Unit 5.

Slaughtering Procedure

Introduction
At the time of slaughter, animals should be healthy and physiologically normal.
Slaughter animals should be adequately rested. They should be rested, preferably
overnight, particularly if they have travelled for some times over long distances. However,
pigs and poultry are usually slaughtered on arrival as time and distances travelled are
relatively short and holding in pens is stressful for them. Animals should be watered during
holding and can be fed, if required. The holding period allows for injured and victimised
animals to be identified and for sick animals to be quarantined. The length of time animals
spend in the lairage awaiting slaughter varies according to the abattoir’s work practices
and throughput, but should not exceed 72 hours if in a coveredpart of the slaughterhouse.
In practice, the average time will usually be only a few hours.
When ready for slaughter, animals should be driven to the stunning area in a quiet
and orderly manner without undue fuss and noise. Droving can be facilitated using flat
canvass straps, rolled plastic or paper, and in the case of stubborn animals, prodders can
be used occasionally. Animals should never be beaten nor have their tails twisted.
Animals should be led in single file into the stunning area where they can be held in
appropriate restraining device(s) before stunning.

Animal Restraint Facilities

Animals have to be transferred from the lairage pens either directly or through a
race into an area where stunning and slaughter are carried out. Animals are often
transferred from the lairage through a race to the stunning area. In order to facilitate
stunning and to protect the operators, some kind of restraint is necessary. Restraint
should allow correct application of stunning equipment and protect animal welfare, as well
as protecting operators from potential injury, especially from large animals. This may be
achieved in a number of ways:

a. Manual restraint in an open pen

This is usually done by manually handling the free standing animal in an open area
or a pen. The animal may enter the pen either directly from holding areas or through
raceways.

b. Restraint in a squeeze/crush pen

This method involves holding the animal by pressure from the sides. Usually one
side moves. It is not commonly used.

c. Cattle stunning pens

The objective is to confine the animal in a pen so that stunning and slaughter can
be carried out effectively and safely. Pens must have gates to close after entry. For
captive bolt stunning, facilities to present the head for correct stunning at the front
areuseful.
d. V-type restrainers
V-type restrainers use the principle of suspending the animals in a funnel-shaped
apparatus, which often has a conveyor system and is commonly used for pigs and sheep.
It seems to work better for sheep than pigs. Sheep can be electrically stunned, either
head only or head-to-back at the end of the conveyor, either manually or automatically.

e. Monorail restrainers
This system holds the animal in a straddle position over a rail. When combined
with a conveyor system, animals are moved to the point of stunning with possibly less
stress than with V-restraint. This system is successfully used for pigs,

f. Shackling in poultry chickens

Chickens are shackled by their legs onto a conveyor line. This must be done gently
to avoid injury and stress. In a small slaughterhouse, birds can be placed headfirst in
cones.

STEPS IN SLAUGHTERING
Steps in slaughtering swine:
1) Stunning
It is done to make the animal unconscious without killing it and to make restraining
easy and sticking humane.
Methods of stunning:
a. electric shock stunning - consists in applying electricity through the animal’s
brain, using two electrodes to induce an epileptic shock, or through the
heart.

b. captive-bolt or pneumatic pistol - applied to the forehead; captive-bolt pistols

eject a metallic cylinder through the animal’s skull and return to their
original position for the next shot. Alternatively, pneumatic pistols impact
the animal’s head without penetration.

c. carbon dioxide - stunning action of carbon dioxide is accomplished by blockade

of the animal’s neural terminals, therefore reducing the nervous impulses.
Carbon dioxide concentrations of 65% to 70% during 45 seconds work
most efficiently.

2) Sticking
It is a term for bleeding. The knife is held at a 35 to 40 degree angle and thrust
under the breastbone. A thrust and a withdrawal are made to cut the jugular veins and
carotid arteries.

3) Scalding and scraping

The temperature of the scalding water is very important for successful scraping
procedure. The water must be maintained at 54 to 82ºC (130 to 180ºC) but temperature
between 60 to 71ºC is optimal.
 The temperature of the water maybe approximated by quickly immersing the
fingers three consecutive times, if the fourth immersion is not possible, then the water
temperature is within the range.
In scraping, the extremities of the animal such as the head, tail and shanks are
scalded and scraped first.

4) Removal of the head

The head is cut off about two to three fingers from the base of the ears. The bone
connection is severed at the atlas joint by applying a sudden jerking twist at the head.

5) Evisceration
It refers to the removal of the visceral organs from the opening of the carcass up
to the complete removal of the internal organs from the body cavity.

6) Splitting
It is done at the center of the chine bone to be able to produce uniform pork chops
from the carcass

7) Chilling
The carcass is chilled at 0 to 4ºC for 24 hours. Temperature of 2ºC is very ideal so
that firmness and condition of the carcass is ideal for fabrication.

b. Slaughtering Cattle and Carabao

Slaughtering cattle and carabao is similar to slaughtering hogs in some aspects.

Steps in slaughtering cattle and carabao

1) Stunning
Some of the stunning equipment that can be used includes matador, stunning gun,
carbon dioxide chamber, sledgehammer etc. The animal is hit immediately after the head
bones or right at the center of the atlas joint. With one blow at this site, the carabao or
cattle loses consciousness and falls down.

2) Sticking
The animal must not be down for more than two minutes because increased blood
pressure may break the capillaries and cause an unattractive condition in the meat.
A portion of the hide at the upper neck when the animal is laying flat on one side
is skinned out to act as receptacle for blood. The knife is inserted at 45º angle in front of
the brisket and the carotid arteries and jugular vein are severed in a similar manner as in
the hogs. The blood is scooped out with a cup from the flapped hide receptacle. To induce
thorough bleeding, an operator may step at the flank of the animal rhythmically.

