Week 1: Principles and Importance of Fingerprint

in Crime Detection and Investigation

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: DACTYLOSCOPY
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION defined
These are peculiarities/characteristics/traits by which an individual is identified or that which
makes a person unique. This may also refer to the means by which an individual is made known
or recognized.
 IDENTIFICATION

 The act of naming somebody

o An act of recognizing and naming somebody or something.
 Proof of identity
o To prove that somebody is who he or she claims to be.

IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

Personal Identification during ancient period is very essential since recidivist or repeat offender is
given severe penalty if found to be one. Thus, proper identification is required to every felon prior
to be admitted in jail for future reference. But, fingerprinting is not yet in the vocabulary of the
prison administrator during this period.
 METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION
1. Ordinary Method
- Those by which laymen used to prove identity where training, or special skill or any
instrument or procedure is not required for the identifier.
The following were the methods employed:

 Branding
 Mutilation
 Tattooing
 Descriptive Clothing
 Measurement of the height. (Quetelet’s method)
 Photographic Eye (Eugene Francois Vidocq method)
 Photographing
 Anthropological Measurement or Bertillionage

2. Scientific Method
- Those based on scientific knowledge used by trained men which is usually based on
exclusion and comparison.
The following were the methods employed:

 Anthropometry- it is a science that defines physical measures of a person’s size,

form, and functional capacities. (e.g., BMI, weight, height etc.)
 Dactyloscopy- it is the identification of a person through the examination and
comparison of fingerprint.
 Orthodontology- it is the examination and evaluation of dental evidence in a
criminal case. Bone structures of the jaws
  DNA Analysis- it is the process of determining an individual’s DNA characteristics.
It is mostly observed in drug testing.
 Voice Comparison- it is an analysis using a voice sample of a known speaker and
compared to one of the speakers in question.
 Handwriting Analysis- it is a type of questioned document examination wherein
documents are having a suspicious authenticity. (e.g., ID’s, passports, cheques
currency notes, and even suicide notes)
 Blood Typing- it is the detection of antibodies using antigens A and B. theory of
impossible child.
 Iris Scanning- it is also a type of biometric technology which uses the person’s iris
as a form of identification.
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT/ANTHROPOMETRY
A method of criminal identification introduced by Alphonse Bertillon a French
Anthropologist. Bertillon believed that certain body parts especially the bone is unchangeable
when a person reached the age of 20 (some says 21). Bones do not change in dimensions after
adulthood, and therefore by taking measurement of another bone, the identity of an individual can
be established. Specifically, this system of identification measures the following:

o body: height standing, reach from fingertips to fingertips, length of trunk and head, or
height sitting;
o head: length and width, length and width of right ear;
o limbs: length of left foot, length of left middle finger, length of left little finger, length of
left forearm.

To further identify the person, Bertillon’s System relied on:

 Portraite Parlé – Detailed description of the individual

 Full length and profile photographs

These measurements are recorded on cards and classified according to the length of the head.
The supremacy or Bertillon system infiltrates worldwide and was accepted for almost 30 years.
What happened to the Bertillonage in 1903?

 In 1903, a prisoner by the name Will West was sentenced to incarceration at the United States
Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas.
 During his processing, the records clerk obtained Will West's Bertillon measurements and
photograph.
 Will West denied ever being incarcerated at the facility.
 The Bertillon measurement was later on discovered to be of another previous inmate in the
person of William West (believed to be the twin brother of Will).
 It was then the time that the Bertillon system’s accuracy was challenged leading to its total
destruction. The two West brothers were exactly differentiated by using their fingerprints. It was
then the start of the glory of the science of fingerprints in personal identification.

 IDENTIFICATION METHODS AND THEIR CHANCES OF FAILURE

The above table shows the supremacy of fingerprints over other methods of personal
identification, it shows that it has a very rare chance that it will fail in identifying a certain individual.
This will be explained on the succeeding topics.
S. NO IDENTIFICATION METHOD CHANCES OF FAILURE
Measurement of Height
1. 1 in 4
(Quetelet’s method)
 2. Comparison of Pubic Hair 1 in 800
3. Comparison of Scalp Hair 1 in 4500
Anthropometry
4. 1 in 268 million
(Bertillion’s method)
5. Teeth bite marks 1 in 2.5 billion
6. Dactylography (Fingerprints) 1 in 64 billion
7. DNA Fingerprinting 1 in 2 x 10

Historical Background
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF FINGERPRINTS
IMPORTANT RECORDS /EVENTS ON F.P.

 Nova Scotia – prehistoric picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was discovered
 Ancient Babylon – FP were used in clay tablets for business transactions.
 Ancient China – thumb prints were found on clay seals. . Some of these seals can be seen in
the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D.C.. (TANG DYNASTY, 618-907)
 EMPEROR Te’ in Shi (BC 246-210) – the first Chinese ruler who devised a seal carved from a
white jade. Fingerprints during this time were used in business transaction as a sign of
acknowledgement of purchase.

To the Chinese, fingerprints are known as Hua Chi. Slices of matches of fingerprints are kept to
preserve the identity of people.  The arches are known as Lo (snail) and Loops as Ki
(sieve/basket). The loops are called upon as presage of good luck.

 Persia, 14th century, various official gov’t papers had FP (impressions) and one gov’t official, a
doctor, observed that no two FP were exactly alike.

 EARLY PUBLICATIONS CONCERNING FINGERPRINTS

 1686, Marcello Malpighi, (Grandfather of Dactyloscopy) 

- a professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna, noted in his treaties; ridges, spirals
and loops in fingerprints. He made no mention of their value as a tool for individual
identification.

 1823, John Evangelist Purkinji, (Father of Dactyloscopy) 

- a professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau, published his thesis discussing 9 FP

patterns but he too made no mention of the value of FP for personal identification.

The 9 patterns are named:

o Transverse curves (plain arch)

o Central Longitudinal stria (tented arch)
o Oblique stripe (ulnar or radial loop)
o Oblique loop (ulnar or radial loop)
o Almond (whorl)
o Spiral (whorl)
o Ellipse-elliptical whorl (whorl)
o Circle-circular whorl (whorl)
 o Double whorl (Twin loop)
  1858, William Herschel, an English civil servant (India)

- Required natives to sign contracts with an imprint of their right hand – Hindu custom?

 In 1880, Scottish physician, Henry Fauld 

- Wrote that skin ridge patterns could be important in identification work. A thief left his
fingerprint on a whitewashed wall – compared with 1 st suspect - No match; compared with
2nd suspect with positive association. He recommended the use of thin film of printers ink as
a transfer medium and is generally used today.

 During 1880’s, Sir Francis Galton

- A British anthropologist and a cousin of Charles Darwin, began his observations of FP as a

means of identification. In 1892, he published his book, “FINGERPRINTS”, establishing the
individuality and permanency of FP. The book included the first classification system of FP.
Proposed three pattern types: loops, whorls and arches.  Galton identified the
characteristics by which FP can be identified. The same characteristics (minutiae) are
basically still in use today and are often referred to as the Galton’s detail.

 FRANCIS GALTON

- mentioned that No two prints are identical. An individual’s prints remain unchanged from
one year to the next.

 1788 – J.C.A. MAYER

- He found that the fingerprints of two persons are never alike. The ridges have similarities
but never duplicated. (Principle of Individuality)

 1856 – HERMAN WELCKER

- took the prints of his own palm in 1897 (forty one years later) he printed the same palm to
prove that the prints do not change. (Principle of Permanency)

 1891, Juan Vucitech

- an Argentine Police Official, began the first FP files based on Galton pattern types. 1892,
he made the first criminal fingerprint identification. He was able to identify a woman by the
name of Francisca Rojas, who murdered her two sons, and cut her own throat in an attempt
to place blame on other. Her bloody print was left on a door post, proving her identity as the
murderer.

 SIR EDWARD HENRY,

- an Englishman who, In 1897, proposed another classification system which is still in use
today. Most English-speaking countries use some version of Henry’s classification system.
The system was so applicable that Henry emerged as the “Father of Modern Fingerprint
Science”, at least, as the first man who successfully applies fingerprints for identification.

 1882, Gilbert Thompson 

- of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used his own FP on a document to prevent
forgery. This is the first known use of FP in the U.S.
FP IN THE UNITED STATES

 1901 – First systematic use of fingerprints adopted by the New York Civil Service
Commission(Dr. Henry DeForrest-1902)
 1903 – New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of FP in U.S. for
Criminals. Captain James Park of that institution installed the identification system where the
fingerprints of prisoners were taken and classified and the fingerprint system was officially
adopted in June of that year.
 1904 – American police received training in fingerprint techniques from Scotland Yard’s
representatives

FINGERPRINT IN THE PHILIPPINES

 GARRY JONES was the first one to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the Philippine
Constabulary sometime in the year 1900.
 The Bureau of Prison records show that of the year 1918 CARPETAS (commitment and
conviction records) already bear fingerprints. The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed
by the Philippine Constabulary was Generoso Reyes, Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York
City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C. Guerrero of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, Washington, D.C. gave the first examinations in fingerprints in 1937. The first
Filipina Fingerprint Technician was Isabela Bernales.
 On December 23, 1933, the first conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme
Court of the Philippines in the case of People of the Philippines versus Medina and was
considered the leading judicial decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence concerning the science
of fingerprinting.

Terminologies

 FINGERPRINT – (also known as DACTYLOGRAM) is an impression, designed by the ridges

on the inside of the end joints of the fingers and thumbs on any smooth surface through the
media of ink, sweat or any reagents capable of producing visibility.
 DACTYLOSCOPY – the science that deals with the study of fingerprints as a means of
personal identification that involves manual comparison of fingerprints.
 DACTYLOGRAPHY – the scientific study and analysis of fingerprints as a means of
identification.
 DACTYLOMANCY –the study of fingerprints for the purpose of interpreting one’s personality.
 Dermatoglyphics-The word comes from two Greek words (derma = skin and glyphe = carve)
and refers to the friction ridge formations which appear on the palms of the hands and soles of
the feet. Dermatoglyphics is the scientific study of fingerprints.

RELATED SCIENCES OF FINGERPRINT

 Chiroscopy – science of palm print identification. Derived from Greek words: Cheir - means “a
hand” and Skopein - means “to examine.”
 Podoscopy – footprints and footwear identification. Derived from two Greek words:
o Podo - means “the foot” and
o Skopein - means “to examine.”
 Poroscopy – study of the pore structure for the purpose of identification. Derived from the
Greek words:
o poros - means “a pore” and
o skopein - means “to examine.”
 Edgeoscopy – The study of the edges and shapes of the ridges which includes the study of:
–endings,
–puckering,
–bifurcations
 Ridgeology – The study of ridges with the combination of:
o poroscopy;
o edgeoscopy; and
o ridge characteristics

Week 1-A Systematic Method of Identification

The first real method of identification was the artist’s rendering. Drawing a picture of what
was seen by another individual is not an easy task. The challenge has always been to relay the
information in such a way that it is understandable to the person who is doing the sketch. There
have always been those individuals who have used their creativity to generate a likeness of an
individual. As standardized terminology and descriptors were developed, the quality of the sketch
was remarkably improved. Today we commonly refer to this method as a police artist sketch. The
problem that has always existed with an artist’s rendering is the ability of the artist to put onto
paper what one individual has put into words to describe another individual.
An artist’s rendering is never going to produce or replicate an exact likeness of an
individual. That is why, even today,
the police sketch is, at best, a very close likeness of an individual. Coming in a close second, due
to the lateness of its development, is the photograph. A photograph, as we know, will produce an
exact likeness of an individual. The first such device for photography was the Daguerreotype
which was first used in Brussels around 1843. A photograph was developed on a light-sensitive
silver-coated metallic plate. Later a glass plate was used. This method, to say the least, was
extremely cumbersome, the photographs that were taken were not extremely high quality, and the
equipment associated with the task made it difficult at best to take photographs in a less than the
controlled environment. As time has evolved, these techniques or processes were replaced with
cellulose acetate, commonly referred to as camera film. As with all inventions or technology,
photographic technology has become very sophisticated, easy to use, and for the most part,
inexpensive. That is why the portable camera has made
the job of photographic documentation so much easier and desirable. However, with film, there
was still one major drawback. One could not instantly see the photograph one was trying to
capture. Newer technology, such as Polaroid instant cameras, soon filled the void of immediacy.
However, with the immediacy of the photograph, certain sacrifices had to be made such as
quality and longevity. The photos taken with the Polaroid-type cameras could not capture the
quality depth of field and the photos were not long-lasting. As the technology evolved, so too have
the types of cameras, to the point that today we have good quality digital cameras that allow us to
immediately view that which we have just photographed. If the photograph does not capture
sufficient information, another photograph can be immediately taken. The quality and affordability
of the digital camera is attainable by most law enforcement and governmental agencies today. It is
also said that film, as we know it today, will be replaced with digital photography due to cost,
dependability, usability, and storage. However, cameras are not always present during the
commission of crimes, although
that is changing with the advent of the mini-cam or the video/digital recorder, as well as the
ubiquitous digital phone. An ideal systematic method of identification combines the features of a
sketch, a photograph, and other methodology to document the specificity of an individual, a
location, or an event.
The first such documented system, which combined the photograph and physical
description, was a system developed by Alphonse Bertillon, circa 1883. This system became
known as Bertillonage or anthropometry. The system consisted of four parts, anthropometry (body
measurements), portrait parlé (spoken picture or verbal description), photographs, and
fingerprints.
Bertillonage
Anthropometry consisted of taking specific body measurements metrically and classifying
those measurements into small, medium, and large. That information was then recorded and
placed on index cards and filed. The body measurements consisted of the length of arms, sitting
height, caliper measurements of the head, right arm, left foot, left middle finger, left forearm, and
right ear. When measuring women, measurements of the head, left foot, and elbow were
excluded. For boys and young men, classification was according to the color of eyes and details of
ears.
Bertillon's Principle of Anthropometry

 1. The human skeleton is unchangeable after the twentieth year. (Thigh bones grow but the
spine curves to compensate.)
 2. It is impossible to find two human bones exactly alike.
 3. Necessary measurements could easily be taken with the aid of simple instruments
(calipers).

The other part of Bertillonage was known as portrait parlé, which literally means “spoken picture”
or physical description. This part of the system consisted of four parts.

 1. Determination of color of the left eye, hair, beard, and skin.

 2. Morphological determinators such as shape, direction, and size of every part of the head.
 3. General determinators such as grade of stoutness, carriage, voice, language, dress, social
standing, height, and weight.
 4. Description of indelible marks such as birth marks, scars, and tattoos.

Bertillon also required the use of a full face and profile photo which were affixed to the cards. And
finally, Bertillon affixed fingerprints to the rear of the index cards; however, Bertillon always
championed his anthropometry as a means
of identification. Oddly enough, it was fingerprints, which Bertillon recorded, that were responsible
for the ultimate demise of the anthropometrical system.
Shortcomings of the Bertillon system of identification were the cause of the demise of the
system in its totality. Examination of the Bertillon system reveals the following shortcomings:

 1. The system was limited to adults, as the theory espoused by Bertillon said the skeleton
remained unchanged after the twentieth year. What about those persons under the age of
twenty? Although provisions were made for children, the provisions proved insignificant.
 2. The system was often marked by significant differences in measurements of the same
criminal by different examiners. As with any repetitious task, often the practitioner became
complacent and was not as vigilant as one would desire.
 3. Soft property of the ears resulted in that portion of anthropometry being dropped.
 4. The system was extremely slow (measuring devices consisted of calipers and similar
measuring devices, which in and of themselves were laborious to use).
 5. The West Case of Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, 1903. Will West was sentenced to prison, and
when being processed was accused of being William West on the basis of his physical
appearance and anthropometrical measurements. William West was called from the prison
population where he was serving a life sentence for murder. The appearance of the two men
was striking and their physical attributes were identical. Fingerprints were then taken in an
attempt to determine identity. When compared, the prints did not match. Were they two twins
who had never met? The two Wests were African American and it has been speculated that
they may have been the offspring of slaves, separated at birth, and had never met until this
fateful day.
Although there were shortcomings to the Bertillon system, there were values established that are
still in use today. The values established by Bertillonage were:

 1. Establishment of a full face/profile fixed-scale photograph. (Today the addition of numbers

on the photographs serve as an additional identification marker.)
 2. Establishment of the use of a detailed description (portrait parlé/physical description).
(General descriptors such as height, weight, race, age, and specific descriptors such as scars,
marks, and tattoos are used.)
 3. Establishment of the concept of repeated subdivision of data for ease of filing and searching
(gathering information and categorizing it in a systematic form).
 4. Demonstration that fingerprints could be used to individualize identity.

Although Bertillon promoted the idea of a systematic method of identification, the shortcomings of
his system gave rise to what would become the most widely used method of identification and
individualization worldwide for the next eighty years: fingerprints. Technology did not come to the
forefront for purposes of individualization through bodily fluids until the 1980s with the advent of
the use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Fingerprints
The use of fingerprints began in earnest as a method of identification in the late 1800s and
early 1900s with the establishment of fingerprint classification systems. To thoroughly understand
fingerprint identification and the
methodology associated with the process, it is necessary to understand the terminology
associated with fingerprints that has been established. 
Definitions Associated with Fingerprints

 Dactylography, a Greek term that translates as “finger writing.”

