List advantages and disadvantages of dynamic memory allocation vs. static memory allocation.?

Advantages:

Memory is allocated on an as-needed basis. This helps remove the inefficiencies inherent to static memory
allocation (when the amount of memory needed is not known at compile time and one has to make a guess).

Disadvantages:
Dynamic memory allocation is slower than static memory allocation. This is because dynamic memory allocation
happens in the heap area.
Dynamic memory needs to be carefully deleted after use. They are created in non-contiguous area of memory
segment.
Dynamic memory allocation causes contention between threads, so it degrades performance when it happens in a
thread.
Memory fragmentation.

What is Java?
Java is an object-oriented programming language developed initially by James Gosling and colleagues at Sun
Microsystems. The language, initially called Oak (named after the oak trees outside Gosling's office), was intended
to replace C++, although the feature set better resembles that of Objective C. Java should not be confused with
JavaScript, which shares only the name and a similar C-like syntax. Sun Microsystems currently maintains and
updates Java regularly.

Can you have virtual functions in Java?

Yes, all functions in Java are virtual by default. This is actually a pseudo trick question because the word "virtual"
is not part of the naming convention in Java (as it is in C++, C-sharp and VB.NET), so this
would be a foreign concept for someone who has only coded in Java. Virtual functions or virtual methods are
functions or methods that will be redefined in derived classes.
What is a transient variable in Java?

A transient variable is a variable that may not be serialized. If you don't want some field to be serialized, you can
mark that field transient or static.

What is thread?
A thread is an independent path of execution in a system.

What is multi-threading?
Multi-threading means various threads that run in a system.

What is a dangling pointer?

pointers that do not point to a valid object of the appropriate type. Dangling pointers arise when an object is
deleted or deallocated, without modifying the value of the pointer, so that the pointer still points to the memory
location of the deallocated memory. As the system may reallocate the previously freed memory to another
process, if the original program then dereferences the (now) dangling pointer, unpredictable behavior may result,
as the memory may now contain completely different data. This is especially the case if the program writes data to
memory pointed by a dangling pointer, as silent corruption of unrelated data may result, leading to subtle bugs that
can be extremely difficult to find, or cause segmentation faults (*NIX) or general protection faults (Windows).

What are the advantages and disadvantages of B-star trees over Binary trees.?

The major difference between B-tree and binary tres is that B-tree is a external data structure and binary tree is a
main memory data structure. The computational complexity of binary tree is counted by the number of comparison
operations at each node, while the computational complexity of B-tree is determined by the disk I/O, that is, the
number of node that will be loaded from disk to main memory. The comparision of the different values in one node
is not counted.

What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
int x=20,y=35;
x=y++ + x++;
y= ++y + ++x;
printf(“%d%dn“,x,y);
}
Answer : 5794

What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
int x=5;
printf(“%d,%d,%dn“,x,x< <2,x>>2);}

Answer: 5,20,1

What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

#define swap(a,b) a=a+b;b=a-b;a=a-b;void main()
{
int x=5, y=10;
swap (x,y);
printf(“%d %dn“,x,y);
swap2(x,y);
printf(“%d %dn“,x,y);
}

int swap2(int a, int b)

{
int temp;
temp=a;
b=a;
a=temp;
return 0;
}
Answer: 10, 5
10, 5
. What is process synchronization?
A situation, where several processes access and manipulate the same data concurrently and the outcome
of the
execution depends on the particular order in which the access takes place, is called race condition. To
guard against
the race condition we need to ensure that only one process at a time can be manipulating the same data.
The
technique we use for this is called process synchronization.
14. What is virtual memory?
Virtual memory is hardware technique where the system appears to have more memory that it actually
does. This is
done by time-sharing, the physical memory and storage parts of the memory one disk when they are not
actively
being used.
15. What is thrashing?
It is a phenomenon in virtual memory schemes when the processor spends most of its time swapping
pages, rather
than executing instructions. This is due to an inordinate number of page faults.
16. What is fragmentation? Tell about different types of fragmentation?
When many of free blocks are too small to satisfy any request then fragmentation occurs. External
fragmentation and
internal fragmentation are two types of fragmentation. External Fragmentation happens when a
dynamic memory
allocation algorithm allocates some memory and a small piece is left over that cannot be effectively
used. Internal
fragmentation is the space wasted inside of allocated memory blocks because of restriction on the
allowed sizes of
allocated blocks.
17. What are necessary conditions for dead lock?
1. Mutual exclusion (where at least one resource is non-sharable)
2. Hold and wait (where a process holds one resource and waits for other resource)
3. No preemption (where the resources can’ t be preempted)
4. Circular wait (where p[i] is waiting for p[j] to release a resource. i= 1,2,...n
j=if (i!=n) then i+1
else 1 )
18. What is cache memory?
Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more
quickly than it
can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and
if it finds the
data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do the more time-consuming reading of
data from
larger memory.
19. What is logical and physical addresses space?
Logical address space is generated from CPU; it bound to a separate physical address space is central to
proper
memory management. Physical address space is seen by the memory unit. Logical address space is
virtual address
space. Both these address space will be same at compile time but differ at execution time.
20. Differentiate between Complier and Interpreter?

An interpreter reads one instruction at a time and carries out the actions implied by that instruction. It
does not
perform any translation. But a compiler translates the entire instructions
21. What is Throughput, Turnaround time, waiting time and Response time?
Throughput – number of processes that complete their execution per time unit
Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process
Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue
Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first response is
produced, not
output (for time-sharing environment)
22. What is Memory-Management Unit (MMU)?
Hardware device that maps virtual to physical address. In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation
register is added
to every address generated by a user process at the time it is sent to memory.
->The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses
23. What is a Real-Time System?
A real time process is a process that must respond to the events within a certain time period. A real time
operating
system is an operating system that can run real time processes successfully
24. What is a trap and trapdoor?
Trapdoor is a secret undocumented entry point into a program used to grant access without normal
methods of
access authentication. A trap is a software interrupt, usually the result of an error condition.
25. When is a system in safe state?
The set of dispatchable processes is in a safe state if there exists at least one temporal order in which all
processes
can be run to completion without resulting in a deadlock.
26. Explain the concept of the Distributed systems?
Distributed systems work in a network. They can share the network resources, communicate with each
other.
27. What is cache-coherency?
In a multiprocessor system there exist several caches each may containing a copy of same variable A.
Then a
change in one cache should immediately be reflected in all other caches this process of maintaining the
same value
of a data in all the caches s called cache-coherency.
28. What is a long term scheduler & short term schedulers?
Long term schedulers are the job schedulers that select processes from the job queue and load them into
memory for
execution. The short term schedulers are the CPU schedulers that select a process from the ready queue
and
allocate the CPU to one of them.

29. Explain the meaning of mutex.

Mutex is the short form for ‘ Mutual Exclusion object’ . A mutex allows multiple threads for sharing
the same
resource. The resource can be file. A mutex with a unique name is created at the time of starting a
program. A mutex
must be locked from other threads, when any thread that needs the resource. When the data is no longer
used /
needed, the mutex is set to unlock.
30. What is cycle stealing?
We encounter cycle stealing in the context of Direct Memory Access (DMA). Either the DMA
controller can use the
data bus when the CPU does not need it, or it may force the CPU to temporarily suspend operation. The
latter
technique is called cycle stealing. Note that cycle stealing can be done only at specific break points in
an instruction
cycle.
31. What is Marshalling?
The process of packaging and sending interface method parameters across thread or process
boundaries.
32. What is a daemon?
Daemon is a program that runs in the background without user’ s interaction. A daemon runs in a
multitasking
operating system like UNIX. A daemon is initiated and controlled by special programs known as ‘
processes’ .
33. What is pre-emptive and non-preemptive scheduling?
Preemptive scheduling: The preemptive scheduling is prioritized. The highest priority process should
always be the
process that is currently utilized.
Non-Preemptive scheduling: When a process enters the state of running, the state of that process is not
deleted from
the scheduler until it finishes its service time.
34. What is busy waiting?
The repeated execution of a loop of code while waiting for an event to occur is called busy-waiting.
The CPU is not
engaged in any real productive activity during this period, and the process does not progress toward
completion.
35. What is page cannibalizing?
Page swapping or page replacements are called page cannibalizing.
36. What is SMP?
To achieve maximum efficiency and reliability a mode of operation known as symmetric
multiprocessing is used. In
essence, with SMP any process or threads can be assigned to any processor.
37. What is process migration?
It is the transfer of sufficient amount of the state of process from one machine to the target machine.
38. Difference between Primary storage and secondary storage?
Primary memory is the main memory (Hard disk, RAM) where the operating system resides.

