line, E, is the
equation derived by Budd and Smith (1981), which predicts equilibrium line elevation and h is the atmospheric lapse rate,
the current distribution of ablation rates as a function of here taken to be 6.5"C km-I. For the present-day Greenland
elevation and latitude ice sheet, studies suggest that T, is in the range - 12 to - 15°C
(Oerlemans, 1982). The latter value is used in this study.
logloA = l l rn (E, - €1 (6)
These calculations were included in some runs of Model 2 , and
Here A i s the ablation rate in m yr-I, Eo is the elevation of show that during ice sheet growth, areas within 60-100 km of
the 1 m yr-' ablation contour at a given latitude at a given the margin are at the melting point (although if ice in the
time (as determined from present-day distributions of ablation, marginal cell (20 km) is very thin, this one cell is sometimes
112 JOGRNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

below the melting point), whereas interior areas are below where f i s an empirical constant related to turbulent channel
the melting point. This temperate area is slightly larger than flow. Fowler (198713) uses the bedslope (p) instead of the
the ablation area. During decay, the marginal 200-250 km hydraulic gradient (4) to calculate the effective pressure,
of the ice sheet is temperate; again, this area i s slightly larger arguing that for a glacier the pressure change due to the ice-
than the ablation area. This seems to suggest that only surface slope is small. For an ice sheet, however, where the
allowing water to reach the bed of the ice sheet in the depth and length scales are much greater, the influence of
ablation area will, if anything, underestimate the role of basal surface slope does become important.
hydrology on ice sheet dynamics. These calculations do, of For a system of linked cavities, the small linking channels
course, neglect horizontal advection of colder ice from must each carry a lower discharge than the equivalent large
upstream into the ablation area, but vertical advection in the tunnel, so water pressure will be higher, and effective pressure
ablation area hinders cooling (e.g. Paterson, 1981, p. 2041, therefore lower, for a given discharge. Fowler (1987a) shows
and should ensure that the base of the ice sheet i s at the
melting point. (15)
The assumption that surface-derived meltwaters did reach
the glacier bed within the ablation areas of Quaternary mid- where NK is effective pressure for a cavity-based system, s is
latitude ice sheets is supported by geological evidence. Allen a shadowing function (Lliboutry, 1978), defined as the
(1 971) argued that climbing-ripple sequences in the Uppsala probability that a randomly selected area of the bed is in
esker result from discharge variations with a time-scale of a contact with the ice, QK = QR the volume flux of meltwater,
f l K is the number of passageways across the width of the
few hours, consistent with the diurnal variation observed in
meltwater stream discharges. Banerjee and McDonald (1 975) glacier and SK is the cross-sectional area of a typical
aruged that cyclic sequences of sand and gravel, with passageway. Variables f l K and SK are both determined
thicknesses of one to a few metres, which are frequently empirically-Fowler (1987a) argues for values of 10-2 m2 for
found in the core of large eskers, may be due to annual SK, and of 10’ cavities per kilometre of glacier width for n K ,
discharge variations. These observations are consistent with given a bedrock wavelength of 1 m. Typically, effective
surface-derived water comprising the greatest component of pressure for a cavity system is a factor of at least two lower
discharge, because the discharge of basally derived meltwater than for a tunnel system carrying equivalent discharge.
would not be expected to vary significantly on annual or Since Model 2 allows meltwater to drain via either major
diurnal scales. tunnels or a system of linked cavities, this model includes an
Meltwater discharge (in m3 s-l) was calculated by multiply- evaluation of the likely configuration of the subglacial drainage
ing the ablation rate by the relative densities of ice and water system. It should be emphasised here that when major tunnels
(0.9), the grid interval and the flowband width, and then occur it seems probable that they will coexist with a linked
integrating downstream from the ice divide. Flowband width cavity system rather than completely replace it (Fowler,
was taken to be 30 km, on the basis that the average spacing 1987a,b). Fowler (1987a,b) suggests that a tunnel system will
between eskers in southern Finland is approximately 30 km be stable if the value of a stability criterion, A, calculated
(Geological Survey of Finland, 1984). from

A = vU,/IAN” (16 )

(where v = (a//), with a the typical bedrock bump amplitude

Meltwater drainage and subglacial water and I the typical bump wavelength) i s less than a critical
pressure value, equal to