 Dactyloscopy, a Greek term that translates as “to view the fingers.”
 Dermatoglyphics, a Latin term that translates as “skin carving.”

How, one might ask, do these terms apply to fingerprints? The terms are all associated with the
fingers in one way or another and demonstrate that the pursuit of knowledge of fingerprints has
been around for centuries. The modern
day equivalent or usage of these terms can be converted into the scientific study of fingerprints for
the purpose of identification.

 Fingerprint—The impression or reproduction left on any material by the friction skin of the
fingers. Most often we see the impression left by the fingertips or the bulb of the fingers. But
the friction skin covers the entire area of the inner hand (the palm) and fingers.
 Palm print—The impression or reproduction left on any material by the friction skin of the
palms.
 Footprint/toe print—The impression or reproduction left on any material by the friction skin of
the foot (feet) or toe (s)

It should be noted that friction skin is found on the hands and the feet of individuals. The friction
skin is the outer layer of skin that contains many of the elements and characteristics we use to
identify and individualize a print.

 Friction skin—The skin on the inner hands and fingers, and on the bottom of the feet and
toes, which is characterized by alternating strips of raised ridges and furrows arranged in a
variety of patterns. The friction skin is found on both humans and anthropoids. In lower
mammals, friction ridge patterns are sometimes similar to ours. Friction surfaces are
sometimes padded in apes. The purpose of the friction skin, as the name implies, is to provide
resistance so that those surfaces containing friction skin will be able to grasp objects. The
 friction skin forms during the third or fourth month
of fetal growth (approximately 120 days). The process by which friction skin develops is
through the formation of small islands surrounding pores, which then develop to form ridges.
 Friction ridge—The raised portion of the skin that leaves the impression or reproduction.
 Furrow—That portion of the skin lower and between the ridges.

A cross-section of the friction skin illustrates the various parts and layers of the skin.

1. Epidermal layer: outer layer

a) Stratum corneum: surface skin
i. Friction ridges, furrows, and pores
ii. 1 to 2 mm thick
b) Stratum mucosum (Malpighi—inner skin)
i. Programs/forms outer skin
2. Dermal layer: (inner layer/2nd layer)
a. Dermal papillae
i. Determines ridge structure
b. Sweat glands and ducts
c. Nerves of touch (sensors)
d. Fat

Friction skin is permanent. That is, the skin does not change under normal conditions from the
time of formation until decomposition after death. The exception is that, like other parts of the
anatomy, the fingerprints or friction skin will get larger as the body grows. The specific
characteristics will remain the same, however. Friction skin will deteriorate with age as well as all
skin, but classification and identification normally will not be affected. There is an adage that is
often used to describe the permanence: under normal wear and tear, the friction skin will remain
unchanged throughout one’s life. 
Friction skin destruction (temporary or permanent) encompasses: An injury penetrating into the
dermal layer (second layer of skin), through the dermal papillae, will result in the ridges not being
regenerated. Scar tissue will form to the extent that the damage occurred, and only those ridges in
the path of the injury should be permanently affected.
Injuries to the epidermal layer (first or outer layer) will repair themselves as they were prior to the
injury, for example, paper cuts.
There are many instances in legend where allegedly people have sanded, burned, or surgically
altered their fingerprints with permanent results. Research has demonstrated what effect different
techniques have on the appearance of fingerprints.
Self-induced injuries cannot remove all ridges or the hands would be too severely injured to be
used. What one must understand is that friction ridges cover the entire surface of the inner hands
and bottom of the feet.
If the pattern area alone were disfigured, classification might be affected, but identification or
individualization would not. In all likelihood, the pattern would be made more unique which would
make identification and individualization
that much easier.
Other alterations to the friction skin whether it be surgical, occupational, or medical can have an
impact on the appearance. Examples are:
Skin grafts would result in either the old pattern being regenerated as the graft skin wore away or
the graft area remaining smooth. A new pattern would not occur.
Occupational wear might wear down the ridges, but the cessation of the work will result in the
ridges becoming distinct again.
Disease can have an effect on the fingerprints as well; such as in the latter stages of leprosy, the
skin may flake off and the pattern may be lost. Allergic reactions may have an effect on the ridges
in that a temporary change may occur but when the reaction disappears, ridges should return to
their configuration. Other conditions such as warts, creases, or calluses may be present but
seldom affect classification and rarely, if ever, affect identification.
Based on the foundation and fundamentals of the aforementioned information, a basis of the
science of fingerprints was established:
1. Every finger contains ridge detail which is unique to that finger and no other.
2. Unique ridge details do not change (except in size) from approximately 120 days (3-4 months)
after conception until decomposition after death.
3. A set of fingerprints lends itself to classification and therefore can be filed and searched.
Whether the system be manual or automated does not matter.
Fingerprint classification—The process of assigning a formula, consisting of numbers and
letters, to a set of fingerprints determined by the pattern interpretation and ridge detail of the
fingerprints themselves.
Fingerprint identification (individualization)—The process of determining that the same finger
made two or more impressions based on the friction ridge details of both impressions (to the
exclusion of all others).

Basic Principles of Fingerprint Science

3 DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES

 PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY

This principle states that the complex of the ridge details in a single fingerprints or even part of one
is not duplicated in any other finger. The patterns may look similar but if a close scrutiny is made,
their specific ridge details are very different from one another. This was spoken by Galton when he
mentioned about the Minutiae of fingerprints or the Galton’s Details.
 PRINCIPLE OF PERMANENCY (A.K. A. Perreniality/Persistency/Constancy)

This states that fingerprints do not change in its ridge characteristics of FP pattern throughout or
life time of an individual and they persist after DEATH until the skin is decomposed. Ridge
characteristics are formed prior to birth and remain constant through life except for growth and
deep scarification. Skin condition such as warts and blisters are temporary impairments caused by
certain occupations, e.g. bricklayers, carpenters, have no permanent effect and the individual
characteristics revert to their natural alignment once the temporary skin condition has been
corrected.

 INFALLIBILITY

 This states that fingerprint is absolute and cannot be forged. It means that when a person is
identified by means of fingerprints, it is positive and conclusive. The person may not deny that the
fingerprints are not his own. However, as experiences dictate, many FP experts are attacked on
their credibility and the accurateness of the processes he had made in order to arrive to such
conclusion. Lawyers would not question the principle but rather on the expertise of the technician.
Many of them would find loophole on the procedures done not on the accurate principle.

HISTORICALBACKGROUND OF FINGERPRINTS
IMPORTANT RECORDS /EVENTS ON F.P.

 Nova Scotia – prehistoric picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was discovered
 Ancient Babylon – FP were used in clay tablets for business transactions.
 Ancient China – thumb prints were found on clay seals. . Some of these seals can be seen in
the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D.C.. (TANG DYNASTY, 618-907)

EMPEROR Te’ in Shi (BC 246-210) – the first Chinese ruler who devised a seal carved from a
white jade. Fingerprints during this time were used in business transaction as a sign of
acknowledgement of purchase.
To the Chinese, fingerprints are known as Hua Chi. Slices of matches of fingerprints are kept to
preserve the identity of people.  The arches are known as Lo (snail) and Loops as Ki
(sieve/basket). The loops are called upon as presage of good luck.

 Persia, 14th century, various official gov’t papers had FP (impressions) and one gov’t official, a
doctor, observed that no two FP were exactly alike.

EARLY PUBLICATIONS CONCERNING FINGERPRINTS

 1686, Marcello Malpighi, (Grandfather of Dactyloscopy) a professor of anatomy at the

University of Bologna, noted in his treaties; ridges, spirals and loops in fingerprints. He made
no mention of their value as a tool for individual identification.
 1823, John Evangelist Purkinji, (Father of Dactyloscopy) a professor of anatomy at the
University of Breslau, published his thesis discussing 9 FP patterns but he too made no
mention of the value of FP for personal identification. The 9 patterns are named:
o Transverse curves (plain arch)
o Central Longitudinal stria (tented arch)
o Oblique stripe (ulnar or radial loop)
o Oblique loop (ulnar or radial loop)
o Almond (whorl)
o Spiral (whorl)
o Ellipse-elliptical whorl (whorl)
 o Circle-circular whorl (whorl)
o Double whorl (Twin loop)

  1858, William Herschel, an English civil servant (India), required natives to sign contracts
with an imprint of their right hand – Hindu custom?
 In 1880, Scottish physician, Henry Fauld wrote that skin ridge patterns could be important in
identification work. A thief left his fingerprint on a whitewashed wall – compared with 1 st suspect
- No match; compared with 2nd suspect with positive association. He recommended the use of
thin film of printers ink as a transfer medium and is generally used today.
 During 1880’s, Sir Francis Galton, a British anthropologist and a cousin of Charles Darwin,
began his observations of FP as a means of identification. In 1892, he published his
book, “FINGERPRINTS”, establishing the individuality and permanency of FP. The book
included the first classification system of FP. Proposed three pattern types: loops, whorls and
arches.  Galton identified the characteristics by which FP can be identified. The same
characteristics (minutiae) are basically still in use today and are often referred to as
the Galton’s detail.
 FRANCIS GALTON mentioned that No two prints are identical. An individual’s prints remain
unchanged from one year to the next.
 1788 – J.C.A. MAYER - He found that the fingerprints of two persons are never alike. The
ridges have similarities but never duplicated. (Principle of Individuality)
 1856 – HERMAN WELCKER took the prints of his own palm in 1897 (forty one years later) he
printed the same palm to prove that the prints do not change. (Principle of Permanency)
 1891, Juan Vucitech, an Argentine Police Official, began the first FP files based on Galton
pattern types. 1892, he made the first criminal fingerprint identification. He was able to identify
a woman by the name of Francisca Rojas, who murdered her two sons, and cut her own throat
in an attempt to place blame on other. Her bloody print was left on a door post, proving her
identity as the murderer.
 SIR EDWARD HENRY, an Englishman who, In 1897, proposed another classification system
which is still in use today. Most English-speaking countries use some version of Henry’s
classification system. The system was so applicable that Henry emerged as the “Father of
Modern Fingerprint Science”, at least, as the first man who successfully applies fingerprints for
identification.
 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used his own FP on a
document to prevent forgery. This is the first known use of FP in the U.S.

FP IN THE UNITED STATES

 1901 – First systematic use of fingerprints adopted by the New York Civil Service
Commission(Dr. Henry DeForrest-1902)
 1903 – New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of FP in U.S. for
Criminals. Captain James Park of that institution installed the identification system where the
fingerprints of prisoners were taken and classified and the fingerprint system was officially
adopted in June of that year.
 1904 – American police received training in fingerprint techniques from Scotland Yard’s
representatives

FINGERPRINT IN THE PHILIPPINES

 GARRY JONES was the first one to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the Philippine
Constabulary sometime in the year 1900.
 The Bureau of Prison records show that of the year 1918 CARPETAS (commitment and
conviction records) already bear fingerprints. The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed
by the Philippine Constabulary was Generoso Reyes, Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York
City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C. Guerrero of the Federal Bureau of
 Investigation, Washington, D.C. gave the first examinations in fingerprints in 1937. The first
Filipina Fingerprint Technician was Isabela Bernales.
 On December 23, 1933, the first conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme
Court of the Philippines in the case of People of the Philippines versus Medina and was
considered the leading judicial decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence concerning the science
of fingerprinting.

LEGALITY OF FINGERPRINTS
It is a universal knowledge that fingerprint is the most positive means of personal identification. As
such, fingerprint as evidence is accepted in every court of justice in any part of the globe. Pioneers
in the science of fingerprints like Galton and Locard believe in the (although very remote like in 1
in 64 billion or 1 in 3 trillion) law of probability in the duplication of fingerprints in two individuals.
The following are decided cases regarding fingerprint used as evidence.
In 1911, an Illinois court, in the case of People vs. Jennings [252 III. 534, 96 NE 1077 (1911)]
pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence.

  In that case, fingerprint evidence was admitted as a means of personal identification. It was
also held that persons experienced in the matter of fingerprint identification may give their
opinions as to whether the fingerprints found at the scene of the crime correspond with those
of the accused.

New Jersey, State v. Cerciello, in which fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced.

 In the Cerciello case, the defendant argued that it was an error to allow the testimony of the
experts explaining the comparison of fingerprints obtained from the defendant voluntarily with
those fingerprints found upon a hatchet near the body of the deceased when the body was
discovered.
 The New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals held, “in principle, its admission as legal
evidence is based upon the theory that the evolution in the practical affairs of life, whereby the
progressive and scientific tenderness of the age are manifested in every other department of
human endeavor, cannot be ignored in legal procedure.
 But that the law in its effort to enforce justice by demonstrating a fact in issue, will allow
evidence of these scientific processes which are the work of educated and skillful men in their
various departments, and apply them into the demonstrations of fact, leaving the weight of the
effect to be given to the effort and its results entirely to the consideration of the jury”, [State v.
Cerciello, 86 NJL 309, 90 Atl. (1914)].

In the case of State v. Conners [87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl. 812 (1915)] it was held competent to show
by a photograph the fingerprints upon the balcony post of the house entered, without producing
that post in court, and to show by expert testimony that the fingerprints found on the post were
similar to the fingerprints of the defendant.
In the case of Lamble v. State [Lamble v. State, 96 N.T.L. 231; 114 Atl. (N.J) 346 (1991)] which
involved the discovery of fingerprints on the door of an automobile, the court was of the opinion
that it was not necessary to produce the door, it should be sufficient along with the identification of
the fingerprints by an expert to show these of the defendant. The court referred to the previous
decided case of State v. Conners.
In the case of Commonwealth v. Albright, [101 Pa. Sup. C.L. 317 (1931)] a fingerprint expert
testified that the fingerprint on a piece of glass, establish to be from a pane in a door that had been
broken to effect entrance to the house was the same as the impression of the defendant’s left
index finger and he explained in detail the points of identity which led him to that judgment. In the
Albright case, the court stated, “it is well settled that the papillary lines and marks on the fingers of
every man, woman and child posses an individual character different from of any other person and
that the chances that the fingerprints of two different persons maybe identical are infinitesimally
remote.
In a California case, People v. Corral [224 cal. 2d 300 (1964)], the court stated, “It is completely
settled law that fingerprints are the strongest evidence of the identity of the person”. The Doctrine
was reasserted in another California case, People v. Riser [47 cal. 2d 566 (1956)] in which the
court stated, “fingerprint evidence is the strongest evidence of identity and is ordinarily sufficient
alone to identify the defendant”.
The US Supreme Court in the case of Schmerber v. California [Schmerber v. California, 384 US,
757, 763, 764 (1966)], held that the introduction into evidence of fingerprint impression taken
without consent of the defendant was not an infringement of the constitutional privilege against self
incrimination.  The high court held that it is constitutional to obtain real or physical evidence even if
the suspect is compelled to give blood in a hospital environment, submit to fingerprinting,
photographing or measurement, write of speak for identification, appears in court, stand or walk,
assume a stance or make a particular gesture, put on a cloth that fits him, or exhibit his body as
evidence when it is material. The Schmerber case points out the fact that the privilege against self
incrimination is related primarily to “TESTIMONIAL COMPULSION’’.
In the Philippines, several decided cases could be cited where fingerprints evidence was admitted,
considered and appreciated by the appellate courts with even lesser number of ridge similarities.
In the BILANGWA V. AMADOR case, (Court of Appeals No. 37320-b), a fingerprint expert and
constabulary sergeant testified and successfully defended fingerprint evidence based on eight
identical ridge points.
People v. Medina 59 Phil. 330

 The first leading judicial decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence on the Science of
Fingerprinting.

Historical Figures and Anthropometry

Background
Many historical figures have contributed to the science of fingerprint identification. It is
important to be able to identify key historical figures and their contributions to fingerprint analysis.
A fingerprint analyst may be asked about the history of the science in a court of law or in
professional certification and proficiency tests. Modern forensic scientists have the option of taking
certification exams to test their knowledge of not only their science but also the development of the
science. Historical figures and scientific achievements played a key role in the development of
fingerprint analysis and criminal identification.

One of the first methods of criminal identification was anthropometry: the identification of an
individual using biological measurements. Bertillonage—named for Alphonse Bertillon—was the
name given to the anthropometric method of identification and classification of arrestees.
Measurements of body features such as the head, ears, arms, and legs were compiled on a card
known as a Bertillonage card. This card featured a photograph (what we now call a “mug shot”)
surrounded by anthropometric measurements (See first figure).
Anthropometry was abandoned in the early nineteenth century because it was not a reliable
method of individualization. It is possible for two individuals who are similar in appearance to have
similar measurements. Fingerprints, however, are a reliable form of individualization. Fingerprint
cards replaced Bertillonage cards as the primary records of criminal identification and
classification and are still the preferred criminal records in use today.