Secondary memory can be external devices like CD, floppy magnetic discs etc. secondary storage
cannot be directly
accessed by the CPU and is also external memory storage.
39. Define compactions.
Compaction is a process in which the free space is collected in a large memory chunk to make some
space available
for processes.
40. What are residence monitors?
Early operating systems were called residence monitors.
41. What is dual-mode operation?
In order to protect the operating systems and the system programs from the malfunctioning programs
the two mode
operations were evolved
System mode
User mode.
42. What is a device queue?
A list of processes waiting for a particular I/O device is called device queue.
43. What are the different types of Real-Time Scheduling?
Hard real-time systems required to complete a critical task within a guaranteed amount of time.
Soft real-time computing requires that critical processes receive priority over less fortunate ones.
44. What is relative path and absolute path?
Absolute path-- Exact path from root directory.
Relative path-- Relative to the current path.
45. What are the disadvantages of context switching?
Time taken for switching from one process to other is pure over head. Because the system does no
useful work while
switching. So one of the solutions is to go for threading when ever possible.
46. What is a data register and address register?
Data registers - can be assigned to a variety of functions by the programmer. They can be used with any
machine
instruction that performs operations on data.
Address registers - contain main memory addresses of data and instructions or they contain a portion of
the address
that is used in the calculation of the complete addresses.
47. What is DRAM?
Dynamic Ram stores the data in the form of Capacitance, and Static RAM stores the data in Voltages.
48. What are local and global page replacements?

Local replacement means that an incoming page is brought in only to the relevant process' address
space. Global
replacement policy allows any page frame from any process to be replaced. The latter is applicable to
variable
partitions model only.
49. Explain the concept of the batched operating systems?
In batched operating system the users gives their jobs to the operator who sorts the programs according
to their
requirements and executes them. This is time consuming but makes the CPU busy all the time.
50. What is SCSI?
SCSI - Small computer systems interface is a type of interface used for computer components such as
hard drives,
optical drives, scanners and tape drives. It is a competing technology to standard IDE (Integrated Drive
Electronics).

51.When is a system in safe state?

The set of dispatchable processes is in a safe state if there exists at least one temporal order in which all
processes
can be run to completion without resulting in a deadlock.

52. What is cycle stealing?

We encounter cycle stealing in the context of Direct Memory Access (DMA). Either the DMA
controller can use the
data bus when the CPU does not need it, or it may force the CPU to temporarily suspend operation. The
latter
technique is called cycle stealing. Note that cycle stealing can be done only at specific break points in
an instruction
cycle.
53. What is an idle thread?
The special thread a dispatcher will execute when no ready thread is found.
54. What is FtDisk?
It is a fault tolerance disk driver for Windows NT.
55.What is Dispatcher?
Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the short-term scheduler; this
involves:
Switching context, Switching to user mode, Jumping to the proper location in the user program to
restart that
program, dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start another
running.
56. When does the condition 'rendezvous' arise?
In message passing, it is the condition in which, both, the sender and receiver are blocked until the
message is
delivered.
57. What is process spawning?
When the OS at the explicit request of another process creates a process, this action is called process
spawning
58. What are the reasons for process suspension?
1) swapping

2) interactive user request

3) timing
4) parent process request
59. What are the sub-components of I/O manager in Windows NT?
1) Network redirector/ Server
2) Cache manager.
3) File systems
4) Network driver
5) Device driver
60. What is a drawback of MVT?
1) ability to support multiple processors
2) virtual storage
3) source level debugging

. What is database?
A database is a collection of information that is organized. So that it can easily be accessed, managed,
and updated.
2. What is DBMS?
DBMS stands for Database Management System. It is a collection of programs that enables user to
create and maintain a database.

3. What is a Database system?

The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.
4. What are the advantages of DBMS?
I. Redundancy is controlled.
II. Providing multiple user interfaces.
III. Providing backup and recovery
IV. Unauthorized access is restricted.
V. Enforcing integrity constraints.
5. What is normalization?
It is a process of analysing the given relation schemas based on their Functional Dependencies (FDs)
and primary key to achieve the properties
(1).Minimizing redundancy, (2). Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.
6. What is Data Model?
A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics and constraints.

7. What is E-R model?

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of relationship
among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.
8. What is Object Oriented model?
This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance variables
with in the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the object. These bodies of
code are called methods. Objects that contain same types of values and the same methods are
grouped together into classes.
9. What is an Entity?
An entity is a thing or object of importance about which data must be captured.
10. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?
A data base schema is specifies by a set of definitions expressed by a special language called DDL.
11. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?
This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organised by appropriate data model.
Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed and how to get
those data. Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed
without specifying how to get those data
12. What is DML Compiler?
It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the query evaluation
engine can understand.
13. What is Query evaluation engine?
It executes low-level instruction generated by compiler.
14. What is Functional Dependency?
Functional Dependency is the starting point of normalization. Functional Dependency exists when a
relation between two attributes allows you to uniquely determine the corresponding attribute’ s value.
15. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?
The first normal form or 1NF is the first and the simplest type of normalization that can be
implemented in a database. The main aims of 1NF are to:
1. Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table.
2. Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a unique column
(the primary key).

16. What is Fully Functional dependency?

A functional dependency X Y is full functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means
that the dependency does not hold any more.
17. What is 2NF?
A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully functionally
dependent on primary key.
18. What is 3NF?
A relation is in third normal form if it is in Second Normal Form and there are no functional (transitive)
dependencies between two (or more) non-primary key attributes.
19. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?
A table is in Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) if and only if it is in 3NF and every determinant is a
candidate key.
20. What is 4NF?
Fourth normal form requires that a table be BCNF and contain no multi-valued dependencies.
21. What is 5NF?
A table is in fifth normal form (5NF) or Project-Join Normal Form (PJNF) if it is in 4NF and it cannot
have a lossless decomposition into any number of smaller tables.
22. What is a query?
A query with respect to DBMS relates to user commands that are used to interact with a data base.
23. What is meant by query optimization?
The phase that identifies an efficient execution plan for evaluating a query that has the least
estimated cost is referred to as query optimization.
24. What is an attribute?
It is a particular property, which describes the entity.
25. What is RDBMS?
Relational Data Base Management Systems (RDBMS) are database management systems that
maintain data records and indices in tables.
26. What’ s difference between DBMS and RDBMS?
DBMS provides a systematic and organized way of storing, managing and retrieving from collection of
logically related information. RDBMS also provides what DBMS provides but above that it provides
relationship integrity.
27. What is SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
standard computer language for accessing and manipulating database systems. SQL statements are
used to retrieve and update data in a database.
28. What is Stored Procedure?
A stored procedure is a named group of SQL statements that have been previously created and stored
in the server database.

29. What is a view?

A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is derived from the
database files but is not explicitly stored.
30. What is Trigger?
A trigger is a SQL procedure that initiates an action when an event (INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE)
occurs.

31. What is Index?

An index is a physical structure containing pointers to the data.
32. What is extension and intension?
Extension -It is the number of tuples present in a table at any instance. This is time dependent.
Intension -It is a constant value that gives the name, structure of table and the constraints laid on it.
33. What do you mean by atomicity and aggregation?
Atomicity-Atomicity states that database modifications must follow an “ all or nothing” rule. Each
transaction is said to be “ atomic.” If one part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction fails.
Aggregation - A feature of the entity relationship model that allows a relationship set to participate in
another relationship set. This is indicated on an ER diagram by drawing a dashed box around the
aggregation.
34. What is RDBMS KERNEL?
Two important pieces of RDBMS architecture are the kernel, which is the software, and the data
dictionary, which consists of the system- level data structures used by the kernel to manage the
database.

35. Name the sub-systems of a RDBMS?

I/O, Security, Language Processing, Process Control, Storage Management, Logging and Recovery,
Distribution Control, Transaction Control, Memory Management, Lock Management.
36. How do you communicate with an RDBMS?
You communicate with an RDBMS using Structured Query Language (SQL)
37. Disadvantage in File Processing System?
· Data redundancy & inconsistency.
· Difficult in accessing data.
· Data isolation.
· Data integrity.
· Concurrent access is not possible.
· Security Problems.
38. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?
It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.
39. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?
This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may Specify the mapping between two
schemas.

40. Describe concurrency control?

Concurrency control is the process managing simultaneous operations against a database so that
database integrity is no compromised. There are two approaches to concurrency control.
The pessimistic approach involves locking and the optimistic approach involves versioning.
41. Describe the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous distributed
database?
A homogenous database is one that uses the same DBMS at each node. A heterogeneous database is
one that may have a different DBMS at each node.
42. What is a distributed database?
A distributed database is a single logical database that is spread across more than one node or
locations that are all connected via some communication link.