The two ice sheet models used in this study are differentiated AC = ( ~ ~ S R / A * ) ‘ ~ - * ’ ~ ’ (1 7)
in terms of the way in which effective pressure ( N ) is (where A* is the total cavity cross-section area and i s the
calculated. In the simplest model (Model 11, N is taken to be power function for self-similar bedrocks (Fowler, 1987a,b)).
the height of ice above buoyancy, following Mclnnes and The critical stability factor, A,, has a typical value of 0.25
Budd (1984) and Radok et a/. (1989). In the other model, N (Fowler, 1987a). For n = 3, p has values from 2 to 2.5.
i s calculated using equations taken from Fowler (1987a,b), Values for a and I are determined empirically; Fowler (1987b)
and varies according to whether tunnels or linked cavities gave values of 1 m and 5 m, respectively, and these values
carry the basal water. Model 2 (the full model) allows drainage also are used in this study (Table 1).
to occur via either major tunnels or a system of linked cavities In Model 2, effective pressure is calculated from either
(cf. Walder, 1986; Kamb, 1987). equation (1 2) or (1 5), depending on the value of the stability
For a system of tunnels criterion (A) relative to A, in the previous time interval. (This
assumes that the drainage system configuration can change
(12)
within one time period. Evidence from Variegated Glacier,
where NR i s effective pressure for a tunnel-based system, pw Alaska, suggests that 2.5 years is more than adequate (Kamb
is water density, g i s the acceleration due to gravity, QR is et a/., 1985)). In Model 2, the value of N calculated above
the volume flux of meltwater, pi is ice density, A is the is compared with that calculated from ice thickness above
multiplier in Glen’s flow law, L i s latent heat, n is the buoyancy, and the lower value is used (i.e. the higher water
exponent in Glen‘s flow law, SR is the tunnel cross-sectional pressure). This simulates, albeit in a very simple manner, the
area, and I$ is the hydraulic gradient, defined as effect on subglacial water pressure of a head of water at the
ice sheet margin. If the calculated effective pressure is greater
I$ = PI{^ + l(pw + p i ) / p w l P } (1 3 ) than the ice overburden pressure (implying a negative water
Here p is the bed slope. The tunnel cross-sectional area, SR, pressure, which is impossible in reality, but actually indicates
is calculated as that subglacial water is at atmospheric pressure and tunnels
are not full (Fowler, 1987a)), ice overburden pressure is used
(14) instead of the calculated effective pressure.
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY O N LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 113
~

Table 1 Parameter values for the models

Parameter Symbol Value Units

Ice flow
Deformation:
multiplier A 5.3 x 10-15 s - l kPaP3
power n 3.0
Sliding:
1st multiplier kl 6.3 X lo-' m2 s-l kPa-'
2nd multiplier k2 400 m
Drainage configuration:
latent heat L 3.3 x 105 I kg-'
channel flow f 700 m-8/3 k
g
number of cavities nK 30 000
cavity cross-section SK 10-2 m2
shadowing function 5 0.5
bedrock amplitude a 1 m
bedrock wavelength I 5 m
ratio all V 0.2
power function CL 2.0
Ice conductivity K 2.1 J s-l ,-I K-I
Ice density PI 900 kg m-3
Water density Pw 1025 kg m3
Gravity g 9.81 ms - ~
lsostas y
Mantle density Prn 3300 kg m-'
Mantle diffusivity Da 1.11 m2 s-l