Materials
• Bertillonage Card (See sample below)
• Digital camera
• Computer
• Printer
• Scissors
• Tape or glue
• Measuring implements (tape measure, ruler, cloth measuring tape)
• Pen or pencil

Exercise
Anthropometry—Bertillonage Cards
1. Ask someone to take your digital photograph (head and shoulders).
2. Upload the photograph to a computer.
3. Resize the photograph to 3″ × 3″ and print it out.
4. Cut and adhere the photo to the center of the Bertillonage card (follow format below).
5. Record the following anthropometric measurements on Bertillonage card (Use a Short Bond
Paper): Scan your outputs and upload. (You can accomplish the card directly on a word document
whichever is more convenient)
a. Height
b. Length of the left ear
c. Width of the left ear
d. Length of the right little finger
e. Measurement of wingspan (from the left middle finger to the right middle finger when the arms
are held
parallel to the ground)
f. Length of the left index finger
g. Length of the left forearm
h. Length of the left foot

Week 2-3:FINGERPRINT PATTERN

RECOGNITION AND INTERPRETATION
GENERAL GROUP OF F.P. PATTERNS
 The following are the three general groups of patterns as described by Sir Francis Galton.

 ARCHES – ridges flow from one side and make an exit to the other side.
 LOOPS – ridges make a recurve and goes back to the same side of origin.
 WHORLS – ridges make a circuit.

From the general sets of pattern, come the 8 specific patterns namely:

 THE ARCH FAMILY (5%)

o Plain Arch 60%
o Tented Arch 30%
 THE LOOP FAMILY (60%)
o Radial Loop 6%
o Ulnar Loop 94%
 THE WHORL FAMILY (35%)
o Plain Whorl 71%
o Central Pocket Loop Whorl 13%
o Double Loop Whorl13%
o Accidental Whorl 3%

 Ideally, before interpretation, identify first the pattern area and type lines. These make the
classification of fingerprints easier since they are the ones defining the actual extent of the
patterns, hence making them the starting points of classification.
 
WHAT IS A PATTERN AREA?
 The pattern area is that part of a loop or whorl in which appear the cores, deltas, and ridges
with which we are concerned in classifying. 
 The space inside the type lines where the pattern is located.
 The pattern area is the only part of the finger impression with which we are concerned in
regard to interpretation and classification. It is present in all patterns, of course, but in many
arches and tented arches it is impossible to define. The pattern areas of loops and whorls
are enclosed by type lines.
In what group of patterns, a pattern area can be located?
 Only the patterns loops and whorls have pattern areas
 Arches have no pattern areas because it is very difficult to define
WHAT ARE TYPE LINES?
It may be defined as the two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge, and surround or tend to
surround the pattern area.

ARE TYPELINES ALWAYS CONSISTING OF TWO CONTINUOUS RIDGES?

 No, Type lines ARE NOT ALWAYS two continuous ridges. In fact, they are more often found to be
broken. When there is a definite break in a type line, the ridge immediately outside of it is
considered as its continuation. (Examine the figure below)
***Sometimes type lines may be very short. Care must be exercised in their location.

NOTA BENE:
When locating type lines it is necessary to keep in mind the distinction between a divergence and
a bifurcation
A bifurcation is the forking or dividing of one line into two or more branches.
A divergence is the spreading apart of two lines which have been running parallel or nearly
parallel.
According to the narrow meaning of the words in fingerprint parlance, a single ridge may bifurcate,
but it may not be said to diverge. Therefore, with one exception, the two forks of a bifurcation may
NEVER constitute type lines.
EXCEPTION:
When the forks run parallel after bifurcating and then diverge. In such a case the two forks
become the two innermost ridges required by the definition.

In the figure below, ridges A and B are two separate ridges that converged. Therefore it cannot be used as
the pair of the other type line because the requirement must be two diverging lines. The correct typelines
are ridges C and D.
Remember this:
Angles are NEVER formed by a single ridge but by the abutting of one ridge against another.
Therefore, an angular formation cannot be used as a type line.

THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

Loop Pattern
- A loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges enter on either
side of the impression; recurve, touch, or pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to the
core; and terminate or tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression from
which such ridge or ridges entered.
- Requirements of a loop: A loop pattern must possess the following essentials:
• A delta and core
• A sufficient recurve
• One or more ridge count across a looping ridge
Recurving (Looping) Ridge
- A ridge that curves back in the direction in which it started.
Sufficient Recurve
- part of a recurving ridge between the shoulders of a loop that is free of any appendages
abutting upon the outside of the recurve at right angles.
Shoulder of a Loop
- are the points at which the recurving definitely turns inward or curves.
Appendage
- at the top or summit
Absence of one element- the pattern is considered TENTED ARCH
The delta:
A delta may be:
• Bifurcation—To be chosen, the bifurcation must open toward the core.
• An abrupt ending ridge
• A dot
• A short ridge
• A meeting of two ridges
• A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center and in front of the
divergence of the type lines.
Radial and Ulnar Loops
 1. The terms have been derived from radial/radius and ulnar/ulna bones of the forearm.
a. Loops flowing in the direction of the little finger are ulnar loops.
b. Loops flowing in the direction of the thumb are radial loops.
i. Fingerprint cards
ii. Right hand: Position as on the hand
iii. Left hand: The reverse
c. For purposes of automated use, loops are termed either a right slanted (those
patterns where ridges flow to the right) or left slanted (those patterns where ridges
flow to the left).
2. Determining the direction of flow:
a. Begin at the core and follow or trace the ridges away from the delta.
b. From the recurve to the open end of loop.
Other Issues Pertaining to Loops
1. Sufficient recurve: That part of a recurving ridge between the shoulders of a loop. It must
be free of any appendage abutting upon the outside of the recurve at right angles.
2. If a ridge enters on one side of the impression, recurves, and passes an imaginary line
drawn between the delta and core but does not terminate on the side from which it entered,
but has a tendency to do so, the pattern is a loop.
3. The recurve may take unusual forms.
4. The recurving ridge does not begin at the edge of the print, but possesses all the
requirements of the loop.
5. The recurving ridge enters from one side, recurves and turns back on itself. This is a loop
pattern.
Loop Frequency
 Ulnar (94%)
 Radial (6%)
Plain Arch and Tented Arch Patterns
The Plain Arch
- The ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or tend to flow out the other with a
rise or wave in the center. There may be various ridge formations such as ending ridges,
bifurcations, dots, and so forth, but they all tend to follow the general ridge contour. The
“crest” of an arch is the highest point reached by the rising friction ridge. Most often that will
be in the middle of the friction ridge. The plain arch is also known as an absence of
pattern (the plain arch has no delta, no real core as in a loop, nor can a ridge tracing be
conducted as in a whorl pattern)
The Tented Arch
- Most of the ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or tend to flow out on the
other side, as in the plain arch; however, the ridge or ridges at the center do not.
- It possesses either an angle, an upthrust or, two of the three basic characteristics of the
loop (loop type).

There are three types of tented arches.

1) The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angle of 90 degrees or less.
2) The type in which one or more ridges at the center form an upthrust. An upthrust is an
ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plane, that is, 45
degrees or more.
The Loop Type Tented Arch
3) The type approaching the loop, possessing two of the three basic essential characteristics,
but lacking the third.
i. The mere converging of two ridges does not form a recurve, without which there can
be no loop.
ii. The presence of the slightest upthrust at the center of the impression is sufficient to
make the pattern a tented arch.
iii. The upthrust must be an ending ridge. It cannot be a continuation of a curving ridge.
Test for upthrust: If the ridges on both sides of the ending ridge follow direction or flow
trend of the upthrust, the print may be classed as a P/A. If, however, the ridges on only one
side follow its direction, it is a T/A.
iv. An appendage or spike abutting upon a recurve at right angles in the space between
the shoulders of a loop on the outside is considered to spoil the recurve.
Arch Frequency
 Plain (60%)
 Tented (40%)
The Whorl Pattern
- A whorl is that type of pattern in which at least two deltas are present with a recurve in front
of each.
- At least one ridge makes (or tends to make) a complete circuit (oval, spiral, circular or any
variant of a circle)
Types: The plain whorl, the central pocket loop whorl, the double loop whorl, and the accidental
whorl.
Plain Whorl
- Consists of one or more ridges which make a complete circuit with two deltas between
which, when an imaginary line is drawn, at least one recurving ridge within the inner area is
cut or touched.
- A plain whorl possesses two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete circuit, which
may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle'
1) The type lines for both deltas does not have to be the same ridge.
2) An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch or cross at least one of the
recurving ridges within the inner pattern.
Central Pocket Loop Whorl
- Consists of at least one recurving ridge
- Or an obstruction at right angle to the line of flow
- With two deltas, between which
- When an imaginary line is drawn no recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is cut or
touched.
Combines the features of both loops and whorls.
1) The pattern looks like a loop but has a small whorl inside the loop ridges.
2) It has two deltas, one at the edge of the pattern area, and one inside the pattern area just
below the centermost ridges (inner delta).
3) It fulfills the requirements of the loop with one or more whorl ridges around the core.
4) This pattern is sometimes called a bulb or flower for obvious reasons.
The central pocket loop has two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete circuit, which
may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle
 1. One or more of the simple recurves of the loop type usually recurve a second time to form a
pocket within the loop (inside delta).
2. This does not have to be a continuation of the first ridge or connected to it. Example: Loop
convergence
a. An imaginary line between the inner and outer delta must not touch or cross any of
the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area.
b. In lieu of a recurve in front of the delta in the inner pattern area, an obstruction
at right angles to the line of flow will suffice.
c. The obstruction may be curved or straight, connected or unattached to the recurve.
d. A dot cannot be considered an obstruction.
e. The inner line of flow is determined by drawing an imaginary line between the inner
delta and the center of the innermost recurve or looping ridge.
f. A true recurving ridge does not have to cross the line of flow at right angles; an
obstruction does.
g. If the recurve or obstruction has an appendage at the point of intersection of the line
of flow, at the delta side, it is spoiled.
Double Loop Whorl
1. A double loop whorl is a pattern that consists of two separate loop formations
with two separate and distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas (2 × 2 × 2)
The loops may be connected by an appendaging ridge provided that it does not abut on the
loop at right angles between the shoulders, spoiling it.
2. The loops do not have to conform to the ridge count requirement of a plain loop.
3. It is not essential that both sides of a loop be of equal size or length.
4. It is not material from which side the loops enter. The loops may enter from either side or
both from the same side.
Accidental Whorl
- a pattern consisting of a combination of two different types of patterns, with the exception of
the plain arch, with two or more deltas, or a pattern which possesses some of the
requirements for two or more different types, or a pattern which conforms to none of the
definitions
If there is an issue between two types of patterns in the whorl pattern or ridges which conform to
more than one subdivision, the order of priority in preference is:
1) Accidental
2) Double loop
3) Central pocket loop
4) Plain

VIDEO LECTURE FINGEERPRINT PATTERN RECOGNITION

Ridge Characteristics

- Identification of fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain

ridge characteristics, also known as Galton details, points of identity, or minutial points
with a reference print, usually an inked impression of a suspect’s print. The light areas of
fingerprint are called furrows while the dark areas are called ridges.

Basic and composite ridge characteristics (minutiae)

1. A ridge ending is one end of a long island. The island is long enough that the ends are
not easily recognized as being from the same island.
 2. A bifurcation is where the ridge path divides forming a Y shape with legs having the
same length.
3. A ridge dot, one ridge unit, is the shortest of all island and the building block of the
friction ridge.
4. An island in strict usage is the ultimate abbreviation or ridge structure, a unit bearing
but one sweat pore.
5. A lake (enclosure) is a bifurcation which does not remain open but which the legs of
the bifurcation after running along side for a short distance come together to form a
single ridge once more.
6. A spur is where the ridge path divides, and one branch comes to an end (leg is shorter).
7. An incipient ridge is an unusual type of ridge found in small percentage of patterns.
They are short, narrow, and badly formed ridges found between two well-formed and
full-bodied ridges which is frequently interrupted.
8. A short ridge has two or more ridge units with both ends easily recognized as being
from the same island.
9. A ridge bridge (cross) is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
10. A double bifurcation is a bifurcation where one of the ridge path bifurcates.
11. A trifurcation is a when two bifurcations develop next to each other on the same ridge,
a unique formation.
12. An opposed bifurcation are bifurcations found on both ends of a ridge.
13. A ridge crossing is the point where two ridges crosses each other forming an “X”
formation.
14. An overlap is where two ridges ends meet and overlap each other without connecting.
Type Line and Pattern Area

- Type lines or skeleton of pattern are two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge,
and surround or tend to surround the pattern area. They serve as basic boundaries of a
fingerprint pattern.
- Pattern Area is the part of a fingerprint pattern in which the core, delta and ridges appear
enclosed by the type lines.
Core and Delta Location

- The core and delta are the focal points of fingerprint patterns except in arch pattern.
- The core is a point on the ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of the
pattern. The core is also known as inner terminus.
- A delta or outer terminus is a point on the ridge formation at or directly in front or near the
center or the divergence of the type lines.
Rules in Core Location

RULE 1- the core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

RULE 2- if the innermost sufficient recurve does not contain any rod or bar, the core is placed on
the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.

RULE 3- if the innermost sufficient recurve contains odd number of rods/bars rising as high as
the shoulders, the core is placed upon the summit/END of the center rod, whether it touches the
looping ridges or not.

RULE 4- if the innermost sufficient recurve contains even number of rods/bars rising as high as
the shoulders, the core is placed upon the summit of the farther one of the two center rods.

Rules in Locating Delta in a Fingerprint Pattern

RULE 1- the bifurcation that is open towards the core is chosen as the delta.

RULE 2- when there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation
selected.

RULE 3- if there are series of bifurcation opening towards the core, equally close to the point of
divergence of the type lines, the delta nearest to the core shall be selected.

RULE 4- when there are two or more possible deltas which conform to the definition, the one
nearest the core is chosen.

RULE 5- the delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type lines
toward the core, but at the nearest end only.

Forms of Deltas

1. Dot
2. Bifurcation
3. Ending ridge
4. Meeting of two ridges (angle)
5. Point of the first recurving ridge
6. Opening of the bifurcation

EARLY PUBLICATION CONCERNING

FINGERPRINTS
 1684 – Nehemiah Grew published a report which was read before the royal society of London,
England. He describes the ridges and pores of the hands and feet.
 1685 – G. Bidloo published a treaty describing sweat pores and ridges.
 1883 – Mark Twain’s Book – “Life on the Mississippi” a murderer was identified by the use of
fingerprint.
- Pudd’n Head Wilson – a dramatic court trial on fingerprint was portrayed.
 1858 – William Herchel an English civil servant (India), required natives to sign contracts with an
imprint of their right hand – Hindu custom?
1. Alphonse Bertillon – Father of personal identification
2. Johannes Evangelist Purkinje – Father of Dactyloscopy
3. Edward Richard Henry – Father of modern fingerprint science recognize in the world.
4. Juan Vuccetich – father of fingerprints in Argentina.
5. Marcello Malpighi – Grandfather of fingerprints.
6. Dr. Edmond Locard – Father of Poroscopy.

What phalange contains the fingerprint pattern?

Phalange – digital bones in the hands and feet of most vertebrates.

 TERMINAL – tip/1st digit

 MIDDLE – 2nd digit
 BASAL/PROXIMAL – 3rd digit
  It is NOT possible to determine the age, sex or race of an individual solely from their fingerprints.
 Statistically in young adults, friction ridges of women are significantly finer than those of men.
 Fine ridges may be found in the very young and the very old.
 Manual labor tends to strengthen ridges.
 Women tend to perspire at a lower rate than men.
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) is lower for women.
 Creases are more common in women’s Fingerprints.

SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTS
 The most positive means of personal identification
 Offers an Infallible (unerring) means of personal identification. This is an essential explanation for
their having supplanted other methods of establishing identity of criminals reluctant to admit
previous arrest.
 Other personal characteristics change but fingerprints do not.
 Friction skin/ridge
 Pattern/designs/formations appear on the finger tips, palm of the hand and soles of the feet
5 months before birth.
 As SCIENCE
 The identification of person by means of the ridges appearing on the fingers, on the palms and on
the soles of the feet.

THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

Loop Pattern
Definition: A loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges enter on
either side of the impression; recurve, touch, or pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to the
core; and terminate or tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression from which
such ridge or ridges entered. Requirements of a loop: A loop pattern must possess the following
essentials:
• A delta and core
• A sufficient recurve
• One or more ridge count across a looping ridge
A sufficient recurve can be defined as that part of a recurving ridge between the shoulders of a
loop that is free of any appendages abutting upon the outside
of the recurve at right angles.
The delta:
• A delta may be:
• Bifurcation—To be chosen, the bifurcation must open toward the core.
• An abrupt ending ridge
• A dot
• A short ridge
• A meeting of two ridges
• A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center and in front of the divergence of
the type lines.
Radial and Ulnar Loops
1. The terms have been derived from radial and ulnar bones of the forearm.
a. Loops flowing in the direction of the little finger are ulnar loops.
b. Loops flowing in the direction of the thumb are radial loops.
i. Fingerprint cards
ii. Right hand: Position as on the hand
iii. Left hand: The reverse
c. For purposes of automated use, loops are termed either a right slanted (those patterns where
ridges flow to the right) or left slanted (those patterns where ridges flow to the left).
2. Determining the direction of flow:
a. Begin at the core and follow or trace the ridges away from thedelta.
b. From the recurve to the open end of loop.
Other Issues Pertaining to Loops
1. Sufficient recurve: That part of a recurving ridge between the shoulders of a loop. It must be
free of any appendage abutting upon the outside of the recurve at right angles.
2. If a ridge enters on one side of the impression, recurves, and passes an imaginary line drawn
between the delta and core but does not terminate on the side from which it entered, but has a
tendency to do so, the pattern is a loop.
3. The recurve may take unusual forms.
4. The recurving ridge does not begin at the edge of the print, but possesses all the requirements
of the loop.
5. The recurving ridge enters from one side, recurves and turns back on itself. This is a loop
pattern.
Plain Arch and Tented Arch Patterns
The Plain Arch
Definition: The ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or tend
to flow out the other with a rise or wave in the center. There may be various
ridge formations such as ending ridges, bifurcations, dots, and so forth, but
they all tend to follow the general ridge contour. The “crest” of an arch is
the highest point reached by the rising friction ridge. Most often that will
be in the middle of the friction ridge. The plain arch is also known as an
absence of pattern (the plain arch has no delta, no real core as in a loop, nor
can a ridge tracing be conducted as in a whorl pattern)
The Tented Arch
Definition: Most of the ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or
tend to flow out on the other side, as in the plain arch; however, the ridge or
ridges at the center do not
There are three types of tented arches.
a. The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angle of 90 degrees or less.
b. The type in which one or more ridges at the center form an upthrust. An upthrust is an ending
ridge of any length rising at a sufficient
degree from the horizontal plane, that is, 45 degrees or more.
c. The type approaching the loop, possessing two of the three
basic essential characteristics, but lacking the third.
i. The mere converging of two ridges does not form a recurve,
without which there can be no loop.
ii. The presence of the slightest upthrust at the center of the
impression is sufficient to make the pattern a tented arch.
iii. The upthrust must be an ending ridge. It cannot be a continuation
of a curving ridge. Test for upthrust: If the ridges
on both sides of the ending ridge follow direction or flow
trend of the upthrust, the print may be classed as a P/A. If,
however, the ridges on only one side follow its direction, it
is a T/A.
iv. An appendage or spike abutting upon a recurve at right
angles in the space between the shoulders of a loop on the
outside is considered to spoil the recurve.
The Whorl Pattern
Definition: A whorl is that type of pattern in which at least two deltas are
present with a recurve in front of each.
Types: The plain whorl, the central pocket loop whorl, the double loop
whorl, and the accidental whorl.
Plain Whorl
A plain whorl possesses two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete
circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle'
1. The type lines for both deltas does not have to be the same ridge.
2. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch or
cross at least one of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern.
Central Pocket Loop Whorl
Combines the features of both loops and whorls.
1. The pattern looks like a loop but has a small whorl inside the loop
ridges.
2. It has two deltas, one at the edge of the pattern area, and one inside
the pattern area just below the centermost ridges (inner delta).
3. It fulfills the requirements of the loop with one or more whorl
ridges around the core.
4. This pattern is sometimes called a bulb or flower for obvious
reasons.
Definition: The central pocket loop has two deltas and at least one ridge making
a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a
circle
1. One or more of the simple recurves of the loop type usually recurve
a second time to form a pocket within the loop (inside delta).
2. This does not have to be a continuation of the first ridge or connected
to it. Example: Loop convergence
a. An imaginary line between the inner and outer delta must not touch
or cross any of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area.
b. In lieu of a recurve in front of the delta in the inner pattern area,
an obstruction at right angles to the line of flow will suffice.
c. The obstruction may be curved or straight, connected or unattached
to the recurve.
d. A dot cannot be considered an obstruction.
e. The inner line of flow is determined by drawing an imaginary
line between the inner delta and the center of the innermost
recurve or looping ridge.
f. A true recurving ridge does not have to cross the line of flow at
right angles; an obstruction does.
g. If the recurve or obstruction has an appendage at the point of
intersection of the line of flow, at the delta side, it is spoiled.
Double Loop Whorl
A double loop whorl is a pattern that consists of two separate loop formations
with two separate and distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas (2 × 2 × 2)
1. The loops may be connected by an appendaging ridge provided that
it does not abut on the loop at right angles between the shoulders,
spoiling it.
2. The loops do not have to conform to the ridge count requirement of
a plain loop.
3. It is not essential that both sides of a loop be of equal size or length.
4. It is not material from which side the loops enter. The loops may
enter from either side or both from the same side.
Accidental Whorl
An accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different
types of patterns, with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas,
or a pattern which possesses some of the requirements for two or more different
types, or a pattern which conforms to none of the definitions
If there is an issue between two types of patterns in the whorl pattern or
ridges which conform to more than one subdivision, the order of priority in
preference is:
1. Accidental
2. Double loop
3. Central pocket loop
4. Plain

RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS AND

PATTERN RECOGNITION
Ridge Characteristics

 Identification of fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain ridge
characteristics, also known as Galton details, points of identity, or minutial points with a reference
print, usually an inked impression of a suspects print. The light areas of fingerprints are called
furrows while the dark areas are called ridges.

Basic and Composite Ridge Characteristics (minutiae)

 A ridge ending is one end of a long island. The island is long enough that ends are not easily
recognized as being from the same island.

 A bifurcation is where the ridge path divides forming a Y shape with legs having the same length.

 A Ridge Dot, one ridge unit, is the shortest of all islands and the building block of the friction ridge.

 An island in strict usage is the ultimate abbreviation or ridge structure, a unit bearing but one sweat
pore.
 A lake (enclosure) is a bifurcation which does not remain open but which the legs of the bifurcation
after running along side for a short distance come together to form a single ridge one more.

 A spur is where the ridge path divides and one branch comes to an end (leg is shorter).

 An Incipient Ridge is an unusual type of ridge found in small percentage of patters. They are short,
narrow and badly formed and full-bodies ridges which is frequently interrupted.

 A short ridge has two or more ridge units with both ends easily recognized as being the same
island.
 A ridge bridge (cross) is a connecting ridge between two ridges.

 A double bifurcation is a bifurcation where one of the ridge path bifurcates.

 A trifurcation is a when two bifurcations develop next to each other on the same ridge, a unique
formation.

 An opposed bifurcation are bifurcations found on both ends of a ridge.

  A ridge crossing is the point where two ridges cross each other forming an “X” formation.

 An Overlap is where two ridges ends meet and overlap each other without connecting.

Type Line and Pattern Area

 Type lines or skeleton of pattern are two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge, and
surround or tend to surrounds the pattern area. They serve as basic boundaries of a
fingerprint pattern.
 Pattern Area is the part of a finger pattern in which the core, delta and ridges appear
enclosed by the type lines.

Core and Delta Location

 The core and delta are the focal points of fingerprint patterns except in arch pattern.
 The core is point on the ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of the pattern. The
core is also known as inner terminus.
  A delta or outer terminus is a point on the ridge formation at or directly in front or near the center or
the divergence of the type lines.

RULES IN CORE LOCATION

RULE 1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

RULE 2. If the innermost sufficient recurve does not contain any rod or bar, the core is placed in the
shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.

RULE 3. If the innermost sufficient recurve contains odd number of rods/bars rising as high as the shoulder,
the core is placed upon the summit/END of the center rod, whether it touches the looping ridges or not.
RULE 4. If the innermost sufficient recurve contains even number of rods/bars rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the farther one of the two center rods. (Farther from the delta)

RULES IN LOCATING DELTA IN A

FINGERPRINT PATTERN
RULE 1. The bifurcation that is open towards the core is chosen as the delta.

RULE 2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation selected.
RULE 3. If there are series of bifurcation opening towards the core, equally close to the point of divergence
of the type lines, the delta nearest to the core shall be selected.

RULE 4. When there are two or more possible deltas which conform to the definition, the one nearest the
core is chosen.

RULE 5. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type lines toward the
core, but at the nearer end only.
Forms of Deltas

1.Dot

2.Bifurcation

3.Ending Ridge

4.Meeting of two Ridges

5. Point of the first recurving ridge

6. Opening of the Bifurcation

FINGERPRINT PATTERN
RECOFNITION AND
INTERPRETATION
Week 4: Ridge Formation
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS/MINUTIAE OF FINGERPRINTS
THE GALTON’S DETAILS

 BIFURCATION
 BRIDGE
 CROSSOVER
 FRAGMENT
 RIDGE ENCLOSURE
 RIDGE ENDING
 RIDGE HOOK/SPUR
 SHORT RIDGE

 BIFURCATION- single ridge which splits into two ridges, going side by side or parallel to each
other
 RIDGE HOOK – ridge that divides to form two ridges; one connecting ridge which splits at the
side is extremely shorter than the other.
 RIDGE ENDING – the termination of the ridge
 RIDGE ENCLOSURE – is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which then rejoin again to form a
single ridge. (island/lake/eyelet)
 SHORT RIDGE – a ridge of limited length
 FRAGMENT – a ridge of extremely short length (not more than 3 mm)
 BRIDGE– connects two adjacent ridges
 CROSS OVER – the interlapping of two ridges against each other
 
OTHER TYPES OF RIDGE FORMATION
Recurving Ridge – is a ridge that curves back in the direction in which it started.
 Converging Ridges – two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end is angular
and serves as a point of convergence.
 Diverging Ridges – two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridges going
one way and the other ridge, another way.
 Sufficient Recurve – the space between shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and
abutting right angle.
 Appendage – a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
 Core – is a point on a ridge formation located at the center or heart of a pattern.
Delta or Tri-radial Point – is a point on the ridge formation at or directly in front or near the center
of the divergence of the type lines.
 Rod or Bar – is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
 Envelop - is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
 Staple – single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
 Creases – are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or formed side to side,
across the print, causing the puckering of the ridges.
Incipient or Nascent Ridge – this is a kind of ridge which is badly formed, thin, short or broken
which appear or appears in the depressions between two well formed ridges.

Focal Points
FOCAL POINTS OF FINGERPRINTS
Within the pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal points which are used to
classify them. These points are called delta and core. The delta and core are the two most
important points in classification aside from the typelines and pattern area. These differentiate one
pattern from another pattern.
THE DELTA
It is otherwise known as “tri-radius”, “outer terminus”. It is the first obstruction at or in front of and
nearest the center of the point of divergence of the type lines. So to speak, the delta is
obviously located at the point of divergence of the two type lines. The delta is comparable to the
small island found in the middle of the river which water flows towards the lake.

  
The island on the mouth of the river is known as the delta. Its shape resembles that of the letter
“D” (∆) in the Greek alphabet meaning “Delta”.
The delta may appear in the pattern area in any of the following ridge characteristics:

 A bifurcation
 A short ridge
 An ending ridge
 A convergence
 A dot
 A point in the first recurving ridge or a long ridge.

In figure below, the dot marked "delta" is considered as the delta because it is the first ridge or part
of a ridge nearest the point of divergence of the two type lines. If the dot were not present, point B
on ridge C, as shown in the figure, would be considered as the delta.

RULES IN DELTA SELECTION

 Rule 1.  The Delta may not be located at the bifurcation which does not open towards the core.
Rule 2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation is selected.

Rule 3. If there are series of bifurcation opening towards the core, equally close to the point of
divergence of the type lines, the delta nearest to the core shall be selected.

  Rule 4. When there are two or more possible deltas which conform to the definition, the one nearest the
core is chosen.
Rule 5. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type lines toward the
core, but at the nearer end only.

THE CORE
 It is otherwise known as the “inner terminus” and is known as the approximate center of the
fingerprint impression. It will be necessary to concern ourselves with the CORE OF THE LOOP
TYPE ONLY. Whorl patterns do not require that the core be located so as the family of arch
pattern.

RULES IN CORE LOCATION

Rule 1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

Rule 2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the
shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.  
Rule 3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or not.

Rule 4.  When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center rods, the two center rods
being treated as though they were connected by a recurving ridge.

Ridge Tracing and Ridge Counting of Loops and Whorls

RIDGE COUNTING

 The process of counting the intervening ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the
core and delta.
 The number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core is known as the ridge count.

***NOTE: It applies only to loops

GUIDELINES IN RIDGE COUNTING

 An imaginary line is drawn between delta and the core.

 Neither delta nor core is counted.
 In the event there is a bifurcation of a ridge exactly at the point where the imaginary line would be
drawn, two ridges are counted.
 Where the line crosses an island, both sides are counted.
 Fragments and dots are counted as ridges only if they appear to be as thick and heavy as the other
ridges in the immediate pattern.

RIDGE TRACING
The method of ridge coursing using two deltas as the focal points. The technique of whorl tracing
depends upon the establishment of the focal points—the deltas. Every whorl has two or more.
When the deltas have been located, the ridge emanating from the lower side or point of the
extreme left delta is traced until the point nearest or opposite the extreme right delta is reached.
The number of ridges intervening between the tracing ridge and the right delta are then counted.
 PROCEDURES:
 Tracing always commence from the point of the left delta, but never on the lower type line.

 Tracing goes across the pattern following the lower contour of such pattern till it ends at a relative point
nearest to the right delta.
 If the traced ridge ends, drop perpendicularly to a point on a ridge found below and continue the tracing.

If the traced ridge reached the relative point nearest the right delta, and goes above or inside it
and there are three or more ridges intervening between such ridge and the right delta = INNER
WHORL Tracing (I)
If the traced ridge reached the relative point and goes above or below the right delta with one or
two ridges intervening between such delta and the traced ridge, or if the traced ridge run directly to
the right delta = MEETING WHORL Tracing (M)
If the ridge traced passes outside (below) the right delta, and three or more ridges intervene
between the tracing ridge and the right delta, the tracing is designated as an "OUTER WHORL”
Tracing (O)
Whenever the ridge traced bifurcates, the rule for tracing requires that the lower limb or branch
proceeding from the bifurcation be followed.
Accidentals often possess three or more deltas. In tracing them only the extreme deltas are
considered, the tracing beginning at the extreme left delta and proceeding toward the extreme
right delta.
In a double loop or accidental the problem of where to stop tracing is sometimes presented.
Week 5-6
Henry System
As with any method of classification, the purpose of classifying fingerprints is to establish a set
protocol to utilize for searching, filing, and comparison purposes. This protocol provides an orderly
method with which to go from the general to the specific. As an example, how would one begin to
search for a fingerprint pattern if that pattern has not been cataloged? Questions would certainly
arise: What type of pattern are we trying to locate? Is the pattern a loop, whorl, or arch? Is there a
specific flow to the pattern? If the pattern is a loop, is it a large or small count loop flowing to the
left or to the right? If the pattern is a whorl, does it have an outer, inner, or meet trace value?
Some of these basic questions give us direction to understand the need to have a method by
which to search.

Henry with FBI Extension

One of the first, and certainly the most noted, of the classification systems was a system named
for Sir Edward Henry. This identification system, when originally developed and implemented,
consisted of four parts: primary, secondary, sub-secondary, and final. The system has since
undergone changes and now includes an FBI (U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation) and the NBI
(National Bureau of Investigation) extension which changes the original configuration from four to
six categories. There is a seventh if a second sub-secondary is used. Since the introduction of
technology and various automated fingerprint identification (AFIS) systems, this method has come
to be known as the manual method. In later parts of the lesson, AFIS systems are discussed. As
with any process that is newly introduced, with the Henry system of classification being no
exception, the need to practice and understand the system is tantamount. The current
components of the Henry system are:

1. Key: The ridge count of the first loop appearing on the card, excluding little fingers.
2. Major: The ridge count or trace value of the thumbs.
3. Primary: The numeric value of each finger containing a whorl pattern.
4. Secondary: Capital letter indicating the pattern of index fingers.
5. Sub-secondary: Values of counts and traces of loops and whorls of the index, middle, and
ring fingers.
6. Final: Ridge count of loops appearing on the little fingers.
An example of the form of the Henry classification appears below:

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION (THE

HENRY SYSTEM)
 CLASSIFICATION- The process of obtaining a formula for a set of fingerprint pattern where
it may be located in the filing cabinet
 CLASSIFICATION FORMULA- The numerical description of a set of classified fingerprints
which is composed of figures and letters and written on a horizontal way like fraction.
 BLOCKING- It is the process of writing below each fingerprint pattern the corresponding
symbol of its name.
- Where does the information come from for classification? The known fingerprint
card gives us the necessary information. Knowing how to read and insert the
appropriate information onto the fingerprint card is important. The process
whereby the information is inserted onto the card is known as blocking.
- Blocking the card consists of inserting the appropriate information consisting of
numbers, letters, and symbols in the appropriate places on the card. Below is an
example of layout and position of the fingers on the fingerprint card.
 Filing – An orderly manner of starting the card and grouping each card ad filing un a
specific sequence according to the final classification formula.
 Searching – An attempt to locate in the file a print identical to the current print an thus
established identification.

STEPS IN CLASSIFICATION
1. Recording – Simply means the taking of fingerprint impression.
2. Interpretation – Simply means the naming or interpreting of a fingerprint pattern.
3. Blocking – it means designing by symbol the type of patterns which each finger and thumb bears and
recording for each respective finger and thumb.
Classification – This refers to the classification proper this time you need a complete set of 10 fingerprint patterns to
obtain the necessary classification.

Blocking – it is the process of writing below each fingerprint pattern the corresponding symbol of its name.

Symbols used in Blocking:

 A – plain arch
 T – tented arch
 R – radial loop ( /  for right hand) ( \ for left hand)
 U – ulnar loop ( / for left) ( \ for right hand)
 W – plain whorl
 C – central pocket loop whorl
 D – double loop whorl
 X – accidental whorl
 AMP - Amputated
Note:

W – is used for all types of whorl  but if the pattern is found on both INDEX, individual sign is used.