43. Explain the difference between two and three-tier architectures?

Three-tier architecture includes a client and two server layers.
The application code is stored on the application server and the database is stored on the database
server. A two-tier architecture includes a client and one server layer. The database is stored on the
database server.

44. Briefly describe the three types of SQL commands?

Data definition language commands are used to create, alter, and drop tables. Data manipulation
commands are used to insert, modify, update, and query data in the database. Data control language
commands help the DBA to control the database.
45. List some of the properties of a relation?
Relations in a database have a unique name and no multivalued attributes exist. Each row is unique
and each attribute within a relation has a unique name. The sequence of both columns and rows is
irrelevant.

46. Explain the differences between an intranet and an extranet?

An Internet database is accessible by everyone who has access to a Web site. An intranet database
limits access to only people within a given organization.
47. What is SQL Deadlock?
Deadlock is a unique situation in a multi user system that causes two or more users to wait
indefinitely for a locked resource.
48. What is a Catalog?
A catalog is a table that contains the information such as structure of each file, the type and storage
format of each data item and various constraints on the data .The information stored in the catalog is
called Metadata.
49. What is data ware housing & OLAP?
Data warehousing and OLAP (online analytical processing) systems are the techniques used in many
companies to extract and analyze useful information from very large databases for decision making .
50. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?
Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in database and
what relationship among those data.
View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.
51. What is Data Independence?

Data independence means that the application is independent of the storage structure and access
strategy of data.
52. How many types of relationship exist in database designing?
There are three major relationship models:-
One-to-one
One-to-many
Many-to-many
53. What is order by clause?
ORDER BY clause helps to sort the data in either ascending order to descending
54. What is the use of DBCC commands?
DBCC stands for database consistency checker. We use these commands to check the consistency of
the databases, i.e., maintenance, validation task and status checks.
55. What is Collation?
Collation refers to a set of rules that determine how data is sorted and compared.
56. What is difference between DELETE & TRUNCATE commands?
Delete command removes the rows from a table based on the condition that we provide with a WHERE
clause. Truncate will actually remove all the rows from a table and there will be no data in the table
after we run the truncate command.

57. What is Hashing technique?

This is a primary file organization technique that provides very fast access to records on certain search
conditions.
58. What is a transaction?
A transaction is a logical unit of database processing that includes one or more database access
operations.
59. What are the different phases of Transaction?
Analysis phase
Redo phase
Undo phase

60. What is “ transparent dbms” ?

It is one, which keeps its physical structure hidden from user.
61. What are the primitive operations common to all record management System?
Addition, deletion and modification.
62. Explain the differences between structured data and unstructured data.
Structured data are facts concerning objects and events. The most important structured data are
numeric, character, and dates.
Structured data are stored in tabular form. Unstructured data are multimedia data such as documents,
photographs, maps, images, sound, and video clips. Unstructured data are most commonly found on
Web servers and Web-enabled databases.

63. What are the major functions of the database administrator?

Managing database structure, controlling concurrent processing, managing processing rights and
responsibilities, developing database security, providing for database recovery, managing the DBMS
and maintaining the data repository.
64. What is a dependency graph?
A dependency graph is a diagram that is used to portray the connections between database elements.
65. Explain the difference between an exclusive lock and a shared lock?
An exclusive lock prohibits other users from reading the locked resource; a shared lock allows other
users to read the locked resource, but they cannot update it.
66. Explain the "paradigm mismatch" between SQL and application programming
languages.
SQL statements return a set of rows, while an application program works on one row at a time. To
resolve this mismatch the results of SQL statements are processed as pseudofiles, using a cursor or
pointer to specify which row is being processed.
67. Name four applications for triggers.
(1)Providing default values, (2) enforcing data constraints,
(3) Updating views and (4) enforcing referential integrity
68. What are the advantages of using stored procedures?
The advantages of stored procedures are (1) greater security, (2) decreased network traffic, (3) the
fact that SQL can be optimized and (4) code sharing which leads to less work, standardized
processing, and specialization among developers.

69. Explain the difference between attributes and identifiers.

Entities have attributes. Attributes are properties that describe the entity's characteristics. Entity
instances have identifiers. Identifiers are attributes that name, or identify, entity instances.
70. What is Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), and what kind of a database is used in an
ERP application?
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is an information system used in manufacturing companies and
includes sales, inventory, production planning, purchasing and other business functions. An ERP
system typically uses a multiuser database.
71. Describe the difference between embedded and dynamic SQL?
Embedded SQL is the process of including hard coded SQL statements. These statements do not
change unless the source code is modified. Dynamic SQL is the process of generating SQL on the
fly.The statements generated do not have to be the same each time.
72. Explain a join between tables
A join allows tables to be linked to other tables when a relationship between the tables exists. The
relationships are established by using a common column in the tables and often uses the
primary/foreign key relationship.
73. Describe a subquery.
A subquery is a query that is composed of two queries. The first query (inner query) is within the
WHERE clause of the other query (outer query).
74. Compare a hierarchical and network database model?
The hierarchical model is a top-down structure where each parent may have many children but each
child can have only one parent. This model supports one-to-one and one-to-many relationships.
The network model can be much more flexible than the hierarchical model since each parent can have

multiple children but each child can also have multiple parents. This model supports one-to-one, one-
to-many, and many-to-many relationships.

75. Explain the difference between a dynamic and materialized view.

A dynamic view may be created every time that a specific view is requested by a user. A materialized
view is created and or updated infrequently and it must be synchronized with its associated base
table(s).
76. Explain what needs to happen to convert a relation to third normal form.
First you must verify that a relation is in both first normal form and second normal form. If the
relation is not, you must convert into second normal form. After a relation is in second normal form,
you must remove all transitive dependencies.
77. Describe the four types of indexes?

A unique primary index is unique and is used to find and store a row. A nonunique primary index is
not unique and is used to find a row but also where to store a row (based on its unique primary
index). A unique secondary index is unique for each row and used to find table rows. A nonunique
secondary index is not unique and used to find table rows.
78. Explain minimum and maximum cardinality?
Minimum cardinality is the minimum number of instances of an entity that can be associated with each
instance of another entity. Maximum cardinality is the maximum number of instances of an entity
that can be associated with each instance of another entity.
79. What is deadlock? How can it be avoided? How can it be resolved once it occurs?
Deadlock occurs when two transactions are each waiting on a resource that the other transaction
holds. Deadlock can be prevented by requiring transactions to acquire all locks at the same time; once
it occurs, the only way to cure it is to abort one of the transactions and back out of partially completed
work.

80. Explain what we mean by an ACID transaction.

An ACID transaction is one that is atomic, consistent, isolated, and durable. Durable means that
database changes are permanent. Consistency can mean either statement level or transaction level
consistency. With transaction level consistency, a transaction may not see its own changes.Atomic
means it is performed as a unit.
81. Under what conditions should indexes be used?
Indexes can be created to enforce uniqueness, to facilitate sorting, and to enable fast retrieval by
column values. A good candidate for an index is a column that is frequently used with equal conditions
in WHERE clauses.

82. What is difference between SQL and SQL SERVER?

SQL is a language that provides an interface to RDBMS, developed by IBM. SQL SERVER is a
RDBMS
just like Oracle, DB2.
83. What is Specialization?
It is the process of defining a set of subclasses of an entity type where each subclass contain all the
attributes and relationships of the parent entity and may have additional attributes and relationships
which are specific to itself.
84. What is generalization?
It is the process of finding common attributes and relations of a number of entities and defining a
common super class for them.
85. What is meant by Proactive, Retroactive and Simultaneous Update?
Proactive Update: The updates that are applied to database before it becomes effective in real world.

Retroactive Update: The updates that are applied to database after it becomes effective in real world.
Simultaneous Update: The updates that are applied to database at the same time when it becomes
effective in real world.

86. What is RAID Technology?

Redundant array of inexpensive (or independent) disks. The main goal of raid technology is to even
out the widely different rates of performance improvement of disks against those in memory and
microprocessor. Raid technology employs the technique of data striping to achieve higher transfer
rates.

87. What are serial, non serial schedule?

A schedule S is serial if, for every transaction T participating in the schedule, all the operations of T is
executed consecutively in the schedule, otherwise, the schedule is called non-serial schedule.

88. What are conflict serializable schedules?

A schedule S of n transactions is serializable if it is equivalent to some serial schedule of the same n
transactions.

89. What is view serializable?

A schedule is said to be view serializable if it is view equivalent with some serial schedule.

90. What is a foreign key?

A key of a relation schema is called as a foreign key if it is the primary key of
some other relation to which it is related to.

91. What are the disadvantages of using a dbms?

1) High initial investments in h/w, s/w, and training.
2) Generality that a DBMS provides for defining and processing data.
3) Overhead for providing security, concurrency control, recovery, and integrity functions.