Glacial isostasy were used to alter the ablation relationships within the model
(see below).
Ice sheet behaviour i s known to be strongly influenced by Bed elevation was defined at 20 km intervals along a
changes in bed elevation caused by isostatic effects (Budd transect from approximately 69"30'N, 12"30'E to 55"N, 26"E
and Smith, 1981). This i s incorporated into the model using (Fig. 21, giving a total of 75 grid cells. Elevations were taken
a diffusion equation based on ice load and the deflection of from topographic maps of Scandinavia (Office of Geodesy
the bed away from an initially relaxed condition (Oerlemans and Cartography, German Democratic Republic, 1967; Main
and Van der Veen, 1984). The rate of response is controlled Administration of Geodesy and Cartography under the Council
by a diffusivity constant, and the relationship is of Ministers of the USSR, 1972). Initial ice thickness was
assumed to be zero. The extent of the Scandinavian ice sheet
dBfdt = D,d2/dX2 (6, - B + L, + L,) (18) at about 40OOOyr ago is still very much a matter of debate.
where B i s bedrock elevation, B, is the initially relaxed There is evidence that there was an interstadial at about this
bedrock elevation, D, is the diffusivity constant, Li i s the ice time (the Alesund interstadial, Larsen and Sejrup (1 990)), but
load and 1, is the water load, calculated as the extent of ice retreat during this period is uncertain.
Because of this, it was decided to assume no ice cover
4 = ZPifPm for grounded ice (following Boulton et a/., 1985). Bedrock elevation was
L, = Z*pi/pm for ice with its bed below sea- assumed to be in isostatic equilibrium at the start of model
level runs, although this is a difficult assumption to test.
1, = 0 where ice is floating Accumulation rates were taken to be equal to the average
1, = pw/pm (B, - B) where current bedrock or initial annual precipitation given by the UNESCO climatic atlas of
bedrock are below sea-level Europe, as read at 20 km intervals along the transect.
L, = 0 where both are above sea-level The effect on ablation rates of changing radiation receipts
where pm is mantle density, and Z* = z - pw/plW. linked to variations in the Earth's orbital geometry was
incorporated into the model using the method of Budd and
Smith (1 981 1. These authors argued that changes in radiation
receipts over time at a given latitude, as calculated by
Vernekar (1972), would result in changes in the elevation of
Model inputs the 1 m yr-' ablation level (€,-equation (6)).These changes
would be equivalent in magnitude to present-day changes in
the elevation of Eo that occur between latitudes which show
The input data for the model comprised the initial bed
spatial differences in radiation receipts comparable to the
morphology, initial ice thickness, accumulation-rate data,
difference between present-day receipts and those at the time
ablation relationships and sea-level. External forcing com-
period in question. Thus, the elevation of E, is argued to vary
prised changes in solar radiation receipts owing to orbital
by 30 m/(ly/day). The changes in Eo induced by varying
changes, ice sheet area (affecting global albedo) and changing
radiation receipts at latitude 69"N over the last 40000 yr are
eustatic sea-level. Solar radiation receipts and albedo feedback
shown in Fig. 3a.
114 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

a I

b A B

-2000
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance (krn)

Figure 2 (a) Location of the transect through the Scandinavian ice sheet for which calculations were performed. (b) Current bedrock
topography along the line of the transect shown in 2a.

These changes in En can be converted to equivalent changes in the elevation of En to vary with latitude i n future studies.
in air temperature by assuming a moist adiabatic lapse rate At this stage, the models were not run over the whole of the
of 6.5"C km-' (Budd and Smith, 1981). The results suggest last glacial cycle because of limitations on computing time.
that only a part of the temperature changes inferred for the Since the climatic curves of Budd and Smith (1981) suggest
Last Glacial Maximum by climate model studies can be that the elevation of the 1 m a-I ablation rate cmtour at
attributed directly to radiative forcing (Budd and Smith, 1981). 37000 yr BP was similar to that of today, and because
Budd and Smith attributed the residual temperature change geological evidence suggests an interstadial at about this time
to ice-albedo feedback effects, which were argued to vary (Larsen and Sejrup, 19901, the models were run from 40000
linearly in magnitude with ice sheet extent. In reality, yr BP to the present day.
these feedback effects also may involve such variables as Changing eustatic sea-level was the second forcing variable
atmospheric composition and turbidity, a fact acknowledged used. Since the volume of the Scandinavian ice sheet at its
by Budd and Smith (1981). The values calculated by Budd maximum extent is thought to have been only about one-
and Smith (1981) are used in this study. The resulting quarter of that of the Laurentide ice sheet (Boulton et a/.,
variations of En through time for the northern end of the 19851, it was assumed that eustatic sea-level was external to
transect used in this study are shown in Fig. 3a. the model. The eustatic sea-level curve used was taken from
These changes in En were used as the input to the models Shackleton (1987) (Fig. 3b).
in the current study. The present-day value of Eo at the
northern end of the transect was taken to be 900 m, and a
latitudinal gradient of 10 m increase per degree south of this Model results
point was used (Budd and Smith, 1981). This gradient was
assumed not to vary through time. It i s planned to include The results of the model runs are presented in two parts. In
the complication of allowing the temporal pattern of change the first, the results of the two models are compared. In the
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 115