/ - is used for loops but if found on both index, individual sign is used.
Based on the fingerprints and their interpretation, the following information should be
placed on the card in the appropriate places.
1. Index fingers—A, T, R, W, U as decided by the interpretation. Placed under the index
fingerprint. Note: A = arch, T = tented arch, R = radial loop, W = whorl, U = ulnar loop ( \ / ).
2. Other fingers—Small letters as appropriate (i.e., a, t, r). Placed under all fingerprints except
index fingerprints.
3. Ulnar loops—Diagonal slash in the direction of flow.
4. Whorls—W where appropriate.
5. Counts or traces—In the upper right corner of the box.
6. Reference if necessary (giving an alternative).

DIVISION OF THE FINGERPRINT

CLASSIFICATION (Henry System)
Primary Classification
Secondary classification
 CAPITAL LETTER GROUP (intended for our INDEX fingers only)
 Small letter group (intended for th other digits of our hand)

PATTERN SYMBOL
Radial Loop r
Plain Arch a
Tented Arch t

Sub-secondary classification (index, middle, ring) exept arch patterns

WHORLS: I-M-O System

I (Inner) 3 or more interviewing ridges inside or in front of
the right delta
M (Meeting) 2 or less interviewing ridges whether inside/in
front or outside/below the right delta
O (Outer) 3 or more interviewing ridges below or outside of
the right delta

LOOPS:
Index Finger I (Inner) 1-9
O (Outer) 10 or more
Middle Finger I (Inner) 1-10
O (Outer) 11 or more
Ring Finger I (Inner) 1-13
O (Outer) 14 or more

Major classification (Thumbs only)

LOOPS:
Table A:
S (small) 1-11
M (medium) 12-16
L (large) 17 or more
 Table B:
S (small) 1-17
M (medium) 18-22
L (large) 23 or more

Final classification (Little Fingers only) (Right Hand:Left Delta, Left Hand:Right Delta)
Key classification (Ridge count of the first loop, appearing on the set of fingerprint card)

Key classification (Ridge count of the first loop,

appearing on the set of fingerprint card)Primary
Division
To begin the process of manual classification, one starts with the Primary. Remember, the Primary
is the numeric value of the finger where a whorl appears. Any type of whorl is assigned a value.
Ridge tracing does not enter into the primary classification. The numeric value was established
with the advent of the Henry system. Whatever finger the whorl appears on, that finger assumes
that value of the square. Upon adding up the numbers, always add 1 to the value (the numeric
chart appears below). Even number fingers, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 are registered above (numerator)
the classification line. Odd number fingers 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 are registered below (denominator) the
line.

The method of obtaining the primary can probably be shown best by illustrations. For example,
assume that there is a whorl in the right index finger only. The value of a whorl in this finger is 16.
When 1 over 1 is added the resulting primary is 17 over 1. If a whorl appears in the right thumb
and right index finger, the value is 16 over 16 plus 1 over 1 giving a primary of 17 over 17.

Steps in deriving the primary classification

1) By pairing (1&2, 3&4, 5&6, 7&8, 9&10)
2) By assigning no. Values (1&2=16, 3&4=8, 5&6=4, 7&8=2, 9&10=1)
3) By summing up the numbers
4) By adding the pre-established arbitrary count
Follow illustrations below
Secondary Division
The Secondary portion of the classification indicates the pattern type of the index fingers and is
always indicated by a capital letter. 

 A = arch
 T = tented arch
 R = radial loop
 U = ulnar loop
 W = whorl
The designation of the capital letters will always be right hand over left hand on the classification
line. The secondary portion of the classification will be indicated by placing the information
immediately to the right of the primary classification. 

There is also a secondary, small letter grouping.  Let us first look at the small letter groupings.
Whenever an arch, tented arch, or radial loop appears in other than the index fingerprints, those
patterns are indicated by a small letter:

Plain Arch= a

Tented Arch= t

Radial Loop=r

The small letter groups should appear next to the capital letter of the secondary in the sequence in
which they occur. For example, if the fingerprint of an index finger is a whorl, and that of the
middle finger is a tented arch, the small t would then be placed to the immediate right of the whorl
in order of its appearance on the card. If the thumb were an arch, for example, the small letter
indicator would then appear to the immediate left of the index finger. In the secondary
classification, the index finger can be seen as the anchor and all small letter group patterns appear
to the right or left of the index finger.
When two or more of the small letters occur next to each other, it is indicated by a number with the
letter

Where there is a small letter group in the secondary, the subsecondary and major divisions are
dispensed with. It should also be noted that approximately 7 to 10 percent of all patterns are small
letter types.

Small letter groups can lend themselves to confusion. Remember, the small letter groups are
indicated in the classification where they appear on the card with the index finger as the anchor
indicated by a capital letter.

Sub-secondary Division
Sub-secondary Division
 ridge counting in loops- inner or outer (IO)
 Ridge tracing whorls- inner, meeting, outer(IMO)
* Index, middle and ring fingers excluding the little finger.

The Subsecondary division of the classification is the grouping of ridge count and/or whorl trace
symbols for the index, middle, and ring fingerprints appearing on the card. For classification
purposes, the right hand is indicated above the line, the left hand is indicated below the line. The
subsecondary division appears to the immediate right of the secondary division on the card. The
subsecondary is indicated by a letter.

To determine which symbol will be used to indicate the ridge count for a loop pattern, a conversion
of ridge counts into a letter must be done and that letter placed onto the classification. The
conversion chart is:

Ridge Count Conversion

 Index finger: 1 to 9 inner (I); 10+ outer (O)

 Middle finger: 1 to 10 inner (I): 11+ outer (O)
 Ring finger: 1 to 13 inner (I): 14+ outer (O)
Whorl ridge tracings are indicated by the value of the tracing:

 (I) = Inner—3 or more ridges inside or in front the right delta

 (M) = Meet—0, 1, or 2 ridges inside or outside the right delta
 (O) = Outer— 3 or more ridges below or outside the right delta

Major Division
1. MAJOR DIVISION
Obtained by:

 Ridge counting of loop patterns (SML)

 Ridge tracing of whorl patterns (IMO)
 Found in the THUMB only
LOOP MAJOR DIVISION
- If found in both thumb of both hands, the ridges are counted and compared to the table for
loop division.
TABLE I - IF LEFT THUMB IS 16 or LESS

 1-11 = small (S)

 12- 16 = medium (M)
 17 or more = large (L)
TABLE II- IF THE LEFT THUMB IS 17 OR MORE

*AUTOMATICALLY, THE DENOMINATOR IS LARGE (L)

 1-17 = small (S)

 18-22 = medium (M)
 23 and above = large (L)

WHORL MAJOR DIVISION

 If found on both thumbs of both hands
 Ridges are traced and symbols I (inner), M (meeting), O (outer) are used

COMBINATION OF LOOP AND WHORL PATTERN DIVISION

- Ridge count the loop (SML symbols are used)
- Ridge trace the whorl (IMO symbols are used)

Final Division
FINAL CLASSIFICATION

 The ridge count of the loops and whorls on the little fingers of both hands.
 Arches are represented by a dash.

The final division may be placed above (numerator) the classification line if the loop appears in the
right little finger. If the loop appears in the left little finger, the ridge count will be placed below
(denominator) the classification line. The final can not consist of both fingers; The final will consist
of one or the other. In large whorl sections, whorls can also be counted but this is rare.
However, if a whorl is chosen to be included, there are rules that must be adhered to. The
following rules apply when using whorls as the final.
 If the whorl appears on the right hand, • one counts from the left delta to the core.
 If the whorl appears on the left hand, one counts from the right delta to the core.
 If there are two cores, count from the delta to the core which is the fewest number of ridges
away.
 If the pattern is a double loop, count from the delta to the core of the upright loop.
 If loops are horizontal, use the one nearest core.

Key Division
KEY CLASSIFICATION
It is the ridge count of the first loop pattern appearing on the fingerprint card except for the two
little fingers.
The key consists of the count of the first loop appearing on the card excluding the little fingers. The
little fingers are reserved for inclusion in the final. The designation for the key is always indicated
above the line farthest to the left on the classification.

Classification of scarred, amputated and similar

conditions
What happens if the prints one is taking are not clear and legible? What happens if the pattern
cannot be determined or if there are temporary or permanent injuries to the person being
fingerprinted. How does one deal with these issues? How does one classify these types of
fingerprints? As with other aspects of the Henry system, provisions have been made for just such
occasions. The following information addresses special issues related to fingerprints.

Classification of Scarred Patterns

When the following cannot be determined                                   Give

a. Pattern type and value______________________________Class of opposite finger

b. Pattern only______________________________________Pattern of opposite finger with
actual value and reference
c. Count or Trace value_______________________________Probable with reference
d. Opposite fingers scarred____________________________Meeting whorls

Classification of Amputated Fingers

Missing fingers                                                                                Class

a. One____________________________________________Same as opposite with all

references
b. Two or more___________________________________Same as opposite with no
references
c. Opposite________________________________________Meeting whorls
d. Fingers missing at birth are treated as amputations

Classification of Bandaged and Unprintable Fingers

 One lacking—All references—opposite fingers.
 Two or more—Opposite class with no references.
 Opposites—Meet whorls.
 If pattern can be seen, it can be described. “Ulnar loop of about 9 ridge count.”
 Make all possible attempts to print the individual when the injuries healed.

Week 8 & 9: Known Fingerprints

Known Fingerprints
In order to analyze friction ridge skin, one must first record the pattern digitally or with fingerprint
ink or powder. The resulting records are known as exemplars or known prints. They are also
known as inked prints, record prints, or standards. Known fingerprints are recorded for four
reasons:

1. To serve as an official record of a person’s identity

2. To search for a match to a prior arrest record
3. To compare to unknown, or latent, fingerprints
4. To input into the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) for subsequent
searches
It is therefore important to take comprehensive records of the friction ridge skin in order to provide
the best possible exemplars for identification purposes.

Records of the friction ridge skin on the fingers, finger joints, palms, and even feet and toes may
be needed for identification. Records of fingers, palms, the writer’s palm (side of the hand), and
the joints, tips, and sides of fingers are known as major case prints. The three most common
methods of recording friction ridges are inked impressions, powdered impressions, and digital
scans.

Inked Fingerprint Records

The most common medium for recording friction ridge skin is ink. Inked fingerprints are recorded
on tenprint cards. Tenprint cards are 8″ × 8″ printed white cards formatted to official government
specifications. A tenprint card, such as the card pictured in Figure 1, contains demographic
information along with the fingerprints of each of 10 fingers (Figure 1). Each finger is rolled in ink
and subsequently rolled into the corresponding box on the tenprint card. The finger is rolled from
“nail to nail” to capture the entire friction ridge surface. This means the finger must be rolled from
one side of the finger (at the nail) all the way around to the other side of the nail (Figure 2). A
fingerprint rolled from nail to nail should be roughly rectangular in shape (Figure 3).

The fingerprints should be rolled with the individual standing slightly back from the table with the
arm bent at an approximate 90° angle. When the thumb is rolled, the subject’s hand is rotated
toward the body. When the fingers are rolled, the subject’s hand is rotated away from the body.
This allows the hand to be manipulated from the point of most to least resistance. The individual
taking the fingerprints controls the subject’s hand to ensure the most comprehensive fingerprint
record is taken. If the subject attempts to assist by moving his own fingers, the prints will be
smudged or incomplete.

The four fingers of the right hand and left hand are inked and recorded simultaneously at the
bottom of the tenprint card along with impressions of the thumb. These impressions are known as
the flats, slaps, or plain impressions. The flats of the four fingers together are placed in the
section of the tenprint card labeled “four fingers taken simultaneously.” The sections for the flats of
the thumbs are labeled “R. thumb” and “L. thumb.” It is important to record information here that
may not be available in the previously mentioned rolled prints, such as the ridge detail in the
fingertips. This is accomplished by lifting the thumb and fingers up to the tips when the flats are
inked and recorded.
Figure 1.   A tenprint card with demographic information.
 Figure 2.   Rolling a fingerprint in ink onto a tenprint card.

Figure 3. The rectangular shape of a comprehensive record of an inked fingerprint rolled from nail
to nail.

Ink is the traditional medium for recording fingerprints, palm prints, and major case prints. The
following materials are used for recording fingerprints using ink

(Figure 4):

 Gloves
 Ink pad (or a light layer of ink rolled out onto a glass slab)
 Tenprint card
 Fingerprint card holder
 Re-tabs (correcting labels for if you make a mistake when rolling the fingerprints)
 Hand cleaner/wet wipes
 Figure 4 Materials for recording known fingerprints in ink onto a tenprint card. 

The process of collecting rolled fingerprint records in ink from a suspect is as follows:
1. Set up the card in the card holder so the first row of boxes is clearly visible and the card is
secure (Figure 5).
2. Take control of the subject’s right hand.
3. Roll a thin layer of ink onto the right thumb (Figure 6).
4. Roll the right thumb onto the corresponding box on the tenprint card with light, even
pressure.
5. Repeat with the remaining fingers (Figure 7).
6. Record the flats by pressing the four fingers of the right hand lightly onto the ink pad and
rolling the fingers upward to ink the tips of the fingers (Figure 8).
 Figure 5. A tenprint card secured in a card holder.

Figure 6. Rolling a thin layer of ink onto a suspect’s hand.

Figure 7. Rolling inked fingers onto a tenprint card.

 Figure 8. Recording the four fingers of the hand simultaneously on a tenprint card.
7. Press the four fingers onto the flats section of the card with light pressure and roll the
fingers upward to record the tips of the fingers (Figure 9).
8. Press the right thumb lightly to the ink pad and roll the thumb upward to ink the tip of the
thumb.
9. Press the right thumb lightly to the area designated for the thumb flats and roll the thumb
upward to record the ridge detail on the tip of the thumb (Figure 10).
10. Repeat this procedure for the left hand.
It may also be necessary to record the palm of the subject. The palm is coated with a light layer of
ink and recorded on a white sheet of paper or a palm print card as shown in Figure 11. The
writer’s palm, the section of the meaty side of the hand that rests on a surface when one holds a
pen or pencil, is also recorded. This area of the palm is known as the hypothenar.
 Figure 9. Rolling the inked fingers upward to record the tips of the fingerprints on a tenprint card.

Figure 10. Recording the thumb on a tenprint card.

Fingerprints from Deceased Individuals

It is often necessary to collect postmortem exemplars from deceased individuals for identification
purposes. In the case of the recently dead, fingerprint acquisition is a simple process. Ink or
powder may be used to record the fingerprints. For inked fingerprints, postmortem print kits are
available. They include fingerprint strips and a postmortem record strip holder, often referred to as
a “spoon” (Figure 1) This tool makes it easier to roll the fingerprints of the corpse laid out in a
supine position. The Handprint System may also be used for recording postmortem friction ridge
skin. The acetate sheet is cut into squares slightly larger than the finger to be recorded. Each
finger is powdered, recorded, and documented individually (Figure 2).

There are several challenges to fingerprinting individuals who are in more advanced stages of
decomposition. One challenge occurs when the subject is in rigor mortis. Rigor mortis is the
stiffening of the body, which can occur 2–4 h after death and develops fully between 6 and 12 h
postmortem (Figure 3).  Rigor mortis occurs when metabolism stops with the cessation of cellular
respiration after death. 2 Without adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy source for the body,
the muscles can no longer contract. The deceased subject’s hands may be completely stiff and
inflexible. In this case, the rigor can be “broken” forcibly at each finger joint. The fingers are then
printed using ink or powder.

1. Materials for inking fingerprints of deceased individuals.

 2. A powdered fingerprint from a deceased individual.

3. The fingers of this decedent are curled and stiffened by rigor mortis.
Decomposing friction ridge skin undergoing putrefaction, maceration, or mummification presents a
more challenging scenario. Putrefaction is the breakdown of the cells of the human body after
death by bacteria and fungi. Maceration occurs when skin is submerged in water and the tissues
become swollen.1 Friction ridge skin may loosen from the dermal layer. Mummification occurs
when the skin is dehydrated. The friction ridge skin is dried, leathery, and shriveled.
 4. Burned and putrefied friction ridge skin.
Putrefied friction ridge skin is fragile (Figure4). It may be moist and peeling off in layers. Prior to
attempting to ink or powder the finger, the area must be cleaned and dried. At this point, it may be
possible to ink the finger and collect useable fingerprints. If the skin is separating from the dermis,
the recorder may choose to remove the skin and roll it with his gloved finger. This must be done
with great care since the decomposing skin is fragile and tears easily. If the skin is too badly
decomposed for these techniques, the fingers can be soaked in a 10% solution of formaldehyde.
Formaldehyde solution firms up the putrefied skin, after which it may be recorded with ink or
powder.

Macerated skin may be swollen and wrinkled. It may be possible to clean, dry, and record the
fingerprints in the usual manner using powder or ink. If the skin is too wrinkled, it may be stretched
slightly in order to record more ridge detail. Another option for dealing with wrinkled skin is to inject
glycerin or a product known as “tissue builder” under the skin. This procedure puffs up the finger
thus eliminating the wrinkles. The liquid may leak, so it is recommended to tie a string or secure a
rubber band just above the injection site. If the skin is loosened from the dermis, it may be
recorded similar to the putrefied skin by removing it and placing it on the recorder’s gloved hand
for rolling with ink.