92. What is Lossless join property?

It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation schemas after
decomposition.

93. What is a Phantom Deadlock?

In distributed deadlock detection, the delay in propagating local information might cause the deadlock
detection algorithms to identify deadlocks that do not really exist. Such situations are called phantom
deadlocks and they lead to unnecessary aborts.

94. What is a checkpoint and When does it occur?

A Checkpoint is like a snapshot of the DBMS state. By taking checkpoints, the DBMS can reduce the
amount of work to be done during restart in the event of subsequent crashes.

95. What is schema?

The description of a data base is called the database schema , which is specified during database
design and is not expected to change frequently . A displayed schema is called schema diagram .We
call each object in the schema as schema construct.
.What is REDO in database?
A. Opposite of UNDO
B. Re-does the previous operation on database again.
C. REDO is used for ROLLBACK.
D. None of the above.
Answer: C
The most important point to remember is REDO is not the opposite of UNDO. Whenever a
DML transaction happens in database, the data to be updated goes to the DATABASE
BUFFER CACHE. From here the data is written to REDO BUFFER and then to REDO Logs.
These logs are saved for future use. Future ROLLBACK and DATA RECOVERY operations
require these logs. Without these logs it is impossible to do DATA RECOVERY. If ARCHIVING
is enabled then these logs are bundled or archived and stored.

2. COMMIT takes more time than ROLLBACK .

A. True
B. False
Answer: B
COMMIT simply confirms the transaction and writes the committed data to disk and clears
UNDO file. While ROLLBACK does the opposite transaction. ROLLBACK also clears UNDO file.
ROLLBACK takes much longer time because it has to execute one full transaction (opposite)
and COMMIT it. Hence COMMIT is faster than ROLLBACK.

3. What is the difference between ORDERBY and GROUPBY?

A. ORDERBY performs sorting while GROUPBY AGGREGATES Data
B. GROUPBY sorts data while ORDERBY puts data in order
C. Both perform sorting.
D. None of the above
Answer: A
The ORDER BY performs a sort operation. So think of a telephone phone directory.
SELECT NAME FROM DIRECTORY ORDER BY NAME
This would ensure that the result set would be sorted in (by default) ascending order.
The GROUP BY operation aggregates data in your result set. Continuing the example of the
telephone directory

SELECT CITY, COUNT(CITY) FROM DIRECTORY GROUP BY CITY

This would ensure that the result set would be grouped according to the city where the
individual lives. The COUNT and GROUP BY works in conjunction.

4. Which of the following records all modifications to data?

A. UNDO file
B. Alert Log file
C. Archive file
D. Both A & B
Answer: C
Alert log file records all modifications to the database but modifications to data alone is
recorded by Archive files. UNDO file stores UNDO tables which have opposite transactions
recorded. Archive files also help in recovery of data.

5. Which is better ?
A. SQL
B. Procedures
Answer: SQL
• SQL is often much shorter to write - you can do an update or summary procedure in one
line of code that would take you several lines of procedural.
• For set-based problems - SQL is much faster processor-wise and IO wise too because all
the underlining looping iteration is delegated to a database server process that does it in a
very low level way and uses IO/processor more efficiently and knows the current state of
the data - e.g. what other processes are asking for the data
If you were to update say a sales person of all customers in a particular region - your
procedural way would look something like this
do until eof
if rs("state") = "NH" then
rs("salesperson") = "Mike"
end if
rs.next
loop
The SQL way would be: UPDATE customers SET salesperson = "Mike" WHERE state = "NH"
If you had, say 2 or 3 tables you need to check, your procedural quickly becomes difficult to
manage as you pile on nested loop after loop.
C Interview Questions and Answers
1) How can we construct an increment statement or decrement statement in C?
Answer: We can do this in two different ways. 1) By using the increment operator ++ and
decrement operator. For example, the statement “i++” means to increment the value of x
by 1. Likewise, the statement “x –” means to decrement the value of x by 1. 2) The

2nd way of writing increment statements is to use the conventional + plus sign or minus
sign. In the case of “i++, another way to write it is “i = i +1.
2) List the different storage class specifiers in C?
Answer: static, auto, extern, register
3) Some Programmers debug their programs by placing comment symbols on
some of the codes instead of deleting it. How does this aid in debugging?
Answer: Using comment symbols “/* */ ” in a code, also called as commenting out, is a
way of segregate some codes that you think maybe causing errors in the code, without
deleting the program. The aim is that if the code is in fact correct, we can simply remove
the comment symbols and continue on. It also saves you time and effort on having to
retype the codes if you have deleted it in the first place.
4) What is call by value and call by reference in C Programming language?
We can pass value to function by two different ways: call by value and call by reference. In
case of call by value, a copy of value is passed to the function, so original value is not
modified in the call by value. But in case of call by reference, an address of value is passed
to the function, so original value is modified in the call by reference.
5) How can we replace the following statement by using WHILE Loop?
for (x=1; x<=100; x++)
printf ("%d ", x *x );

Answer:
x=1;
while (x<=100)
{
printf ("%d ", x * x);
x++;
}

6) Name the different functions are used for dynamic memory allocation in C
Program?
Answer:
malloc(), calloc(), realloc(), free()
7) Explain about spaghetti programming?
Answer: Spaghetti programming refers to programs that tend to get tangled and overlapped
throughout the codes. This unorganized approach to coding is usually attributed to lack of
experience on the part of the programmer. Spaghetti coding makes a program complex and
analysing the codes difficult, and so must be avoided as much as possible.
8) Write the programming code to swap two numbers without using third
variable?
int x=10, y=20;

printf("Before swap x=%d y=%d",x,y);

y=x-y; &nb
x=x-y;
printf(
9) In C program, how we can insert quote characters (‘ and ”) into the output
screen?
Answer: This is a common problem for freshers/beginners because quotes are normally part
of a “printf” statement in program. If we want to insert the quote character as part of the
output, use the format specifiers , and ” (for double quote) , ’ (for single quote).
10) Differentiate between the = symbol and == symbol?
Answer: The = symbol is
11) For what purpose we use a ‘ character?
<
12) What is modular programming?
An
13) Can the curly brackets { } be used to enclose a single line of code?
Answer: While curly brackets are mai
14) Check these operators and find out the incorrect operator and explain why? (
>=, <=, <>, ==)
Answer: The incorrect is <>. While this operator is correctly interpreted as “not equal to””
in writing conditional statements, it is not the proper operator to be used in C program.
Instead, the operator!= must be used to indicate “not equal to “condition.15) What is
++X and X++ Operator?
Answ
16) Can we use “ int”” data type to store the value 32768? Why?
Answer: No. “ int”” data type is capable of storing values from -32768 to 32767. To store
32768, you can use “ “long int”” instead of “int”. You can also use “ “unsigned int”,
assuming you
17) Explain about the header files and what are the uses of header files in C
program?
Answer: Header files are also called as library files. They contain 2 essential things: the
definitions and prototypes of functions being used in a code. Simply put, commands that
you use in C programming codes are actually functions that are defined from
18) Can we use two or more operators such as and be combined in a single line of
program?
Answer: Yes, it’s perfectly valid to combine operators, especially if the need comes.
For example: you can have a code like “printf (“Good ‘Morning ”) ” to output the text
“Good”” on the first line and “Morning”” enclosed in single quotes to appear on the next two
lines.
19) Why we are not declaring all the header files in every C p
Answer: The choice of declaring a header file at the top of C pr
20) List out the merits and demerits of array in C program?
Answer:
Merits:
(b) It is not nece
(c) Array elements are stored in continuous memory location.
Demerit:
(a) We cannot change size of array at the run time. So Wastage of memory space.
(b) Array can store only similar type of data.
22) When we will use the “Void” keyword in a function?
23) Write a loop statement that will show the following output:
for (b=1; b<=a; b++
printf("%s","*");
}printf(" ");
24) How can we generate random number
Answer: Random numbers are generated in C using the rand() command. For example:
anyNum = rand() will generate any integer number beginning from 0, assuming that
anyNum is a variable of type integer.
25) What is wrong in this statement? scanf (%d, whatnumber);
Answer: This format is used f <
Answer: You
29) Is it possible to initializ
Answer: Yes, you don’t have to write a separa
Answer: To get the length of a strin
3
Answer: Reserved words are words that are part of the standard C language library. This
32) What is the different file extensions involved when coding in C?
Answer: Source codes in C are saved with .C file extension. Header files or library files have
the .H file extension. Every time a program source code is successfully compiled, it creates
an .OBJ object file, and
33) Explain about linked list?