40000 30000 20000 10000 0

Time (yrs BP)

b I

I " " I " " I " " I

40000 30000 20000 10000 0
Time (yrs BP)

Figure 3 Environmental forcing functions used to drive the models: (a) time series of elevation of the 1 m yr-' ablation contour (Eo)--(i)
with, and (ii)without ice-albedo feedback; (b) eustatic sea-level curve (after Shackleton, 1987).

second part the sensitivity of the full model to parameter the ice sheet is closer to that of Model 1. The flatter marginal
variations is examined. The two initial runs used the parameter area becomes greatly exaggerated during deglaciation (Fig.
values summarised in Table 1, and the forcing functions 5c), when the southern side of the ice sheet shows a virtually
shown in Fig. 3. straight surface profile. Model 1 retains a parabolic surface
profile throughout. By 3000 yr after maximum, the margin of
Model 2 has retreated over 200 km further than Model 1.
These morphological patterns can be explained by the
Influence of glacier hydrology on ice sheet processes of ice flow in the two models. Figures 6-8 show
dynamics the total, deformation and sliding velocities for the two models
for the same periods as Fig. 5. The northern margins again
The response of ice volume to environmental forcing in the show similar behaviour in both models for all three time
two model runs is shown in Fig. 4. The inclusion of hydrology periods. Internal deformation makes up one-third to over one-
results in an earlier and smaller glacial maximum, and earlier half of the total velocity, and generally increases towards a
and more rapid deglaciation than occurs in Model 1. maximum at the margin of the ice sheet.
The morphologies of the two model ice sheets for 3000 yr The two models show quite different behaviour on the
before maximum volume, maximum volume, and 3000 yr southern margin, however. Internal deformation is again an
after maximum volume are shown in Fig. 5a-c. Both models important component of ice flow for Model 1 , contributing
show very similar, parabolic, profiles at the northern margin at least one-half of the total velocity, and increasing to a
of the ice sheet for all three periods. The southern margin, maximum at the ice margin. The magnitude of total velocity
however, behaves differently. During growth (Fig. 5a), Model is highest at the ice sheet maximum. Model 2 shows much
2 shows a more restricted extent, and has developed a small, higher total velocities for all three time periods, with the
flatter marginal area, with a distinct inflection in the surface magnitude increasing through time. Internal deformation
profile. By the time the ice maximum is reached (Fig. 5b), makes up a much smaller proportion of total ice flow near
this feature has enlarged somewhat, and the areal extent of the margins, and this proportion decreases from growth to
116 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

..........
... .

'O01

40000 30000 20000 10000 0

Time (yrs BP)
Figure 4 Time series of ice volume for the two model runs.