Mummified skin, also referred to as desiccated skin, must be rehydrated prior to recording with
ink or powder (Figure 5). The fingers can be severed from the hand and soaked in a 1%–3%
solution of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide for 24–48 h. If the skin is peeling, the outer
layers can be removed gently under warm running water with a soft-bristled toothbrush.1 If the
skin is stiff, the fingers may be soaked for a further 24–48 h in a solution of one tablespoon of
dishwashing liquid in water. When the skin is rehydrated, it is recorded using ink or powder.
 5. Mummified skin during the rehydration process.
Decomposed skin may also be recorded using white silicone casting material. Fingerprint
powder is applied to the clean, dry finger. The silicone casting material is mixed according to
the manufacturer’s directions and applied to the finger. When it hardens, it can be gently
peeled off the finger surface (Figure 6). Regardless of the method utilized, great care should be
exercised when working with fragile skin.
 6. Silicone casting material with a black powdered fingerprint.

Learning Resources- Nature of Latent

Fingerprints
With dramatic suddenness, he struck a match, and by its light exposed a stain of blood upon
the whitewashed wall. As he held the match nearer, I saw that it was more than a stain. It was
the well-marked print of a thumb.
-Sherlock Holmes Fingerprint Matrix
            Latent fingerprints are left on a surface when friction ridges coated with a substance such
as sweat or contaminants are deposited on a substrate or surface. This is analogous to an ink
pattern left by a rubber stamp. The rubber stamp is coated with ink, and the ink is pressed to a
surface, thereby duplicating the stamp pattern. The substance coating friction ridges are made up
mostly of sweat, but may also be any combination of lotion, grease, soap, or anything else an
individual touched. These substances are known collectively as the fingerprint matrix.
The fingerprint matrix is predominantly comprised of sweat. An average of 2–4 L of fluid is
secreted per hour from the sweat pores of the body. Most of the sweat evaporates. Sweat is
produced in coiled up glands in the skin (see figure below). A gland is a “tubular-shaped structure
with a duct portion that coils in helical fashion down deep into the dermis layer.” The glands found
in the friction skin, known as eccrine glands, form during embryological development. They
develop between 8 and 32 weeks of fetal development.  There are three types of sweat glands in
the human body that produce three different types of sweat: apocrine, sebaceous, and eccrine.
Each of these glands is produced in different parts of the body. Apocrine sweat is found in the
genital and armpit regions. Sebaceous sweat is associated with regions of the body containing
hair follicles, including the face and scalp. When the face or hair is touched, the friction ridges are
coated with sebaceous sweat. The third type of sweat, eccrine sweat, is associated with friction
ridge skin.
Eccrine sweat is secreted from pores found along the friction ridges of the hands and feet. There
are 3–4 million eccrine sweat glands in the human body. An individual doing strenuous exercise in
a warm environment may secrete up to 10 L of sweat from his eccrine glands. Eccrine sweat is
over 98% water. The remaining components are excretory products including the following organic
and inorganic compounds: ammonia, magnesium, iodide, bromide, fluoride, cobalt, manganese,
sulfur, mercury, phosphate, sulfate, iron, zinc, copper, lead, molybdenum, tin, urea, sodium
lactate, proteins, lipids, cholesterol/fatty acids, and 22 amino acids.
Sebaceous sweat, known as sebum, is secreted from pores associated with hair follicles. Sebum
is composed of mostly lipids. De Paoli et al. identified more than 300 components of sebum in
sebaceous fingerprints. The lipid constituents include fatty acids, wax esters, squalene, and
cholesterol. Latent fingerprints often contain a mixture of eccrine and sebaceous sweat, but they
also include other contaminants from surfaces touched during the day. Contaminants may include
lotions, cosmetics, soap, or grease.
The composition of fingerprints is especially important when determining which chemical reagent
to use to visualize latent fingerprints. Most fingerprint reagents react with amino acids, lipids, or
sodium lactate. Regardless of the chemical or physical development method used, latent prints
must be visualized to compare them with exemplars.

Substrate
          The substrate is the surface the latent print is deposited on. Substrates are variable in
texture and contour. A substrate may be smooth or rough, flat or curved, porous or nonporous.
Porous surfaces are absorbent: permeable to gases or liquids. Examples of porous surfaces
include paper, cardboard, and unfinished woods. Nonporous items are nonabsorbent.
Examples of nonporous surfaces include glass, plastic, or metal.
          Rough or highly textured surfaces are not ideal for fingerprint collection with chemical
reagents or fingerprint powders. When a latent fingerprint is deposited on a rough surface, such as
the grip of a gun or a window screen, the minutiae are not recorded in detail. The pattern is
interrupted by the texture of the surface.
          When friction ridges come into contact with a nonporous item, a fingerprint may be
deposited on the surface. It will stay on the surface unless it is wiped off or obliterated by
environmental or other physical forces. That makes fingerprints on nonporous surfaces fairly
fragile. Both chemical reagents and fingerprint powders are used to develop fingerprints on
nonporous substrates. Since fingerprints are mostly composed of sweat, they are easily absorbed
into porous substrates. Therefore, they are more stable than latent prints deposited on nonporous
items. These fingerprints are developed using chemical reagents that permeate the substrate (see
figure below).

Aging Latent Prints

In some cases, an investigator may want to know how long the latent fingerprint has been
on a surface. For example, a fingerprint recovered from the interior of a stolen vehicle is identified
to a suspect. The suspect insists he did not steal the car. Instead, he asserts he test-drove that
exact car a year prior. How can we test his assertion? Is it possible to “age” fingerprints or
determine how long they have persisted on a surface? As of present, there is no scientific
method for directly dating latent print residues.
Sometimes, it is possible to date a latent print indirectly because of the circumstances in
which it is deposited. For example, a patent print left in the blood must have been made while the
source of the blood was still wet after the wound was made. Thinly deposited blood will dry within
minutes. In another example, a small piece of broken glass at a crime scene is found to have the
suspect’s thumb on one side and index finger on the opposite side. The only way that could
happen is if the suspect picked up the fragment after the glass was broken
There are many factors that contribute to how long a latent print will persist on a surface ,
including the chemical composition of the latent print, the nature and condition of the substrate,
and the environment. Immediately after a latent fingerprint is placed on a surface, it begins to
change. The chemical compounds in sweat degrade. There are hundreds of chemical compounds
present in eccrine and sebaceous excretory deposits. The components and ratios of these
compounds are unique to the individual and are based on many different factors, including diet,
age, sex, health, metabolism, occupation, and stress. The environmental factors that affect latent
print persistence include temperature, humidity, exposure to sunlight, and weather. Surfaces may
also have an impact on the persistence of latent prints. Some of those variables include surface
texture, cleanliness, shape, porosity, and temperature.
Research projects have focused on finding a stable component of latent print residue and
determining how the optical, electrostatic, and chemical properties change over time. Some of
those components identified are saturated fatty acids and wax esters. Research continues in the
area of aging latent fingerprints. A challenge researchers face is the number of variables involved
in this process, only some of which are listed earlier. However, new technologies with better
sensitivity may allow researchers to control for most of the aforementioned variables and find a
nondestructive method of aging latent fingerprints on a surface.

DNA from Fingerprints

Just like fingerprints, DNA recovered from crime scenes and evidentiary items can be
identified to an individual. Advances in DNA analysis have made it possible to obtain DNA
evidence from items that have been touched, regardless of the substrate they are deposited on.
Whether the substrate is rough or smooth, porous or nonporous, fingerprints can be sampled for
DNA. This type of DNA is known as touch DNA.  Since the 1980s, samples of biological evidence
from crime scenes have been analyzed for DNA. Initially, biological material could only yield a
DNA profile if the sample size was 250 ng or more or visible to the human eye. Over time, the
technology and sensitivity of DNA analysis improved allowing for the collection of smaller samples
from crime scenes and evidentiary items. Biological evidence no longer needs to be visible to be
collected for DNA analysis.
 When an individual touches a surface, skin cells are shed and may adhere to the surface.
Humans shed tens of thousands of skin cells daily. Skin cells are invisible to the naked eye. A
sample with a mass of less than 100 pg can yield a DNA profile.15 (1 pg is one-trillionth of a
gram.) Extensive research has shown that touch DNA can successfully be recovered from latent
fingerprints on various surfaces, as well as from weapons, vehicles, clothing, wood, fabric, glass,
briefcase handles, pens, car keys, locker handles, telephone handsets, doorbells, chocolate bars,
electrical cords, knife handles, glass, gloves, paper, and other items.
Touched surfaces that are rough or otherwise unsuited to preserving fingerprint patterns
are excellent sample areas for collecting touch DNA evidence. Examples of unsuitable surfaces
include textured gun and knife grips, clothing, and rough, unfinished wood. These areas are
swabbed with a wet sterile swab, the epithelial cells are lifted from the material with adhesive tape,
or the area is scraped with a sterile razor blade (see figure below). However, one does not have to
choose whether to collect fingerprints or DNA from a surface. With the increased sensitivity of
DNA, fingerprint examiners have the option of swabbing latent fingerprints that have no value for
identification. Any unusable, smudged,
or poor quality fingerprint can be swabbed for DNA with a sterile swab wetted with distilled water.
Because touch DNA requires so little material to be viable, it is particularly subject to
contamination. Even the act of breathing on an item can result in DNA transference. Where it
appears that DNA processing may be utilized, fingerprint examiners and crime scene technicians
must take great care to change gloves frequently, wear particulate masks to cover the mouth and
limit the handling of evidentiary items. Even the act of dusting a crime scene for fingerprints using
a standard fiberglass fingerprint brush and fingerprint powder may contaminate the scene.
Disposable powder packets and fingerprint brushes are used to avoid contamination.
The analysis of touch DNA is not a common practice nor is it entirely reliable. Because of
the minute amount of DNA present in touch samples, it is subject to both false-positive and false-
negative results. It is also subject to contamination. The vast majority of laboratories do not
analyze touch DNA. However, as research on the topic progresses, it may be used as an
investigative tool more frequently in the future.

8.2 Learning Resources- Forensic Light Sources

Bloodstains, semen, bruises, bone fragments, questioned documents, flammable residues, fibers
and fingerprints all merit examination with a forensic light source or laser.

Visual Examination

Light is one of the forensic scientist’s most potent tools. Regardless of the substrate, matrix,
or circumstance, all evidentiary items and surfaces must be visually examined before any
chemical or physical process is initiated. Visual examination is a non-destructive process. It allows
visible fingerprints to be documented before fingerprint powder or chemicals are applied.

A visual examination is not just performed under white overhead lights or in natural lighting
conditions. A variety of light sources are used. A simple flashlight can be used to shine light at
various angles to create light and shadow across a surface. Oblique lighting is often the best way
to see both latent, plastic, and patent fingerprints on an object (see image below). Light is shone at
a low angle in order to see details on the surface where light and shadow create contrast. Oblique
lighting is used throughout the forensic sciences to observe details in shoe and tire impressions,
firearm evidence, tool marks, and various other types of evidence.

 If a thorough visual examination of the surface reveals a fingerprint, that print is photographed.
Only then may a fingerprint analyst proceed with chemical and physical processing methods.
Visual examination is a non-destructive process. There are several other stages of fingerprint
processing when the fingerprint analyst uses light as a non-destructive technique to reveal
fingerprints. Besides white light, the fingerprint analyst uses different colors of light, ultraviolet (UV)
light, and infrared light to view evidence without obliterating fingerprints.

Physics of Light
Forensic scientists use light of different colors to see details and view luminescent chemical
reagents. Light is a form of electromagnetic energy that travels in waves. Light energy is only one
portion of a spectrum, or range, of wavelengths that includes x-rays, gamma rays, and radio
waves (see figure below). Wavelengths are measured in nanometers (nm). A wavelength can
range from picometers (1 × 10–12 m) to many meters in length (such as radio waves). The shorter
the wavelength of light, the greater the energy it produces.

The color spectrum (the range of colors visible to the human eye) is a narrow range of
wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum.
The way humans perceive light and color is based on how light interacts with matter. When
light hits a surface, it is reflected, transmitted, or absorbed by the surface (see image below). If it is
absorbed, it is perceived as black in color. Most of the light that passes through translucent or
transparent objects is transmitted. Most of the light that is reflected bounces off a surface in
different ways. Depending on the texture and reflectivity of the surface, the human eye sees that
light as a color.
 A schematic drawing demonstrating how light is reflected, absorbed, and/or transmitted
when it interacts with a surface.
The spectrum of colors that makes up a rainbow is the same range of wavelengths humans can
perceive with the naked eye. This range, known as the visible spectrum, contains light of
wavelengths between 390 and 700 nm. Each color of the rainbow represents a short range of
wavelengths within the visible spectrum of light; for example, green light
is between about 490 and 575 nm. The color we see is a result of the wavelength of light reflecting
off the surface. A red rose reflects light at wavelengths between 620 and 700 nm. What we
perceive as white light is in fact a mixture of colors. Black objects absorb light and therefore do not
reflect light at a wavelength within the visible color spectrum.

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence

Each element in the periodic table has a unique atomic number. The atomic number is the
number of protons or electrons in an atom. For example, oxygen has an atomic number of eight,
indicating it has eight protons and eight electrons. Protons have a positive charge and electrons
have a negative charge. The charge is balanced in its ground, or normal, state. The atomic mass
is determined by the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus, the core of the
atom. Neutrons are neutral. They have no charge. Isotopes are elements that have the same
atomic number but different numbers of neutrons and therefore different atomic masses.
Light not only travels in waves but also acts on matter as a unit of energy known as a
photon. A photon acts on surfaces at the atomic level. An atom or molecule absorbs the photon’s
energy and changes from its natural ground state to a more energetic, “excited” state. The atom is
naturally inclined to seek its ground state. In order to restore the balance of energy within the
particle, it emits that absorbed energy as a photon. The energy absorbed and emitted by the
particle is known as electromagnetic radiation whether it is visible light, UV, infrared, x-ray,
microwaves, or radio waves.
When the molecule absorbs energy, some of that energy is transferred to surrounding
molecules. Because some of the energy is used up in this process, the emitted electromagnetic
radiation has less energy than the absorbed electromagnetic radiation. As was mentioned earlier,
light waves with longer wavelengths have lower energy. Light waves with shorter wavelengths
have higher energy. When light is absorbed in one wavelength and loses energy as it interacts
with matter, the atom or molecule emits light at a longer wavelength than the absorbed light
(Figure 9.5). This process creates luminescence.
Luminescence includes both fluorescence and phosphorescence. When molecules are
excited by a specific color, or wavelength, of light, they luminesce in a way that is specific to the
chemical composition of that molecule. Surfaces and chemicals that fluoresce will only glow when
energy is constantly applied to the surface. For example, if a chemical fluoresces only under
yellow light, it will stop fluorescing as soon as that yellow light is removed. 1,8-diazafluoren-9-one
(DFO) and Rhodamine 6G are fluorescent chemicals that fluoresce under green light (Figure 9.6).
When the green light is removed, the chemical no longer glows.

Fluorescence is observed when light is absorbed, loses energy as it interacts with

matter, and is emitted at a longer wavelength.
 A fingerprint developed with Rhodamine 6G
Phosphorescence occurs when the surface continues to glow even after the energy source is
removed. Luminol is a chemical used to visualize latent bloodstains and enhance patent
bloodstains at crime scenes (see figure below). When the chemical is sprayed onto a surface, it
reacts with the iron in hemoglobin and glows blue. Luminol continues to glow on its own for
approximately 30 s without applying any constant energy source. This phosphorescence is only
visible in the dark. Though phosphorescence is used in forensics, fingerprint analysts use
fluorescent compounds in the laboratory.

The bathroom floor at a crime scene (a) before and (b) after treatment with luminol.
Fluorescence is most often not viewed with the naked eye. The light that comes from the
forensic light source is known as the incident light. When the incident light hits the substrate, it is
reflected. This is known as reflected light. The angle at which the incident light hits the surface (the
angle of incidence) is equal to the angle at which it is reflected off the surface (the angle of
reflection). When incident light hits the friction ridges that have been treated with fluorescent
chemicals or powders, the light bounces off from many different angles. This light is known as
scattered light. A barrier filter is placed between the human eye and the surface. The barrier filter
blocks the reflected light, while the scattered light passes through the filter and is perceived as
fluorescence (see figure below).
 This schematic demonstrates how incident light from a fluorescent light source
interacts with a latent print treated with a fluorescent chemical reagent. The incident light
reflects off the surface and is observed through the barrier filter as fluorescence.
Filters are often laboratory safety glasses of different colors that are specific to the chemical
reagent or powder, the color of the light source, and the color of the fluorescent emission (see
figure below). Filters block the light source and only allow the fluorescing light from the fingerprints
to pass through. Yellow filters are used with blue light. Fluorescent reagents are especially useful
when the background substrate is too dark or patterned to see the colored products of visible
reagents (see figure below). Fluorescence creates contrast, which is necessary in order to see
minutiae in the developed fingerprint. However, if the substrate the fingerprint is placed on is itself
fluorescent, the fingerprint will not stand out against the background.

Ninhydrin fingerprints developed on a check.