34) Consider the below statement

Answer: FALSE. All reserved words must be written in lowercase; o
35) What are binary trees?
Answer: Binary trees are actually an extension of the concept of linked lists. A binary tree
has two pointers, a left one and a right one. Each side can further branch to form additional
nodes, which each node having two
36) Is this program statement is valid? INT = 10.
Answer: Assuming that INT is a variable of type float, this statement is valid. One may think
that INT is a reserved word and must not be used for other purposes. However, recall that
reserved words are express in lowercase, so the C compiler will not inte
37) What is wrong with this program statement? void = 10;
An
38) What is a newline escape sequence?
Answer: A newline escape sequence is representfore the actual output expression or after.
39) Explain about output redirection?
Answer: It is the process of transferring data to an alternative output source other than the
display screen. Output redirection allows a program to have its outp
40) Write a simple code fragment that will check if a number i
Answer: If (num>=0)
41) What is the difference between functions abs() and fabs()?<
Answer: These 2 fu
42) What does the function toupper() do?<
43) In C which function can be used to append a
Answer: The strcat function. It takes two parameters, the source string
44) Do these two program statements perform the
Answer:Yes, they both do the exact same thing, which is to accept the next key pressed by
t
45) Differentiate between text files and binary files?
48) The % symbol has a special use in a printf statement. How can you place this
character as
Answer: We can do this by using %% in the printf statement. For example, you can write
pri
49) Explain the advan
Answer: Storing data o

50) What is calloc and malloc?

Answer:
Can we have a pointer to a function?
a. Not possible
b. Possible
c. Depends on the return value
d. Depends on the # of arguments
Answer:b.Possible
void func(int a)
{
}
void main()
{
void (*fp)(int);
fp=func;
fp(1);
}
2. Write a function to swaps the values of two integers.
a. No solution exist.
b. Solution need 2 extra variables
c Solution exist without any extra variables
d. Solution need 1 extra variable
Solution c Solution exist without any extra variables
1. void swap(int a, int b)
{
int c;
c=a;
a=b;
b=c;
}
2. void swap (int a, int b)
{
a=a+b;
b=a-b;
a=a-b;

}
Solution2 is the best solution since no extra variable is required.
3. Which of the following Bitwise operators can be used efficiently to swap two numbers?
a. &
b. ^
c. |
d. ||
Solution:b ^
a=a^b
b=a^b
a=a^b
Now ‘a’ will have ‘b’s initial value and wise-versa.
4. Do you find any issue with the above snippet of code?
a. No issues
b. P is a bad pointer
c P is a void pointer
d. Both 2& 3
Answer: b. P is a bad pointer
When a pointer is first allocated, it does not have a pointee. The pointer is "uninitialized" or
simply "bad". A de-reference operation on a bad pointer is a serious run-time error. If you are
lucky, the de-reference operation will crash or halt immediately (Java behaves this way). If you
are unlucky, the bad pointer de-reference will corrupt a random area of memory, slightly altering
the operation of the program so that it goes wrong some indefinite time later. Each pointer must
be assigned a pointee before it can support de-reference operations. Before that, the pointer is
bad and must not be used. Bad pointers are very common. In fact, every pointer starts out with
a bad value. Correct code overwrites the bad value with a correct reference to a pointee, and
thereafter the pointer works fine. There is nothing automatic that gives a pointer a valid pointee.
void BadPointer()
{
int* p; // allocate the pointer, but not the pointee
*p = 42; // this de-reference is a serious runtime error
}
5. void add(int a, int b)
{

int c;
c = a + b;
add (1,1);
}
What is the result of above funtion?
a. Sum of a,b,1
b. Results in Buffer Overflow
c Results in Compiler Error
d Results in Stack Overflow
Answer: d. Results in Stack Overflow
When a function is called recursively, sometimes infinite recursions occur which results in
STACK OVERFLOW. What does it mean? Well when a function is called,
1. First it will evaluate actual parameter expressions.
2. Then, memory is allocated to local variables.
3. Store caller’s current address of execution (return address of the current function) and
then continue execute the recursive call.
4. Then it executes rest of the function body and reaches end and returns to the caller’s
address.
Now when a function is infinitely called (recursively) without a proper condition to check its
recursive, then only first 3 steps keep executing and function will never reach step 4 to finish
execution and return to previous function. In this way, function will keep allocating memory and
at some point of time it will go out of memory or reaches stack limit and will never be able to
accommodate another function and hence crashes. This is called stack overflow.
6. Which of the following will initialize the new memory to 0 ?
a. malloc
b. free
c. new
d delete
Answer: c. new
“new” will initlize the new memory to 0 but “malloc()” gives random value in the new alloted
memory location
7. Which of the following standard C library converts a string to a long integer and reports
any .leftover. numbers that could not be converted.

a. atol
b. atoi
c. stol
d. strtol
Answer: d. strtol
strtol() Converts a string to a long integer and reports any .leftover. numbers that could not be
converted.
atoi() Converts a string to an integer.
atol() Converts a string to a long integer.

Define the concept of an algorithm.

An algorithm is any well-defined computational procedure that takes some value (or set of
values) as input and produces some value (or set of values) as output. In short, it can be
seen as a sequence of computational steps that transform the input into the output.

2.What are the arguments present in pattern matching algorithms?

These are the following arguments which are present in pattern matching Algorithms.
1) Subject,
2) Pattern
3) Cursor
4) MATCH_STR
5) REPLACE_STR
6) REPLACE_FLAG
3. Explain the function SUB in algorithmic notation?
In the algorithmic notation rather than using special marker symbols, generally people use
the cursor position plus a substring length to isolate a substring. The name of the function is
SUB.
SUB returns a value the sub string of SUBJECT that is specified by the parameters i and j
and an assumed value of j.

4. In Algorithmic context how would you define book keeping operations?

Usually when a user wants to estimate time he isolates the specific function and brands it as
active operation. The other operations in the algorithm, the assignments, the manipulations
of the index and the accessing of a value in the vector, occur no more often than the
addition of vector values. These operations are collectively called as “ book keeping
operations” .

5. Define and describe an iterative process with general steps of flow chart?
There are four parts in the iterative process they are
Initialization: -The decision parameter is used to determine when to exit from the loop.
Decision: -The decision parameter is used to determine whether to remain in the loop or
not.
Computation: - The required computation is performed in this part.
Update: - The decision parameter is updated and a transfer to the next iteration results.

6. State recursion and its different types?

Recursion is the name given to the technique of defining a set or a process in terms of itself.
There are essentially two types of recursion. The first type concerns recursively defined
function and the second type of recursion is the recursive use of a procedure.

7. Define and state the importance of sub algorithm in computation and its relation
ship with main algorithm?
A sub algorithm is an independent component of an algorithm and for this reason is defined
separately from the main algorithm. The purpose of a sub algorithm is to perform some
computation when required, under control of the main algorithm. This computation may be
performed on zero or more parameters passed by the calling routine.

8. Name any three skills which are very important in order to work with
generating functions.
The three most important skills which are used extensively while working with generating
functions are
1)Manipulate summation expressions and their indices.
2)Solve algebraic equations and manipulate algebraic expressions, including partial function
decompositions.
3)Identify sequences with their generating functions

9. What is the general strategy for Markov Algorithm?

The general strategy in a Markov Algorithm is to take as input a string x and, through a
number of steps in the algorithm, transform x to an output string y. this transformation
process is generally performed in computers for text editing or program compilation.
10. Define string in an algorithmic notation and an example to support it?
In the algorithmic notation, a string is expressed as any sequence of characters enclosed in
single quote marks.

11. How to find median of a BST?

Find the no. of elements on the left side.
If it is n-1 the root is the median.
If it is more than n-1, then it has already been found in the left subtree.
Else it should be in the right subtree

12. What is Diffie-Hellman?

It is a method by which a key can be securely shared by two users without any actual
exchange.

13. What is the goal of the shortest distance algorithm?

The goal is completely fill the distance array so that for each vertex v, the value of
distance[v] is the weight of the shortest path from start to v.

14. Explain the depth of recursion?

This is another recursion procedure which is the number of times the procedure is called
recursively in the process of enlarging a given argument or arguments. Usually this quantity
is not obvious except in the case of extremely simple recursive functions, such as
FACTORIAL (N), for which the depth is N.

15. Explain about the algorithm ORD_WORDS?

This algorithm constructs the vectors TITLE, KEYWORD and T_INDEX.

16. Which are the sorting algorithms categories?

Sorting algorithms can be divided into five categories:
a) insertion sorts
b) exchange sorts
c) selection sorts
d) merge sorts
e) distribution sorts

17.Define a brute-force algorithm. Give a short example.