decay. The actual maximum value for internal deformation, allows a rise in Eo to significantly enlarge the ablation area.
however, increases through time and also occurs an increasing This produces a strong positive feedback effect, whereby
distance from the ice sheet margin. This maximum occurs at increased amounts of meltwater reach the glacier bed,
the inflection in the surface profile noted above, owing to increasing both the extent of the area affected by rapid sliding
the steeper slopes and consequent increase in basal shear and the rates of sliding within it. This initiates a drawdown
stress. These changes are due to the much greater importance effect, in which increasing amounts of ice are transferred into
of sliding in the model that includes basal hydrology, the ablation zone (by the increase in deformation velocity at
particularly at maximum ice sheet extent and during deglaci- the equilibrium line) and removed by surface melting, and
ation. consequent thinning of the ice sheet interior further expands
The morphological and dynamical contrasts between the the ablation area and the region of fast flow.
northern and southern margins of the ice sheet produced by Thus, penetration of increasing amounts of meltwater to
Model 2 can be explained in terms of the contrasting modes the glacier bed in response to climatic warming initiates
of ablation that occur at the two margins (Fig. 9). In the marginal regions of fast flow, which expand headwards over
north, the ice sheet advances across the relatively narrow time, producing volumetric deglaciation of the ice-sheet
continental shelf and into deep water at an early stage in its interior. This process does not, however, occur in those parts
history. As a result, calving of icebergs becomes the dominant of the ice sheet where mass loss is dominated by calving,
mode of ice loss, and it strongly restricts the subsequent nor in Model 7 , which takes no account of the influence of
growth of the ice sheet. The ice sheet in this area does not, glacier hydrology on ice flow. The inclusion of hydrology
therefore, develop a significant zone of surface melting, and into an ice sheet model thus produces a type of dynamic
meltwater does not penetrate to large areas of the glacier behaviour that i s absent in models that omit it, and which
bed. Therefore, hydrology never exerts a major influence on has a profound influence on the evolution of ice sheet
the flow dynamics or geometry of the ice sheet in this area. morphology over time.
Even during deglaciation, surface slopes are steep, so the Modelling the thermal evolution of the ice sheet including
increase in Eo that occurs has little effect on the size of the hydrology, using equations (8141 l ) , supports the idea of rapid
ablation area. As a result, the increase in amounts of water headward expansion of fast flowing, wet-based ice. Heat
reaching the base of the ice sheet is quite slow. The steep production i s high at the equilibrium line, owing to the high
slopes also lead to higher effective pressures, and large deformation velocities, and the relatively thick ice prevents
increases in sliding velocity do not occur. Retreat of the ice the easy escape of this heat. This suggests that there will be
sheet margin takes it into shallower water where the calving little lag between surface warming and basal warming, and
rate i s reduced, counterbalancing any increase in surface that the area of temperate ice will increase in line with
melting. increases in the ablation area. Further down-glacier, even
In the south, however, the ice sheet does not have to though the ice sheet is thinner, the basal ice remains at the
advance into deep water, so calving never becomes a melting point owing to the high sliding velocities.
significant form of ice loss. The ice sheet is therefore able to Figure 10 shows the evolution of the subglacial drainage
expand much further than in the north and develop a relatively system in Model 2. Tunnel-based drainage systems are most
large surface ablation zone. Water reaches the glacier bed common 8000 to 4000 yr before the ice sheet maximum.
below this zone and provides the lubrication necessary for This seems to be due to the moderate water discharges during
rapid sliding. As melting is the dominant form of ablation at this period, when climate is cold, but the large extent of the
the southern margin, the impact of climatic warming is much ice sheet allows a fairly extensive ablation area. This results
greater. This is particularly so because the flat marginal zone in moderate sliding velocities. As discharge increases with
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 117

a 30001

--
J

2000-
E
1000-
.-5
L

0-
6
-1000-

-2000 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ " ~ " ~ '

El
--- w - 1
" " ' " " ' " " ~ ~
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance (km)

2000-
T;
' 1000-
.-
0
L

8
9 0-
-
-moo-
-2000 I I I I ~ ~ ~ ' ~ " 1 " " 1 " " 1 " ' '
El
-"

1
w - 1

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (km)

30001

0 250 500 750 loo0 1250 1500

Distance (km)

Figure 5 (a) Surface morphology of the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr before maximum extent. (b) Surface morphology of
the ice sheets produced by the two models at maximum extent. (c) Surface morphology of the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000
yr after maximum extent.

warming climate, the higher water discharges (with consequent response of the ice sheet to a given pattern of environmental
higher effective pressures) are offset by the headward migration forcing, sensitivity studies have been limited to those par-
of the ablation area into thicker, more dynamic ice, which ameters that may alter this. These include the parameters in
results in an increase in sliding velocity at this time, and the the deformation and sliding relationships, bed roughness, and
destabilisation of the tunnels. Within the main episode of tunnel and cavity characteristics. No attempt is made to vary
tunnel-based drainage, however, tunnels are repeatedly the environmental forcing itself.
destroyed and reformed. This suggests that quite local and Some 30 model runs have been carried out, in which
short-lived ice and bed conditions combine to destroy tunnel- parameter values were varied by a factor of up to two above
based drainage systems, given generally favourable longer and below the standard values, as given in Table 1 . Some
term conditions. The converse of this also seems true; the runs also were carried out in which the time step and
occurrence of tunnels outside of this main episode seems to frequency of smoothing were varied. The results of all these
indicate that such short-lived, local effects can also outweigh runs are summarised in Table 2 .
generally unfavourable conditions, and allow short-lived Only the sliding parameter k , produces large changes in
phases of tunnel-based drainage to occur. the response of the ice sheet, and only then when a critical
value of almost twice the standard value is used. All the other
parameters affect only the details of the ice sheet response,
such as the time of maximum volume (to within 100-200
Sensitivity of the model yr), and the actual maximum volume (to 25000 m total
thickness (cf. 80 000 m maximum total thickness, equivalent
Since the aim of this paper is to examine the influence of to volume in a one-dimensional model)). These parameters
subglacial hydrology on ice sheet dynamics and on the also influence the frequency of tunnel-based drainage systems,
118 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