Forensic light sources are also useful tools for visualizing blood on various surfaces.
Hemoglobin absorbs light energy. Bloody fingerprints will therefore absorb long-wave UV light,
some visible and near-infrared light. Because it absorbs light, the blood will appear black against
the background. Blood can thus be enhanced through nondestructive means by simply viewing it
under various colors of light with various filters. The blood should not be exposed to light energy
for too long, as it may degrade the DNA.
Colored glasses, or filters, are not only used to see the fluorescence. They are also used to
protect the eyes from electromagnetic radiation. It is also important to protect the skin. Any
exposed skin should be covered with nitrile gloves and a long-sleeved lab coat. Higher energy,
shorter-wavelength light is especially hazardous. Therefore, great care should be taken especially
when using shortwave UV light.

Week 10: Fingerprint Development Techniques

Module Content
In choosing which technique to use in the development of latent fingerprints, one must utilize
sequential processing. This means that the least intrusive method is applied first through to the
most intrusive. As an example, the least intrusive method is visual examination, using inherent
lighting followed by illumination with oblique lighting. The most intrusive would be a dye stain or
other chemical technique. Those prints seen without treatment (plastic and patent) should be
photographed and, where appropriate, removed from the scene. When photographing, take a
photograph with and without a scale of the prints and object. The preferred scale is an ABFO, L
scale. To assist in the detection of semihidden prints, oblique, infrared, or ultraviolet lighting may
be utilized. Moisture from
the breath can also assist in the detection of the prints, as the moisture adheres to the prints.
Prints on nonabsorbent, hard surfaces will remain entirely on the surface in the form of a delicate
liquid or semisolid deposit consisting mainly of water and oil, extending upward from the surface,
which makes an ideal adhesive base for fingerprint powders. Whenever there is a potential of
losing the latent print during the lifting or retrieval process, that latent should be photographed.
The following development techniques are not all-encompassing but rather an example of the
more common techniques used in the development process.
To learn and understand all of the possible methods for development, one must invest many hours
in training and practice to perfect the techniques. 
Powder Techniques
I. Brush and Fingerprint Powder Development (Figure 1). This is the most common
method of developing latent prints currently in use.
a. Materials: Fingerprint powder, fiberglass brush, or camel or squirrel hair brush, lifting
tape, latent lift cards, and writing implement.
b. Method:
1. Apply a small amount of powder to an area with the brush.
2. As a latent pattern becomes visible, the brush strokes follow the print ridge
contour. Try to clean the powder from the valleys to make print clearer.
3. The print is then lifted with the tape onto the card or covered with tape and
left on the surface of the object.
Cautions: Brush gently. Some latent prints will be easily dissipated.  Use small amounts of
powder, as it is much easier to add powder than to brush away excess powder. Ensure the
surface is completely dry when using powder. If not, the powder will become muddy, smear the
print, and ruin the brush.
4. Complete the face of the card with the appropriate information: Case/report
number; type of offense; location of crime; name of investigator; time of lift;
date of lift; object lifted from; location of print on object. Note: An illustration
(sketch) should be made next to the lift on the card.
 Figure1. Super glue fingerprint processing techniques. Example of a fuming
chamber that is utilizing the technique known as CAE, common name: Super Glue.
The fuming chamber method is a preferred method as it keeps the vapors generated
by the CAE technique contained, preventing unintentional contamination.
II. Magnetic Powder Development. This technique is generally not good for prints on metal
surfaces or magnetic tapes as the magnet may erase information.
a. Materials: Magnetic wand, magnetic particles mixed with powder, lifting tape, latent
lift cards, and writing implement.
b. Method: This method is used in a similar fashion as brush and powder. However, the
magnetic wand should not touch the surface. The magnetic powder is the only part
that should be applied to the surface. The magnetic wand may cause scratches on a
surface and degrade or contaminate latent prints.
Note: There are a variety of powders that may be utilized to develop prints on various surfaces.
The most common powders are black, white, and bichromatic. Some powders may also be used in
conjunction with other chemical techniques such as cyanoacrylate ester (CAE, or Super Glue).
The reason for the variety of powders is to provide the greatest contrast with the background on
which the fingerprint is developed.
Chemical Techniques
Utilizing various chemicals to develop latent fingerprints allows the investigator the ability to
potentially develop prints on any surface if the conditions are right. Which technique to utilize will
be dictated by the knowledge and experience of the investigator, as well as the item or surface to
be processed.
What must be emphasized is that utilizing a specific technique may produce different results in
different environments.
When attempting to develop latent prints, there are no absolutes. Remember, latent prints are
chance impressions on a surface. Chemical reactions are a result of substances contained in the
perspiration or on the friction skin being transferred from the friction skin ridges to the object.
Chemicals such as salt (chloride), protein, amino acids, lipids, and oil react with the chemicals to
reveal the latent prints. Other substances might include blood, grease, or food stuffs.
Fluorescent Powders
These powders may be used in place of traditional powders or in conjunction with other
techniques such as Super Glue. These powders tend to be much finer and produce the best
results when used with a feather duster rather than the traditional fiberglass or camel hair brush.
The advantage to this technique is that, due to the fine powder composition, less activity is
required to develop latent prints, thus lessening the likelihood of destruction of the print. The
disadvantage is that with this technique additional luminescence is required in the form of an
alternate light source (ALS) or light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (laser) to
make the print usable. Lights with a filter barrier may be used to detect the prints in lieu of the ALS
or laser. The prints developed with this method must also be photographed. These powders may
be used just as traditional powders are.
Cyanoacrylate Ester
This technique may be used in two methods, the fuming chamber (Figure 2) or tenting method, or
with a wand. CAE reacts with the amino acids and fatty acids in the perspiration to form a white
colored polymer. Contrast may be enhanced through the use of a variety of powders or dye stains
applied to the developed polymer. Commonly, fluorescent powders and dye stains are applied on
surfaces where the contrast is less than desirable. An ALS or laser is then used to enhance the
print, after which the print is photographed. This method may be applied to metal, glass, plastic,
garbage bags, electrical tape, and many other nonporous surfaces.

Figure 2 Brush and powder technique. Depiction of the dusting method of

processing evidence in an attempt to develop latent fingerprints within the
confines of a down draft station.
Caution: When using the CAE method, caution is paramount. This
chemical has the same effect as tear gas and may aggravate the mucous
glands and membranes.

Fuming or Tenting Method

Place the specimen, preferably suspended, into a fuming chamber. This allows for the vapors to
evenly adhere to the surface(s) of the items. Place ten to twelve drops of liquid CAE into a pipette
or aluminum dish that is sitting atop a hotplate or heating device. Heat the CAE, and the vapors
should become visible. Where a prepackaged envelope of CAE will be used, simply open the
envelope and allow the CAE to disperse into the chamber. Allow the item to remain in the chamber
for a minimum of one to two hours. This will allow the CAE to set onto the specimen. To enhance
the development process, humidity should be present. Where a chemical reactive process is used,
such as sodium hydroxide, place the item to be processed into the chamber. Place cotton treated
with sodium hydroxide into an aluminum dish; then add several drops of CAE to the sodium
hydroxide-treated cotton. The reaction should be immediate and the vapors will quickly appear. A
word of caution, this technique generates a great deal of heat. Some type of hot pad or aluminum
should be place under the cotton to prevent heat damage. To enhance an even dispersal of CAE,
a fan should be in the chamber to provide circulation. The fan does not need to be set on high.
The purpose is simply to allow the vapors to disperse throughout the chamber. Where there is a
large chamber to be processed, a room or vehicle, the investigator should take the appropriate
action to ensure the least amount of contamination occurs.

CAE Wand Method

This method is not as controlled as the chamber method. More care and caution must be
exercised. Proper respiratory equipment must be used to prevent contamination. This method is
not suggested when processing a premises. Simply pass the wand over the areas where the
suspected fingerprints might be. The prints should quickly develop into a white film on the surface
of the item. The fingerprints may then be photographed or further enhanced with the addition of
powders. It is suggested that a short period of time (ten to twenty minutes) be allowed to elapse
before applying the powder. This will allow the CAE prints to set onto the surface.
Iodine Fuming
The two most common methods by which this technique may be utilized are the iodine fuming gun
(most common) and the fuming cabinet. Two other less used techniques are iodine dusting and
iodine solution. When applied, the iodine is absorbed by the fingerprint secretion, which produces
a dark brownish to blackish appearance. It is thought that the iodine reacts with fatty acids and
lipids contained in the fingerprint. This technique is used for paper and may be used on human
skin. This technique is very corrosive and may pose safety issues when improperly applied. The
resulting prints that develop must be photographed as the prints tend to fade over time. Fixatives
may be applied to iodine-developed prints to prolong their appearance.
Fuming Gun
Constructing a fuming gun requires a glass or hard plastic tube with a small rubber hose used as a
nozzle applicator. Iodine crystals, glass wool, and calcium chloride are placed into the gun. To
activate the iodine, blow into the mouthpiece and move the nozzle or rubber hose over the object
where fingerprints are thought to be. The heat from the breath will activate the chemicals. When
the fingerprints develop, they should be noted and photographed as soon as possible to prevent
the possibility of loss. Upon completion of the technique, the equipment should be cleaned as
soon as possible to prevent corrosion. Fuming Cabinet. Suspend the items to be treated in a
cabinet at the upper portion. Place the iodine crystals in a clean evaporating dish inside the
cabinet. Close the door to the cabinet. The crystals are then heated within the cabinet. Keep the
items in the cabinet under observation to monitor the development of latent prints. When
maximum contrast has been achieved, remove the remaining crystals from the cabinet. Then
remove the items from the cabinet and, as soon as possible, photograph the prints on the item.
Ninhydrin Method
Ninhydrin is a solution that may be applied by using a spray, swabbing, or dipping method.
Ninhydrin may be commercially purchased or can be prepared by the investigator. Ninhydrin
reacts with the amino acids, peptides, and protein contained in the print. This chemical is used on
items such as paper, cardboard, and unfinished wood. The reaction of the chemical produces
what has been termed Ruhemann’s purple. This is a pinkish/purple color print that appears on the
item revealing the presence of fingerprints. The processing of an item with this method should be
completed in a controlled laboratory setting. Appropriate breathing apparatus and proper
ventilation should be utilized as well as thick rubber gloves. This chemical should not be inhaled,
nor should the chemical be allowed to contact the skin. The preferred method of application of this
chemical is by dipping or swabbing. This alleviates the possibility of accidental inhalation. To
enhance or provide optimal development of ninhydrin prints, the item should be placed in a
chamber where the temperature and humidity are sufficient. The desired temperature is
approximately 80°F, with a humidity rate of approximately 80 percent.
Procedure After Developing Prints
1. Photograph where appropriate. The photos should be done with and without a scale. The
best type of scale is the ABFO, L type of scale. Overalls of the item where the print was
developed should be taken, as well as close-ups showing the print itself. If possible, a one-
to-one photo should be taken.
2. Upon completion of the photography, the decision must be made whether the entire item
will be taken or whether the print will be lifted from the item. When appropriate, the entire
item or object should be retained for use in court. Note: Remember, the print is the
evidence, not necessarily the surface that the print was developed from.
3. Where a lift is made and placed onto a latent fingerprint lift card, the following information
should be present:
a) Case/report number
b) Date/time
c) Scene address
d) Person making the lift
e) Type of object
f) Place of lift (Note: A sketch should be made on the card near the lift)
4. Take elimination prints from victims, and witnesses where appropriate.
5. Care and transportation of the evidence:
a) Ensure the chain of custody is recorded to provide accountability.
 b) If items need to be secured, ensure proper securing of the item’s by top and bottom, or
in a place least likely to damage the item or fingerprints.

Module Content 2
TECHNIQUES OF LATENT PRINT DEVELOPMENT

 Physical Method/Mechanical Method

o The principle involved is that the developing reagents will adhere or stick to the
sweats that are present in the latent print.
 Chemical Method/Liquid Method
o The principle involved is that when the developing reagent comes in contact with the
chemical composition of the sweat another chemical element is formed or there is a
chemical reaction that takes place.
 Gas Method/Fuming Method
o Fumes of the reagent will react with certain components of the sweat.

SURFACE TYPES

 Porous - Absorbent: paper, cardboard, wood, other cellulose

 Non-porous - Repel moisture, polished: glass, metal, plastics, lacquered or painted wood,
rubber
 Semi-porous - Glossy cardboard, finished wood, glossy magazine covers
 Textured- pebbled plastic surfaces of appliances

CONSIDERATIONS PRIOR TO RECOVERING LATENT PRINTS

 Safety of the personnel at the scene

 Surface type to be processed
 Surface exposed to water or not?
 Availability of equipment
 Exposure of the surface to extreme heat?

PHYSICAL METHODS OF DEVELOPING

A. POWDERS
- Adhere to both water and fatty deposits. Generally useful on newer prints. Choose
powder to contrast with background. Useful on dry, relatively smooth, non-adhesive
surfaces. Used after laser fluorescence. Used before Ninhydrin and after
Cyanoacrylate. Results may vary with skill. Photograph or lift by conventional methods.

KINDS OF POWDERS

 Regular (carbon black, flake metal)

 Magnetic (light, dark, fluorescent)
 Fluorescent (powder with fluorescent dye stain)
 Bichromatic (reflective aluminum powder and black powder)

Early local ingredients:

 Charcoal, lead powder, cigar ashes, powdered iron, soot, talc

 Harmful: lead, mercury, cadmium

FLUORESCENT POWDERS
 - Offer advantages conventional powders don't, but applied the same. Photograph or lift by
conventional methods. Useful on confusing or multi-colored backgrounds. UV or forensic
light required.
BRUSHES

 Animal hair
 Fiberglass filaments
 Feathers
 Magnetic applicator

TECHNIQUES USING POWDERS

DUSTING

 Appropriate Surface:
o Ridged/non-porous such as glass, plastic, or metal
 Theory:
o Dust will adhere to sweat & oils left behind

CHEMICAL METHODS
A. NINHYDRIN
 Appropriate Surface:
o porous such as paper, tissue, and clothing
 Theory:
o ninhydrin reacts with amino acids to form a purple compound
B. AgNO3 & UV LIGHT

 Appropriate Surface:
o porous such as paper or drywall

 Theory:

o When exposed to ultra-violet (UV) light, silver nitrate reacts with the salt in sweat to
form a blackish-brown compound

C. VICTORIA PURE BLUE

 A solution used to visualize fingerprints on adhesive surface such as paper tapes,
packaging tapes, etc…
GAS METHOD
A. IODINE FUMING

 Appropriate Surface:
o porous and non-porous such as paper, index cards, magazines, and cardboard.
 Theory:
o Sweat and oil will absorb iodine vapors

B. CYANOACRYLATE (SUPERGLUE) FUMING

  It is used on a variety of materials not only to visualize latent prints, but also to semi-
permanently affix them to the surface.

OPTICAL METHODS
A. ALTERNATE LIGHT SOURCES (ALS)

 Forensic light source

o Fluorescence (immediate emission)
o Phosphoresence (long-lived)
 LASER
 Reflected Ultraviolet Imaging System (RUVIS)

GUIDE TO SURFACES AND TREATMENT METHODS

 SMOOTH, NON-POROUS
o Glass, hard plastic moldings (bare metals are not included) and surfaces treated with
paint or varnish.

TREATMENT- Powders, Iodine, Small Particle Reagent (SPR) and

Cyanoacrylate/fluorescent dyes.

 ROUGH, NON-POROUS

o Rough, textured surfaces and grained plastic moldings.

TREATMENT- Small Particle Reagent (SPR) or Cyanoacrylate/ fluorescent dyes.
Powders are usually unsuitable on these surfaces.

 PAPER AND CARDBOARD

o Paper and cardboard (including plaster board) that have not been waxed or plastic
coated.

TREATMENT- Iodine, Ninhydrin, DFO, Silver Nitrate or physical developer. (Note:

powders are generally insensitive to older fingerprints.)

 PLASTIC PACKAGING MATERIAL

o Polyethylene, polypropylene, acetate and laminated paper surfaces.

TREATMENT- Iodine, Small Particle Reagent (SPR), Cyanoacrylate/fluorescent dyes

and powders. Cyanoacrylate is especially useful on Styrofoam.

 SOFT VINYL (PVC), RUBBER and LEATHER

o Simulated leather and cling film.

TREATMENT- Iodine, SPR, Cyanoacrylate and powders.

 METAL (UNTREATED)
o Untreated, bare metal surfaces— not metal surfaces that have been painted or
lacquered.

TREATMENT- SPR, powders, Cyanoacrylate/fluorescent dyes and powders.

 UNFINISHED WOOD
o Unfinished wood surfaces that have not been painted or treated.
 TREATMENT- Ninhydrin. Use powders on smooth wood and Silver Nitrate or physical
developer on light woods.

 WAX AND WAXED SURFACES

o Items made of wax (such as candles) and wax-coated paper, cardboard and wood
surfaces.

TREATMENT- Nonmetallic powders and Cyanoacrylate/fluorescent dyes.

 ADHESIVE-COATED SURFACES
o Tapes and similar surfaces that are not likely to dissolve in water.\

TREATMENT -Adhesive side powders.