A brute force algorithm is a type of algorithm that proceeds in a simple and obvious way,
but requires a huge number of steps to complete. As an example, if you want to find out the
factors of a given number N, using this sort of algorithm will require to get one by one all
the possible number combinations.

18. What is a greedy algorithm? Give examples of problems solved using greedy
algorithms.
A greedy algorithm is any algorithm that makes the local optimal choice at each stage with
the hope of finding the global optimum. A classical problem which can be solved using a
greedy strategy is the traveling salesman problem. Another problems that can be solved
using greedy algorithms are the graph coloring problem and all the NP-complete problems.

19. What is a backtracking algorithm? Provide several examples.

It is an algorithm that considers systematically all possible outcomes for each decision.
Examples of backtracking algorithms are the eight queens problem or generating
permutations of a given sequence.

20. What is the difference between a backtracking algorithm and a brute-force

one?
Due to the fact that a backtracking algorithm takes all the possible outcomes for a decision,
it is similar from this point of view with the brute force algorithm. The difference consists in
the fact that sometimes a backtracking algorithm can detect that an exhaustive search is
unnecessary and, therefore, it can perform much better.

21. Describe divide and conquer paradigm.

When a problem is solved using a divide and conquer algorithm, it is subdivided into one or
more subproblems which are all similar to the original problem in such a way that each of
the subproblems can be solved independently. In the end, the solutions to the subproblems
are combined in order to obtain the solution to the original problem.

22. Describe on short an insertion sorting algorithm.

An algorithm that sorts by insertion takes the initial, unsorted sequence and computes a
series of sorted sequences using the following rules:
a) the first sequence in the series is the empty sequence
b) given a sequence S(i) in the series, for 0<=i<="" p="" style="box-sizing: border-box;">
23. Which are the advantages provided by insertion sort?
Insertion sort provides several advantages:
a) simple implementation
b) efficient for small data sets
c) adaptive - efficient for data sets that are already substantially sorted: the time
complexity is O(n + d), where d is the number of inversions
d) more efficient in practice than most other simple quadratic, i.e. O(n2) algorithms such as
selection sort or bubble sort; the best case (nearly sorted input) is O(n)
e) stable - does not change the relative order of elements with equal keys

f) in-place - only requires a constant amount O( 1) of additional memory space

g) online - can sort a list as it receives it

24. Shortly describe the quicksort algorithm.

In quicksort, the steps performed are the following:
a) pick an element, called a pivot, from the list
b) reorder the list so that all elements with values less than the pivot come before the pivot,
while all elements with values greater than the pivot come after it (equal values can go
either way)
c) recursively sort the sub-list of lesser elements and the sub-list of greater elements

25. What is the difference between selection and insertion sorting?

In insertion sorting elements are added to the sorted sequence in an arbitrary order. In
selection sorting, the elements are added to the sorted sequence in order so they are
always added at one end.

26. What is merge sorting?

Merging is the sorting algorithm which combines two or more sorted sequences into a single
sorted sequence. It is a divide and conquer algorithm, an O(n log n) comparison-based
sorting algorithm. Most implementations produce a stable sort, meaning that the
implementation preserves the input order of equal elements in the sorted output.

27. Which are the main steps of a merge sorting algorithm?

Sorting by merging is a recursive, divide-and-conquer strategy. The basic steps to perform
are the following:
a) divide the sequence into two sequences of length
b) recursively sort each of the two subsequences
c) merge the sorted subsequences to obtain the final result

28. Provide a short description of binary search algorithm.

Binary search algorithm always chooses the middle of the remaining search space,
discarding one half or the other, again depending on the comparison between the key value
found at the estimated position and the key value sought. The remaining search space is
reduced to the part before or after the estimated position.

29. What is the linear search algorithm?

Linear search is a method for finding a particular value in a list which consists of checking
every one of its elements, one at a time and in sequence, until the desired one is found. It
is the simplest search algorithm, a special case of brute-force search. Its worst case cost is

proportional to the number of elements in the list; and so is its expected cost, if all list
elements are equally likely to be searched for. Therefore, if the list has more than a few
elements, other methods (such as binary search or hashing) may be much more efficient.

30. What is best-first search algorithm?

It is a search algorithm that considers the estimated best partial solution next. This is
typically implemented with priority queues.

31. What is Huffman coding?

In computer science and information theory, Huffman coding is an entropy encoding

algorithm used for lossless data compression. The term refers to the use of a variable-
length code table for encoding a source symbol (such as a character in a file) where the

variable-length code table has been derived in a particular way based on the estimated
probability of occurrence for each possible value of the source symbol.
Is it possible to find a loop in a Linked list ?
a. Possilbe at O(n)
b. Not possible
c. Possible at O(n^2) only
d. Depends on the position of loop
Solution: a. Possible at O(n)
Have two pointers say P1 and P2 pointing to the first node of the list.
Start a loop and Increment P1 once and P2 twice in each iteration. At any point of time if
P1==P2 then there is a loop in that linked list. If P2 reaches NULL (end of linked list) then
no loop exists.
2. Two linked lists L1 and L2 intersects at a particular node N1 and from there all
other nodes till the end are common. The length of the lists are not same. What
are the possibilities to find N1?.
a. Solution exist for certain cases only
b. No linear solution exist
c. Linear solution is possible
d Only Non-linear solution exist.
Solution: c. Linear solution is possible
Have two pointers say P1 pointing to the first node of L1 and P2 to that of L2. Traverse
through both the lists. If P1 reaches L1’s last node, point it to the first node of L2 and
continue traversing. Do the same thing for P2 when it reaches L2’s last node. (By doing this,
we are balancing the difference in the length between the linked lists. The shorter one will
get over soon and by redirecting to longer list’s head, it will traverse the extra nodes also.)
Finally they will Meet at the Intersection node.
3. void PrintTree (Tree T)
{
if (T != NULL)

{
PrintTree (T-> Left);
PrintElement (T-> Element);
PrintTree (T->Right);
}
}
The above method ‘PrintTree’ results in which of the following traversal
a Inorder
b. Preorder
c. Postorder
d. None of the above
Solution: a. Inorder
Inorder:
void PrintTree (Tree T)
{
if (T != NULL)
{
PrintTree (T-> Left);
PrintElement (T-> Element);
PrintTree (T->Right);
}
}
For preorder use this order
PrintElement (T-> Element);
PrintTree (T-> Left);
PrintTree (T->Right);
For postorder use this order
PrintTree (T-> Left);
PrintTree (T->Right);
PrintElement (T-> Element);
4. Given a Binary Search Tree (BST), print its values in ascending order.
a. Perform Depth first traversal
b. Perform Breadth first traversal
c. Perform Postorder traversal
d. Perform Inorder traversal
Solution: d. Perform Inorder traversal
It is the properfy of BST and Inorder traversal.

5. Is it possible to implement a queue using Linked List ?. Enqueue & Dequeue

should be O(1).
a. Not possible to implement.
b Only Enqueue is possible at O(1).
c. Only Dequeue is possible at O(1).
d. Both Enqueue and Dequeue is possible at O(1)

Solution: d. Both Enqueue and Dequeue is possible at O(1)

Have two pointers H pointing to the Head and T pointing to the Tail of the linked list.
Perform enqueue at T and perform dequeue at H. Update the pointers after each operations
accordingly.

6. Given a Tree, is it possible to find the greatest and least among leaves in linear
time?.
a. Solution depends on the tree structure
b.Linear solution exist
c. Only Non-linear solution exist.
d. No linear solution exist
Solution: b. Linear solution exist
Have two variables Min and Max. Perform any tree traversal.Assign the first traversed leaf
element to Min and Max for all other leaf elements check with these variables and update it
accordingly. If a current element is < Min then update Min with that element. If it is > Min
then check with Max.
Note: If you want to find the greatest and least among all nodes perform the checks for
each node traversed.

7. Is it possible to find find the greatest and least value among the nodes in a
given BST without using any extra variables?
a. No solution exist.
b. Solution need 2 extra variables
c. Solution exist without any extra variables
d Solution need 1 extra variable
Solution:c Solution exist without any extra variables
As per BST property, the left most node should be the least one and the rightmost node
should be the greatest. In other words, the first and last node of an Inorder traversal are
the least and greatest among the nodes respectively.

8. Is it possible to implement 2 stack in an array?

Condition: None of the stack should indicate an overflow until every slot of an array is used.
a. Only 1 stack can be implemented for the given condition
b. Stacks can not be implemented in array
c. 2 stacks can be implemented for the given condition.
d. 2 stacks can be implemented if the given condition is applied only for 1 stack.
Solution:c. 2 stacks can be implemented for the given condition
Start 1st stack from left (1st position of an array) and 2nd from right (last position say n).
Move 1st stack towards right( i.e 1,2,3 ...n) and 2nd towards left (i.e n,n-1,n-2...1).