a 500

I:!i,,
8 200
-
, , ,~
f
100
.- I '
0 i " " I " " I " " I
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance (km)

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (km)

301
200

100

0
0
A
250 500 750
Distance (km)
1000 1250 1500

Figure 6 (a) Distribution of total flow velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr before maximum extent. (b)
Distribution of deformation velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr before maximum extent. (c) Distribution of
basal sliding velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr before maximum extent. Note the different vertical scales.

and the periods during a growth-decay cycle when tunnel- area occupied by cavities (possibly owing to a rouzher bed)
based systems are most common. For smoother beds (smaller also reduces tunnel stability.
u ) , tunnel-based systems are generally more stable throughout These results support the contention that the actual occur-
the cycle, because equation ( 1 7) predicts lower values of A . rence of tunnel-based or cavity-based drainage depends on
Longer bump wavelengths have a similar effect. The power a complex interplay of local ice and bed parameters, making
function, p,, has a more complex effect, however. As p, prediction of tunnel location in the field very difficult, unless
increases, again representing a smoother bed, low Q, (20-80 ice dynamics and bed parameters are very well known. They
m3 s-') and resulting low SR, gives higher values of A,, also suggest that smoother beds favour tunnel-based drainage
resulting in more stable tunnel-based systems, but for higher systems, particularly during the growth phase of an ice-age
Q, (over 100 m 3 s-'), A, decreases, resulting in less stable cycle.
tunnels. Thus, for larger values of p, tunnels are more
common during the growth phase of the cycle, but less so
during ice sheet decay.
Freer drainage (smaller f, has a similar effect to a higher Discussion and conclusions
p.. Smaller values of SR result in lower values of A,, which
result in tunnel-based drainage being less stable during Influence of glacier hydrology on ice sheet
deglaciation. This effect i s complicated in this case, however, dynamics
by the higher effective pressures that result from freer drainage,
which lead to lower sliding velocities, and hence more stable The inclusion of hydrology in the ice sheet model has a
tunnels. Increasing f has the reverse effect. increasing the significant impact on ice sheet dynamics and morphology,
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 119

400-
6
U
f 300-
.-x
4 200-
Y

>
100-

0-
Wl
" " I " " I
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance (km)

b
""1

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (km)

6
5001
400 n
f 300-
U

.-A
Y

4 200-

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (krn)

Figure 7 (a) Distribution of total flow velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models at maximum extent. (b) Distribution of
deformation velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models at maximum extent. (c) Distribution of basal sliding velocity within
the ice sheets produced by the two models at maximum extent. Note the different vertical scales.

but only at certain times and in certain locations. This is in the surface slope of the ice sheet at the head of the zone
particularly true during deglaciation of the southern side of of rapid flow). This more rapid flow increases the flux of ice
the ice sheet, which develops a lower, flatter profile in its to the margin, and ice i s removed by high rates of ablation
marginal areas, where fast ice flow occurs. Absence of such over the flattened marginal zone.
a profile during most of the growth history of the ice sheet
makes it dangerous to assume symmetry of both form and
flow processes during growth and decay (cf. Boulton et a/.,
1985). North-sou th asymmetry of ice-sheet behaviour
The more extensive ablation zone that develops during
deglaciation allows water to reach the bed more widely than The model results highlight an important set of interactions
during growth, when continued climatic cooling restricts the between bedrock topography and mechanisms of mass loss
size of the ablation area. As a result, enhanced sliding from the ice sheet, which result in a strong north-south
becomes the dominant flow process during deglaciation. This asymmetry in flow dynamics and ice sheet morphology. At
changes the responsiveness of the ice sheet to climatic change the northern end of the transect, the ice sheet advances
and accelerates deglaciation, thus accentuating the asymmetry rapidly across a narrow continental shelf until its advance i s
of glacial cycles. It does this by a process analogous to halted by rapid calving in deep water. Calving maintains
'marine downdraw', in which flow rates increase both at the steep ice-surface slopes and prevents the development of
margins of the ice sheet (as a direct result of increased sliding), extensive areas of surface melting, so penetration of meltwater
and in internal areas (owing to the development of inflections to the glacier bed is severely limited. Internal deformation is
120 IOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