Week 11-13: Latent Print Processing

PRESERVATION OF PRINTS
 Photograph
 Covering the print to preserve it in its entirety (if on a small object)
 Lifting the prints with adhesive tape and placing the tape with prints on a card with labels
o Lifting is the process of securing and preserving latent prints by the use of an
adhesive material known as “fingerprint lifter”.
PRESERVATION  TECHNIQUES: when film cannot adequately record

 LIFTING
o After powdering
o Transparent tape: clear, frosted
o Hinge lifters: white, black, transparent backings
o Rubber-gelatin
 On fragile, irregular surfaces
 In various sizes, black, white, transparent sheets
 In reverse position
o Lifting sheets
Requirements:

 Must be witnessed by two (2) competent persons.

 The time, date, and signature of the technician
 CASTING (silicon type)
o On patent impressions
o Powdered impressions on textured surfaces
o Processing dead persons
 o Cast could be powdered or inked and then lifted
o Image in reverse position

FINGERPRINT SYSTEM
THE TEN (10) FINGERPRINT SYSTEM – whose basic material is the 10 fingerprints of the
suspect whose purpose is to confirm the identity and criminal history of an arrested suspect.

SINGLE FINGERPRINT SYSTEM – whose basic material is the fingerprint collected from the
suspect individually.

PREPARING FINGERPRINT CHART FOR COURT PRESENTATION

It is not only necessary that the fingerprint expert’s testimony is capable and able to put up a good
line of argument in favour of the fingerprint. Method of identification, should he be called to testify
on the witness stand and to substantiate his opinion or argument.

 Photograph or enlarge the Fingerprint Card (standard) and same through with the lifted and
developed latent print at the crime scene or physical evidence recovered. (8” x 10”)
 Any discrepancy made in making a ridge characteristics on the original or small print will be
enhanced in the enlargement
 Avoid crossing of any lines to avoid confusion when trying to follow up the different points
they are supposed to indicate especially when a stranger of fingerprint identification is
making the comparison.

Preparing a CHART
Use cardboard (1/32“)

 Enlarge the corresponding known prints of the suspect from the Fingerprint Card. (8”x 10”)
 When enlarging a photograph, leave at least two (2) inches of margin in the sides for
labelling the point of similarities
 SUGGESTED PROCEDURES:

 Draw an oval with pencil around the print having at least one inch margin
 The point of the oval should be nearly equidistant from the margin of the point as possible
 Mark with pencil and extend so as to touch the line forming the oval all around the print.
 Number each ridge characteristics consecutively in a clockwise direction around the print
 The two marked prints (latent and standard) and table of explanation should be mounted on
a large sheet of paper or chart so as to be in the best and most available form for
explanation.
 12 points of similarities is enough to secure conviction. But if the prints are clear and the
situation warrants, identify as many as you can.
COMPARISON OF TWO FINGERPRINTS
Most fingerprint cases do not go to court because it is a customary practice to confront suspects
with such strong evidence before the trial opens, in the hope of securing confessions and guilty
pleas. Usually, the accused will enter plea of guilty when they are apprised of this formidable
evidence against them, and thus save the expense of lengthy court trials.
Sometimes, however, the accused will not plead guilty, so they must be brought to trial. The
fingerprint technician must be prepared for such a contingency.
It is absolutely imperative that the fingerprint technician should be able to testify on the intricacies
of friction ridge identification whenever he is called to the witness stand. He should be so well
versed in his field and should have the knowledge necessary to substantiate his testimony on the
tip of his tongue. He should be able to offer his testimony in a strong, convincing and honest
manner.
It cannot be over emphasized that officer’s responsibility is a grave one when it comes to testifying
to the identity or non-identity of two fingerprints. The defendant’s liberty, and sometimes his very
life, is at stake. According to legal precepts, an accused in innocent until he is proven guilty
beyond reasonable doubt.
The courts usually are not familiar with fingerprint evidence. The court usually relies upon the
honest statement/judgment of the witness. The identification officer has the public duty and
obligation first to convince himself that two prints are identical before testifying that fact in court.
Many latent impressions are worthless smudges, while many are clear, easily identified prints.
Somewhere between these two extremes will be certain latent prints whose clarity, or lack of it,
makes a positive pronouncement or identity difficult. When such a latent impression comes up for
identification, unless the fingerprint examiner is sure in his mind beyond a reasonable doubt, and
unless he can swear with a clear conscience that the two prints were made by the same finger,
then, by all means, he should not testify to their identity. He should be honest and say that in his
opinion the latent impression is not sufficiently clear to identify beyond any doubt (constitutional
right of the accused).
An identification officer should seek out only facts and the truth. It is not up to him to prosecute the
accused. That is the work of the prosecuting attorney. The identification officer should testify to the
facts as he sees them, regardless of the effect of his testimony on the people’s case. His calling in
life is to find the facts and present them to the court for deliberation.

ELEMENTS OF COMPARISON
To compare two friction ridge prints in an effort to determine their identity, the technician should
look for these four elements:
1. The likeness of general pattern types. That is, they both must be of the same type of
pattern, i.e., both be arches, loops, or whorls. Naturally, if two prints are of different types,
they could not possibly have been made by the same fingers
2. Qualitative likeness if the friction ridge characteristics. That boils down to this; are the
ridge characteristics like bifurcations, endings, islands, and enclosure the same in both
prints? Do the ridge details of one print match those of the other? If so, the technician can
pronounce identity on this factor.
3. The quantitative likeness of the friction ridge characteristics. This means, how many
matching details are there in the two impressions? There are no laws stating that there
must a certain number of matching ridge characteristics before an identity can be declared.
Most courts like to have at least twelve (12) corresponding characteristics, but there are
many cases on record in which courts have accepted expert testimony on less. This factor
is mainly one for the identification officer to settle on his mind as each case comes along.
 Unless he feels morally certain that a latent print shows sufficient ridge characteristics to
identify it positively, he should not attempt to introduce his fingerprint evidence into court.
4. The likeness of the location of the friction ridge characteristics. That is, their
relationship with each other in so far as the contour of the pattern is concerned. Are the
ridge characteristics in the same relative positions in both prints have the same relative
directions from each other? Do they have the same relative distances apart? Do they have
the same number of ridges? If so, then identification can be proclaimed.
To ensure absolute honesty in his examination of two prints, the technician should not start out by
laying them side by side and looking for matching characteristics. He should set the known print to
one side, and examine the latent print very carefully with his magnifying glass, picking out all the
visible ridge characteristics. After he has done that, he can then look at the known print and see if
he can find the same ridge details in it. At that time, he lays the two prints down side by side for
comparison.
If the fingerprint technician should look at the known print before the unknown print, he is bound to
be influenced, whether he realizes or not, by the ridge formations in it. The record print is usually
clearer than a latent print.
Sometime, powder will obscure some ridge details in a latent print. If the examiner has first
familiarize himself with the record print, when it comes to checking the latent print he may
unconsciously “see” in the latter those ridge formations which were clearly visible in the inked
fingerprint  without dishonest intention. It is just human nature to do so, and may even occur
without the technician’s knowledge.
One should therefore, pick out all the characteristics he can see in the latent print before even
looking at the inked impression. Once he has looked at the inked print, he should not try to “read”
into the latent print any ridge details he did not find there originally.

MARKING OF PRINTS
When you take the stand as an expert witness, remember that the judge and counsels are not
fingerprint experts. They may know utterly nothing about fingerprinting, or at best may have just a
smattering knowledge of it. They probably do not know how fingerprint identifications are made or
proved. You must be able to explain the whole thing to them, in words they can understand, and in
such a convincing manner that they accept your testimony and evidence as proof of the identity
which you claim exists between two prints.

PHOTO ENLARGEMENTS
1. There is no law requiring your enlargements to be of a certain, specific size. They can be of
any size you want to make them. Enlargement less than 8” x 10” are too small to show
ridge characteristics in sufficient size for the court to see them well, so evidence prints are
customarily enlarged to that size or larger. The two enlargements would be of the same
degree of magnification. That is, do not make one an enlargement of five diameters and the
other ten diameters. Leave a margin of at least two inches around each print so there will
be ample room to number the points of comparison.
2. Always mark off the latent print first. The record print is usually clearer than the latent
impression, and therefore will show some ridge characteristics that are obscure in the
chance impressions.
3. Number the ridge characteristics the same on both prints. Do not assign different numbers
to the corresponding characteristics.
4. Mark off and number only those ridge characteristics that appear both in the latent and
record prints.
5. Do your work as neatly as possible. If ink blots occur, do not try to erase them. Start all over
again on a fresh enlargement.
 6. Do not attempt to mark off the ridge details on the natural size print. It would be a mistake
to try to point out the ridge characteristics on natural size prints because the ridge
formations are so small and close together that you might miss something and the
projection lines would run together making it difficult to follow them.
7. When ruling the projection line which points out the ridge characteristics, be sure that none
of them cross each other. Of course they would cross the fingerprint ridges, but one inked
line must not cross another inked line. In fact, it is a good idea to mark up a sample pair of
the evidence enlargements before beginning to work on the pair you are going to take into
court. On the practice pair you can lay out the projection lines, make changes, vary the
numbering and so on, until you get the lay out you want. Then you can rule in and number
the projection lines for the court exhibit with ease and neatness.
8. Do not draw the ink lines so heavily that they will hide the ridge characteristics. Run each
line up to the ridge characteristics, but not over it that the line completely covers and
obscures it.
9. There is no set rule as to which ridge characteristics one should use to start numbering the
points of comparison, but it is the general practice to start with the core if it shows in the
latent print. That is, mark the core number 1. Then number the remaining characteristics
consecutively in a clockwise direction. Do not jump around and number them in any hit-or-
miss order. Be methodical so the court will most easily understand your comparison.
10. The projection lines are the lines running out from the ridge characteristics to the edge of
the pattern, should all extent over the edge of the print about the same distance so that they
make an even appearance around the enlargements. They should be charted so that their
outer ends will be fairly evenly spaced apart. The corresponding lines on the latent and
record enlargements should be of equal length and drawn at the same angles so that they
will appear the same on both enlargement.
11. Never do anything more to the enlargements that is absolutely necessary to show their
identity. The law of evidence requires that all evidence must be in its original condition, or
as near as its original conditions as circumstances will permit. Therefore never place any
marks, words or writing on the enlargements that do not belong there.

FINGERPRINT EXPERT
A fingerprint expert is a person who, through experience, training, and education, has a
complete knowledge and skill in the science of fingerprints, and if called upon by courts to testify,
can externalize that knowledge and skill in a forceful, yet convincing and intelligent manner. The
law is very specific about who an expert is. We can see that even though a person may never
have appeared in court, he may very well possess the requisite qualification for an expert witness.
It makes little difference even if a person never testified in court. It should be borne in mind that it
is the court that declares a person, an expert.

QUALIFYING THE EXPERT WITNESS

Frequently Asked Questions
1. What do you mean by epidermal ridges?
2. Are fingerprints made up of ridges?
3. What are furrows?
4. What is meant by minutiae?
5. Of what value are they in fingerprint identification?
6. How many layers of skin are there?
7. What is the average thickness of skin on the palmar side of a young hand?
8. What is poroscopy?
 9. Is poroscopy a science of identification like fingerprints?
10. What is an inked impression?
11. What is a latent print?
12. What are fingerprint patterns and pattern areas?
13. Can palm prints like fingerprints be used to establish identity?
14. .What is edgeoscopy?
15. In fingerprint comparison, what is meant by apparent dissimilarity?
16. Is there a specific number of points that one must find in order to conclude a positive
identification?
17. What are the basic premises of fingerprint identification?
18. Is fingerprint identification an exact science? If yes, then why would two examiners differ in
their opinion?
19. Could you determine the exact age of a latent impression?
20. What is a latent print transfer card?
21. How is latent-print lifting done?
22. What is a transfer lifting tape?
23. What methods are employed in the development of latent prints and how do they work?
24. How long will a latent print last?
25. What is meant by a smudge print? Is a smudge print the same as the print of no value?
26. How many points of identification are found in a normal rolled impression?
27. What is natural dissimilarity?
28. What are focal points in a fingerprint? Of what value are they?
29. Can a fingerprint be forged?
30. Can you tell in all instances that a print has been forged?
31. Is it possible that the prints you found and developed are forged prints?
32. What is ninhydrin and how does it work?
33. What is iodine fuming method and how does it work?
34. What is sebaceous oil?

Demeanor of an Expert Witness

In the book of Professor Proceso Tubid (1996) entitled “Dactyloscopy,” he wrote the
following as a guide to proper demeanor in the court by the expert witness in the stand:

1. Walk to the witness stand with even steps.

2. When taking the oath, hold your right arm up high with fingers straight and look at the
officer administering the oath.
3. When the officer finishes the oath, “So help me God,” you say “I do” in a loud voice so that
everyone in the courtroom can hear. Don’t wear flashy clothes.
4. When you take the witness stand, do so with confidence and dignity. Think before you
speak.
5. When you begin to speak, speak loudly enough to be heard at the back of the courtroom.
6. Speak slowly and clearly. Use simple terms and phrases. Don’t use high sounding or
technical words and expressions that the judge and the court personnel can’t understand.
7. Listen carefully to the questions you are asked. Don’t be in a hurry. Take your time. Be
careful and sure of what you will say.
8. Be fair and frank. Don’t be too anxious to please or too eager to fight.
9. Do not speak as though you have a personal grudge against the defendant.
10. Keep your temper. Don’t let anyone irritate you into arguments over trivial points or even
important ones. Be firm but flexible.
11. If a question is asked and you are not sure of the answer or you can’t remember, say loudly
and clearly, “I do not know.” Never bluff or stall for time to make up an answer.
 12. Be courteous to your own counsel; do the same to the opposition counsel. Do not give a
long winded answer, but answer the questions fully and simply. Sometimes a judge may
interpose a question. If he does, you have to face him when you make a reply.
13. Don’t get caught by the opposition’s counsel trick like this: Did you ever discuss this case to
anyone? Do not be taken in by this trick. Of course you did, and if asked, you can beat him
at his game by answering, “Yes sir, I discussed the case with _____ (your lawyer’s name).
14. Do not volunteer too much information when you answer a question. Be brief. Just answer
the question and stop.
15. Never refer to the defendant as the “guilty party” or the “criminal.” In our jurisprudence, the
accused is innocent until he is proven guilty by a judge in a trial court.
16. Avoid mannerism of speech. Don’t be in a habit of prefacing your replies with redundant
phrases like “I can truthfully say…. These may cast doubts on your testimony.
17. Never permit the opposition counsel to make you angry. This is a trick and when angered
you become confused and may say the wrong thing.
18. When the opposition counsel tries to get you to answer by mere “Yes” or “No” and you think
this might affect your testimony before you have a chance to complete your answer, turn to
the judge and say, “Your honor, may I please explain my answer?”
19. Don’t use the words “I think” or “I guess.” You are in court to state facts. When one of the
lawyer calls “Objection” or if the court interrupts, stop your testimony immediately and wait
until the court gives its ruling.
20. Don’t chew gum. It affects your demeanor.
21. Do not try to converse with anybody, witnesses, or parties to the controversy during the
recess. Converse only with the attorney who retains you to testify.
22. Do not memorize your testimony. On the other hand, keep your testimony flowing smoothly
without breaks in your remarks.
23. Avoid nodding your head to indicate a “Yes” or “No” answer.
24. When addressing the judge, use “Your Honor” and when addressing the attorneys, use
their names.
25. Always tell the truth.
26. At the conclusion of your testimony, ask if you may be excused; then leave the court
immediately.

Questions by the Prosecutor (Direct Examination)

The actual questions and answers is used in examining the qualifications of expert witness will
vary with each trial, but the following questions and answers are typical ones based on the
examination of trial records and the author’s own experience in criminal trials.

After the witness has been given the oath, the prosecutor asks the following questions: and the
witness gives answers similar to those shown below:

QUESTION 1: What is your name?

QUESTION 2: Mr. Witness, what is your occupation?

ANSWER: Fingerprint Technician or Fingerprint Examination at ___________________

QUESTION 3: What is your principal duty?

ANSWR: My principal duty is ______________________________________________

QUESTION 4: How long have you been a Fingerprint ___________________________

 ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5: What occupation did you follow before becoming Fingerprint examiner?

ANSWER: Technician or _________________________________________________

QUESTION 6: When was your appointment as Fingerprint Technician?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7: During the time that you were _______________ what were your duties?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8: How many years in all have you been engaged in the fingerprint world?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9: Have you ever received instructions in fingerprint science?

ANSWER: Yes sir.

QUESTION 10: Where did you receive this instruction?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 11: When did you take the instruction?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 12: What is a latent fingerprint?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 13: Why are they called latent fingerprints?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 14: In fingerprint, what do you mean by developed?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 15: How is this accomplished?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 16: Have you ever developed latent prints?

ANSWER: _____________________________________________________________

QUESTION 17: Can you compare a latent print after it was developed with the ink prints
form of a person and tell whether or not the developed latent print was left by that person?

Cross Examination by the Defense Lawyer

QUESTION 1: How many fingerprint records are in your files?
QUESTION 2: How are they filed?

QUESTION 3: Have you found fingerprints from different people to have the same classification?

QUESTION 4: Then why did you never found any two fingerprints alike?

QUESTION 5: What is Classification of fingerprints?

QUESTION 6: In your experience, have you ever made a mistake identifying fingerprints?

QUESTION 7: Have you examined the fingerprints of all people in the world?