9. Given two keys K1 & K2, write an algorithm to print all the elements between
them with K1<=K2 in a BST.
a. Solution need 2 extra spaces
b. Linear solution is possible without using any extra space
c No linear solution exist
d Solution need 1 extra space
Solution:b. Linear solution is possible without using any extra space
Perform an inorder traversal. Once you find K1 print it and continue traversal now, print all
other traversed elements until you reach K2.
Note: If K1 == K2 stop once you find K1.

10. How many stacks are required to implement a Queue.

a. One
b. Two
c. Three
d. Two + one extra space.
Solution:b Two
Have two stacks S1 and S2.
For Enqueue, perform push on S1.
For Dequeue, if S2 is empty pop all the elements from S1 and push it to S2. The last
element you popped from S1 is an element to be dequeued. If S2 is not empty, then pop
the top element in it.
How many numbers of addresses are usable for addressing in a Class C network?
a. 256
b. 255
c. 254
d. 258
Answer: c. 254

The number of addresses usable for addressing specific hosts in each network is always 2 power N - 2

(where N is the number of rest field bits, and the subtraction of 2 adjusts for the use of the all-bits-
zero host portion for network address and the all-bits-one host portion as a broadcast address. Thus,

for a Class C address with 8 bits available in the host field, the number of hosts is 254
Class A 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255
Class B 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255

Class C 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255

Class D 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255

Class E 240.0.0.0 - 247.255.255.255
2. How are the data units at Application layer is called?
a. Message
b. Datagram
c. User Datagram
d. Signals
Answer:a.Message
The data unit created at the application layer is called a message, at the transport layer the data unit
created is called either a segment or an user datagram, at the network layer the data unit created is
called the datagram, at the data link layer the datagram is encapsulated in to a frame and finally
transmitted as signals along the transmission media

3. What protocol is used by DNS name servers? Justify.

a. TCP
b. SNMP
c. UDP d. It can use any routing protocol
Answer:c. UDP
DNS uses UDP for communication between servers. It is a better choice than TCP because of the
improved speed a connectionless protocol offers. Of course, transmission reliability suffers with UDP

4. Which of the following is used to direct a packet inside an internal networks?

a. Routers
b. Modem
c. Gateway
d None of the above
Answer: a.Routers
Routers are machines that direct a packet through the maze of networks that stand between its
source and destination. Normally a router is used for internal networks while a gateway acts a door for
the packet to reach the ‘ outside’ of the internal network

Define Network?
A network is a set of devices connected by physical media links. A network is recursively is
a connection of two or more nodes by a physical link or two or more networks connected by
one or more nodes.

2. What is Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspects of information communication.

3. What is a Link?
At the lowest level, a network can consist of two or more computers directly connected by
some physical medium such as coaxial cable or optical fiber. Such a physical medium is
called as Link.

4. What is a node?
A network can consist of two or more computers directly connected by some physical
medium such as coaxial cable or optical fiber. Such a physical medium is called as Links and
the computer it connects is called as Nodes.

5. What is a gateway or Router?

A node that is connected to two or more networks is commonly called as router or Gateway.
It generally forwards message from one network to another.

6. Name the factors that affect the performance of the network?

a.Number of Users
b. Type of transmission medium
c. Hardware
d. Software

7. What is Round Trip Time?

The duration of time it takes to send a message from one end of a network to the other and
back, is called RTT.

8. List the layers of OSI

a. Physical Layer
b. Data Link Layer
c. Network Layer
d. Transport Layer

e. Session Layer
f. Presentation Layer
g. Application Layer

9. Which layers are network support layers?

a. Physical Layer
b. Data link Layer and
c. Network Layers

10. Which layers are user support layers?

a. Session Layer
b. Presentation Layer and
c. Application Layer

11. What is Pipelining ?

In networking and in other areas, a task is often begun before the previous task has ended.
This is known as pipelining.

12. What is Piggy Backing?

A technique called piggybacking is used to improve the efficiency of the bidirectional
protocols. When a frame is carrying data from A to B, it can also carry control information
about arrived (or lost) frames from B; when a frame is carrying data from B to A, it can also
carry control information about the arrived (or lost) frames from A.

13. What are the two types of transmission technology available?

(i) Broadcast and (ii) point-to-point

14. What is Bandwidth?

Every line has an upper limit and a lower limit on the frequency of signals it can carry. This
limited range is called the bandwidth.
15. Explain RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
It is a simple protocol used to exchange information between the routers.

16. What is subnet?

A generic term for section of a large networks usually separated by a bridge or router.

17. What is MAC address?

The address for a device as it is identified at the Media Access Control (MAC) layer in the
network architecture. MAC address is usually stored in ROM on the network adapter card
and is unique.

18. What is multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the process of dividing a link, the phycal medium, into logical channels for
better efficiency. Here medium is not changed but it has several channels instead of one.

19. What is simplex?

It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is unidirectional.
i.e. one can transmit and other can receive.
E.g. keyboard and monitor.

20. What is half-duplex?

It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is bi-directional
but not at the same time. ie each station can transmit and receive but not at the same time.
E.g walkie-talkies are half-duplex system.

21.What is full duplex?

It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is bi-directional
and it occurs simultaneously. Here signals going in either direction share the capacity of the
link.
E.g. telephone

22. What is sampling?

It is the process of obtaining amplitude of a signal at regular intervals.

23. What is Asynchronous mode of data transmission?

It is a serial mode of transmission.
In this mode of transmission, each byte is framed with a start bit and a stop bit. There may
be a variable length gap between each byte.

24. What is Synchronous mode of data transmission?

It is a serial mode of transmission.In this mode of transmission, bits are sent in a
continuous stream without start and stop bit and without gaps between bytes. Regrouping
the bits into meaningful bytes is the responsibility of the receiver.

25. What are the different types of multiplexing?

Multiplexing is of three types. Frequency division multiplexing and wave division
multiplexing is for analog signals and time division multiplexing is for digital signals.
26. What are the different transmission media?
The transmission media is broadly categorized into two types
i)Guided media(wired)
i)Unguided media(wireless)

27. What are the duties of data link layer?

Data link layer is responsible for carrying packets from one hop (computer or router) to the
next. The duties of data link layer include packetizing, adderssing, error control, flow
control, medium access control.

28. .What are the types of errors?

Errors can be categorized as a single-bit error or burst error. A single bit error has one bit
error per data unit. A burst error has two or more bits errors per data unit.

29. What do you mean by redundancy?

Redundancy is the concept of sending extra bits for use in error detection. Three common
redundancy methods are parity check, cyclic redundancy check (CRC), and checksum.

30. Define parity check.

In parity check, a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s is
even (or odd for odd parity).Simple parity check can detect all single bit errors. It can
detect burst errors only if the total number of errors in each data unit is odd.In two
dimensional parity checks, a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant row of bits is
added to the whole block.

31. Define cyclic redundancy check (CRC).

C RC appends a sequence of redundant bits derived from binary division to the data unit.
The divisor in the CRC generator is often represented as an algebraic polynomial.

32. What is hamming code?

The hamming code is an error correction method using redundant bits. The number of bits
is a function of the length of the data bits. In hamming code for a data unit of m bits, we
use the formula 2r >= m+r+1 to determine the number of redundant bits needed. By
rearranging the order of bit transmission of the data units, the hamming code can correct
burst errors.

33.Define stop and wait ARQ.

In stop and wait ARQ, the sender sends a frame and waits for an acknowledgement from
the receiver before sending the next frame.

34. What do you mean by network control protocol?

Network control protocol is a set of protocols to allow the encapsulation of data coming from
network layer protocol that requires the services of PPP

35. What do you mean by CSMA?

To reduce the possibility of collision CSMA method was developed. In CSMA each station
first listen to the medium (Or check the state of the medium) before sending. It can’t
eliminate collision.
36. What do you mean by Bluetooth?
It is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, notebooks, computers, cameras, printers and so on.

37. What is IP address?

The internet address (IP address) is 32bits that uniquely and universally defines a host or
router on the internet.The portion of the IP address that identifies the network is called
netid. The portion of the IP address that identifies the host or router on the network is
called hostid.

38. What do you mean by ALOHA ?

It is the method used to solve the channel allocation problem .It is used for:
i)ground based radio broadcasting
ii)In a network in which uncoordinated users are competing for the use of single channel.

It is of two types:
1.Pure aloha
2.Slotted aloha

39. What is Firewalls?

It is an electronic downbridge which is used to enhance the security of a network. It’s
configuration has two components.
i)Two routers
ii)Application gateway
the packets traveling through the LAN are inspected here and packets meeting certain
criteria are forwarded and others are dropped.