a I

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (krn)

150-

f:
€
loo-
U
h -

3> 50-

l"-w 1 I

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (krn)

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (km)
Figure 8 (a) Distribution of total flow velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr after maximum extent. (b)
Distribution of deformation velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr after maximum extent. (c) Distribution of
basal sliding velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr after maximum extent. Note the different vertical scales.

an important component of ice flow and the ice sheet displays deglaciation thus occurs by the formation and headward
a classic parabolic surface profile. This situation changes only growth of what are, in effect, ice streams.
during the final stages of deglaciation, when the ice margin The results of our modelling are thus consistent with the
becomes grounded on land and the warming climate allows suggestion of Alley (1990) that ice-flow-drainage systems in
an ablation area to develop. Water then reaches the bed, and large ice sheets can exhibit multiple steady states. Where
there is a short episode of rapid sliding. subglacial drainage is absent or driven by high hydraulic
At the southern end of the transect, the ice sheet does not gradients, water pressures are low, rapid sliding does not
encounter deep water during its growth phase, so calving is occur, and internal deformation is a significant component
never an important ablation process. Surface melt is also of ice flow. Where meltwater drainage occurs and hydraulic
limited by the cooling climate until 23000 yr BP, after which gradients are lower, however, drainage is more difficult and
time it does become increasingly important. The ice sheet water pressures rise. This allows rapid sliding to occur and
then develops a significant ablation area, water reaches the greatly reduces the importance of internal deformation within
bed, and a flat marginal area of rapid sliding develops. This the ice. Which of these two states actually occurs can depend
initiates a train of positive feedback effects in which lowering upon the dominant ablation mechanism, which in turn
of the surface profile of the ice sheet contributes to the depends upon the topographic and climatic setting in which
expansion of the ablation area and associated region of rapid the ice sheet develops.
sliding. This then propagates headwards into the ice sheet as
a result of rapid ice deformation driven by high basal shear
stresses, which occur in the region of locally steepened
surface slope at the head of the zone of fast flow. Volumetric
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 121

70 1
600

200-

40000 30000 20000 10000 0

Time (yrs BP)

b 3001

50
040000 30000 20000

Time (yrs BP)

loo00 0

Figure 9 (a) Time series of meltwater discharge at the northern and southern margins of the ice sheet produced by Model 2. (b) Time series
of iceberg calving rates at the northern and southern margins of the ice sheet produced by Model 2.

Fluctuations of the ice sheet margin be expected from simplistic considerations of the effects of
climatic change on mass balance (e.g. an advance when
Our results suggest that short-lived changes in drainage climate is warming, or a retreat (or stillstand) as the climate
configuration can lead to increases in ice flux, which in turn cools). This also i s consistent with Alley (1990), who argues
lead to significant marginal fluctuations. During growth, a that small climatic changes can lead to large ice-sheet
surge-type mechanism seems to exist, in which the gradual responses as the ice sheet adjusts between steady states.
growth of the ablation area results in increased amounts of
wet-based ice, and hence in increased sliding. The margin
therefore advances into warmer areas faster than it would if
basal sliding were not present. This results in a temporary
imbalance between ice flow to the margin and ablation at Configuration of the drainage system beneath a
the margin, which leads to a temporary halt during ice large ice sheet
advance, as seen at 580 km and 750 km in Fig. 10. The
change to a warming climate stops this mechanism, and The model results suggest that the development of channelised
results in a more permanent change in ice-sheet morphology drainage beneath the ice sheet is localised in both time and
owing to an increase in the rate of basal sliding. Indeed, the space, and dependent on quite local factors, such as bedrock
advance of the southern margin to its maximum position topography and roughness, ice thickness and surface slope,
seems to be the result of an adjustment in ice sheet morphology and the levels of meltwater discharge, as well as longer term
of this kind. This was triggered by increased meltwater factors, such as whether the ice sheet is growing or decaying.
production in response to climatic warming. Thus, the On the southern side of the ice sheet, channels are more
response of the ice margin to climatic fluctuations can result common during growth than during deglaciation. This would
from changes in flow process, as well as from changes in seem to be because of both the generally lower water
mass balance. This may mean that the direction of marginal discharges and smaller areas influenced by basal sliding
fluctuations could be directly opposite to that which would during growth, and because during decay, the zone of sliding
122 JOURNALOF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