40. What is Repeaters ?

A receiver receives a signal before it becomes too weak or corrupted,regenerates the
original bit pattern,and puts the refreshed copy back onto the link.It operates on phycal
layer of OSI model.

41. What is Bridges?

They divide large network into smaller components.They can relay frames between two
originally separated LANs.They provide security through partitioning traffic.They operate on
physical and data link layer of OSI model.

42. What is ICMP?

ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol, a network layer protocol of the TCP/IP suite used
by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. It
uses the echo test / reply to test whether a destination is reachable and responding. It also
handles both control and error messages.
.

43. What is FDM?

FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link is greater than
the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
44. What is WDM?
WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing
involve light signals transmitted through fiber optics channel.

45. What is TDM?

TDM is a digital process that can be applied when the data rate capacity of the transmission
medium is greater than the data rate required by the sending and receiving devices.

46. List the steps involved in creating the checksum.

a. Divide the data into sections
b. Add the sections together using 1's complement arithmetic
c. Take the complement of the final sum, this is the checksum.

47. Compare Error Detection and Error Correction:

The correction of errors is more difficult than the detection. In error detection, checks only
any error has occurred. In error correction, the exact number of bits that are corrupted and
location in the message are known. The number of the errors and the size of the message
are important factors.

48. What are the protocols in application layer ?

The protocols defined in application layer are
• TELNET
• FTP
• SMTP
• DNS

49. What are the protocols in transport layer ?

The protocols defined in transport layer are
• TCP
• UDP

50. What do you mean by client server model ?

In client server model ,the client runs a program to request a service and the server runs a
program to provide the service.These two programs communicate with each other. One
server program can provide services to many client programs.

51. What is TELNET ?

TELNET is a client –server application that allows a user to log on to a remote
machine,giving the user access to the remote system. TELNET is an abbreviation of terminal
Network.

52. What is Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP) ?

It is the main protocol used to access data on the World Wide Web .the protol transfers data
in the form of plain text,hypertext,audio,video,and so on. It is so called because its
efficiency allows its use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one
document to another.

53. What is World Wide Web ?

Ans: World Wide Web is a repository of information spread all over the world and linked
together.It is a unique combination of flexibility,portability,and user-friendly features .The
World Wide Web today is a distributed client-server service,in which a client using a browser
can access a service using a server.The service provided is distributed over many locations
called web sites.

54. What is Beaconing?

The process that allows a network to self-repair networks problems. The stations on the
network notify the other stations on the ring when they are not receiving the transmissions.
Beaconing is used in Token ring and FDDI networks.

55. What is RAID?

A method for providing fault tolerance by using multiple hard disk drives.

56. What is NETBIOS and NETBEUI?

NETBIOS is a programming interface that allows I/O requests to be sent to and received
from a remote computer and it hides the networking hardware from applications.
NETBEUI is NetBIOS extended user interface. A transport protocol designed by microsoft
and IBM for the use on small subnets.

57. What is difference between ARP and RARP?

The address resolution protocol (ARP) is used to associate the 32 bit IP address with the 48
bit physical address, used by a host or a router to find the physical address of another host
on its network by sending a ARP query packet that includes the IP address of the receiver.
The reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address.

58. What is the minimum and maximum length of the header in the TCP segment and IP
datagram?
The header should have a minimum length of 20 bytes and can have a maximum length of
60 bytes.

59. What are major types of networks and explain?

Server-based network: provide centralized control of network resources and rely on server
computers to provide security and network administration
Peer-to-peer network: computers can act as both servers sharing resources and as clients
using the resources.

60. What are the important topologies for networks?

BUS topology: In this each computer is directly connected to primary network cable in a
single line.
Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install, simple to understand, easy to extend.

STAR topology: In this all computers are connected using a central hub.
Advantages: Can be inexpensive, easy to install and reconfigure and easy to trouble shoot
physical problems.
RING topology: In this all computers are connected in loop.
Advantages: All computers have equal access to network media, installation can be simple,
and signal does not degrade as much as in other topologies because each computer
regenerates it.
61. What is mesh network?
A network in which there are multiple network links between computers to provide multiple
paths for data to travel.

62. What is difference between baseband and broadband transmission?

In a baseband transmission, the entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a single
signal. In broadband transmission, signals are sent on multiple frequencies, allowing
multiple signals to be sent simultaneously.

63. What is packet filter?

Packet filter is a standard router equipped with some extra functionality. The extra
functionality allows every incoming or outgoing packet to be inspected. Packets meeting
some criterion are forwarded normally. Those that fail the test are dropped.

64. What is traffic shaping?

One of the main causes of congestion is that traffic is often busy. If hosts could be made to
transmit at a uniform rate, congestion would be less common. Another open loop method to

help manage congestion is forcing the packet to be transmitted at a more predictable rate.
This is called traffic shaping.

65. What is multicast routing?

Sending a message to a group is called multicasting, and its routing algorithm is called
multicast routing.

66. What is Kerberos?

It is an authentication service developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Kerberos uses encryption to prevent intruders from discovering passwords and gaining
unauthorized access to files.

67. What is passive topology?

When the computers on the network simply listen and receive the signal, they are referred
to as passive because they don’t amplify the signal in any way. Example for passive
topology - linear bus.

68. What are the advantages of Distributed Processing?

a. Security/Encapsulation
b. Distributed database
c. Faster Problem solving
d. Security through redundancy
e. Collaborative Processing

69. Name the factors that affect the reliability of the network?
a. Frequency of failure
b. Recovery time of a network after a failure

70. When a switch is said to be congested?

It is possible that a switch receives packets faster than the shared link can accommodate
and stores in its memory, for an extended period of time, then the switch will eventually run
out of buffer space, and some packets will have to be dropped and in this state is said to
congested state.
.New India 2022
Points for the GD topic:
## New India 2022, the vision of Modi Government looks promising seeing the significant
improvements such as
reduction in corruption. There is an improvement in the Corruption Perception Index ranking.

## The other focus areas of New India 2022 have shown significant improvements such as reduction in
black money
(demonetization), and dirt free nation (Swatch Bharat Scheme).
## The aim of ‘Poverty free India’ seems almost achievable by the year 2022 with Modi government
providing
loans to needy farmers.
Against the GD topic:
## There is not much improvement in caste politics and looks difficult to eradicate in the promised
timeline.
## Social bans, lob lynching and beef ban have resulted in fear in minorities during Modi Government.
2.Social Media- Curse or Boon
Points for the GD topic:
## Social media helps in expanding knowledge to wider audience in a cost-effective manner via posts
or videos.
## It is easily available to everyone and provides an option to voice opinion freely.
## Many people are also contributing to the society by using social media for good cause by using
hashtags or
YouTube videos to either highlight a social issue or help a victim. The recent role of social media in
Arab Spring is
one such example.
Points Against the GD topic:
## Social media encourages violent behavior by easily spreading fake news that might hurt social
sentiments or
people of some repute.
## Social media is misused by many people to harass others. It also promotes cyber bullying that
promotes violent
human behavior.
3.Industrial Revolution 4.0- Pros & Cons
Points for the GD topic:
## It is a collaborative era of Cyber Physical Systems that has a potential to bring a massive
improvement in the way
we live.
## It can bring advantages like building sustainable economies and transparency in governance.
## It will bring huge digital transformation.
## It can be utilized to provide low cost healthcare facilities and bring improvement in other sectors as
well.
Points Against the GD topic:
## It might not be helpful for those who are not digital literates.
## Adopting to Industry 4.0 can increase cyber security issues.
4.Why scams like Nirav Modi Happen with Indian banks?
Points for the discussion:
## There is a loophole in the quality of internal audits conducted by banks.
## Fake LoUs (Letter of Undertaking) are not tracked easily as SWIFT is not integrated with core
banking in several
banks in India.
## There is a dire need of more regulating authorities of RBI that can keep a track of such frauds.
## Several checkpoints should be made by the Government, RBI as well as banks to prevent such huge
frauds.
Note: Such topics help a hiring manager to judge a candidate’s ability to understand a problem and
offer a
solution to it. Your analytical and decision making skills are highlighted here.
5.For or Against Modi Government
Points for the topic: Highlight Achievements
## Demonetization was a welcomed step to discourage black money and reduce fake currency in
circulation.
## 4 years of Modi government brought improvement in international relationships with several
countries like USA
and Japan.
## ‘Digital India’ was an excellent initiative.
## GST was the biggest change implemented that no previous government thought of.
Points Against the topic: Highlight Failures
## Demonetization created several issues and suffering for poor people.
## The government failed to take serious action to resolve issues such as threat for minorities by some
Hindu groups
in the name of culture and cow vigilantism.