0 250 500 750 1000 1250

Distance (km)
Figure 10 Configuration of the subglacial drainage system in time and space in Model 2.

Table 2 Summary of sensitivity tests

Ice sheet morphology Drainage system"

-

Variable Gross response Detailed response Increase favours Decrease favours

Ice flow
Deformation No Yes
'Sliding, k , Yesb Yes T
Sliding, k, No Yes T
Bed
'Roughness, p. No Yes
Roughness, v No Yes
Wavelength, I No Yes
Channel, f No Yes
Cavity area No Yes
Time step No Yes
Smoothing No Yes

"T = favours tunnel-based drainage; C = favours cavity-based drainage

bAbove a critical value (1.15 x m2 s-' kPa-I).
'Reversed during deglaciation.

is moving headwards into thicker, more dynamic ice, which Geomorphic implications
leads to generally higher velocities.
The impact of a cooling phase during deglaciation, such Consideration of the manner in which flow processes within
as the Younger Dryas, has not been investigated in this study the ice sheet adjust to changing subglacial hydrological
owing to the lack of an apparent cause of the Younger Dryas conditions through time may provide insight into the likely
in the history of global radiation receipts that we use as a nature of the erosional record left by the ice sheet. It has
forcing variable. Such a cooling would reduce meltwater been argued that the rate of subglacial abrasion scales with
discharge, which would lower water pressure in a cavity-based the square of the sliding velocity (Hallet, 1979, 19811, while
drainage system, and might thus lead to the establishment of the rate of erosion by quarrying scales directly with the sliding
tunnel drainage. The apparently episodic development of velocity (Shoemaker, 1986). Since different parts of the area
channelised drainage helps to explain why esker systems, covered by the ice sheet had different sliding velocity histories,
deposited in subglacial channels, often appear to comprise they might also be expected to exhibit erosional landforms
discrete sets of landforms associated with what presumably that reflect flow at different stages of the ice sheet's history.
are relatively transient ice sheet geometries. In the north, for instance, there would be one prolonged
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 123

erosional episode, the intensity of which would decrease ing of temporal changes in drainage conditions and flow
during deglaciation, perhaps allowing preservation of features processes within large Quaternary ice sheets.
produced close to the glacial maximum beneath later
ornamentation. In the south, however, except at the maximum Acknowledgements NSA acknowledges receipt of a NERC stud-
position reached by the ice margin, there would be two entship. The manuscript was completed while MIS was on sabattical
phases of erosion, separated by a period of limited erosion leave at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. MIS wishes
to thank Professors John England and John Shaw for their hospitality
when the marginal zone of sliding has moved south of the
and for comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript, and
area of interest as the ice sheet grows to its maximum extent.
acknowledges the support of a Royal Society/NSERC scientific
The deglacial phase would be far more intensive than the exchange award. Richard Hindmarsh helped with ideas and maths
growth phase, and would therefore tend to dominate the for the treatment of temperature. The two referees also contributed
erosional landscape. This landscape would, however, be valuable ideas.
diachronous, reflecting the northward migration of the zone
of fast flow during ice-margin retreat. At the maximum
position of the ice sheet margin, there would be one strong
episode of erosion at the time of the glacial maximum, and References
features resulting from this episode probably would be
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at the ice sheet maximum (cf. Sugden, 1978). climbing-ripple cross-lamination, with a field application to the
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