3) Flaying and skinning

This refers to the removal of the hide.
4) Removal of the shank and head
To remove the head, a cut is made around the neck at the atlas region and the
head is twisted off. The shanks maybe removed at the flat joint between the tarsal and
metatarsal bones at the hind shank and between the carpal and the metacarpal bones of
the front legs.

5) Evisceration

6) Splitting/Quartering
This is the process of dividing the carcass into two along the vertebral column. As
much as possible, the left and the right sides must have the same weight. After splitting,
the carcass is quartered by cutting each side between the 12th and 13th ribs.

7) Shrouding
This is the process of wrapping the carcass with cheesecloth. The cloth is soaked
in lukewarm water (about 45ºC) and wrapped around the carcass while it is warm. The
shrouding cloth absorbs remaining blood at the surface of the carcass, smoothens the
external fat covering, causes the fat to appear white and dense and prevents excessive
shrinkage and oxidation.

8) Chilling
The required chilling period is 48 hours but maybe extended from 7 to 14 days for
aging purposes. Chilling is done to check the growth of microorganisms, make the
carcass firm prior to fabrication and allow the rigor mortis to pass (stiffening of the
muscle).

Careful control of the slaughter operation is essential for the production of good
quality meat products. Carcass should be thoroughly washed to remove all blood and dirt
on the surface of the meat. Only clean and undamaged carcasses should be used for
processing.

c. Slaughtering of Sheep and Goat

There are two methods of slaughtering goat and sheep in the Philippines. One is
the singed method and the other is the flayed method. Like any slaughter animals, goat
and sheep must be allowed to relax prior to slaughter. Most slaughterhouses in the
country do not have holding facilities for goat and sheep, so the animals are just tied to a
post.

Steps for slaughtering goat and sheep

1) Stunning
 This procedure can easily be accomplished with the use of ordinary carpenter’s
hammer. A properly stunned goat lay flat on its side almost motionless.

2) Sticking
The animal is held in position with the knee on or behind the shoulder. Then the
lower jaw is grasped with the hand and the head is pulled back. With the back positioned
towards the cervical bones, the knife is inserted at the back of the jaw as close as possible
to the backbones. At this position, the outward portion of the neck is cut clear and through
severing the blood vessels, the windpipe, gullet and fleece.

3) Singeing or Flaying
In this method a blowtorch or an open fire can be used. While singeing, the hairs
are continuously scraped with a dull knife or with a piece of stick.
With flaying, the hind legs are tied with a rope and the carcass is suspended in a
convenient hanger or branch. Knife is used to start the flaying process. It starts with the
hindlegs followed by the forelegs. The head of the animal is removed at the atlas joint
and the pelt is stripped by forcing it downwards.

4) Evisceration and chilling

The carcass is not split and the breastbone is not opened. Chilling is done for 24
hours at 0 to 4ºC before fabrication.

Average dressing percentages of slaughtered livestock animals

1) cattle/carabao – 60%
2) calves – 62%
3) hogs – 73%
4) sheep/goat – 50%
5) chicken – 75%
6) turkey – 83%
7) duck – 70%
8) geese – 75%

Unconventional local/traditional slaughter methods

In some countries unconventional, local slaughter techniques exist. Some of these need
consideration:
• immersion of pigs in a basket in water to drown and kill;
• unilateral sticking of pigs in standing position or slaughter on the floor without stunning;
• punctilla of cattle, which involves severance of the spinal cord in the neck without
stunning.
The above practices severely compromise animal welfare and must be avoided.

RELIGIOUS SLAUGHTER
1. Jewish method of slaughter (shechita)
 Jews consume beef, lamb and poultry, but not pork. These meats must be
slaughtered and prepared in accordance with the rabbinical laws. Slaughter is carried out
by an approved slaughterman of the Jewish faith, called a shocet. The slaughter process,
which precludes any type of stunning, is preceded by positioning the animal, though this
is not subject to regulation by the religious authorities.
A single, transverse cut severing all tissues and blood vessels is made across the
neck using a very sharp, special knife (chalaf). If any abnormality is found, the entire
carcass is rejected for Jewish consumption on the grounds that the animal was not
healthy at the time of slaughter. In some practices the meat is “porged” to remove veins
and other forbidden tissues. Special consideration must be given to minimizing welfare
problems during shechita.
Preslaughter handling must have the same criteria used before application of
stunning methods. It would be advisable to use a restraint apparatus, preferably an
upright stunning pen or one that incorporates a monorail conveyor for Jewish slaughter.
If necessary, a V-type restraint pen or a Facomia pen that slightly tilts the animal (around
45º) can also be used.
Restraint of animals must be quick, of short duration, and slaughter carried out
immediately without delay. Exsanguination must be carried out rapidly and all blood
vessels in the neck cut. The neck needs to be in an extended position during the cut.
Ballooning on the cut surfaces of the carotid arteries must be avoided.
Exsanguinated blood must flow rapidly and copiously so that brain death is quick.
At least 20 seconds must be allowed for exsanguination before any other procedures.

2. Muslim method of slaughter (halal slaughter)

This method is now commonly referred to as halal slaughter. As for Jews, pig meat
is forbidden. The act of slaughter (Al-Dhabh) is allowed in the name of God; therefore
pronouncing the name of Allah is the usual practice. Animals are restrained but there are
no specific religious regulations as to how this should be done.
Following restraint, slaughter is achieved by severing both carotid arteries and
jugular veins using a sharp knife. The usual type of incision is severance of the vessels
in the retrograde fashion following an initial stab incision in the neck.
The most significant variation in halal slaughter is that preslaughter stunning may
be an acceptable practice. It is now more common to see stunning being used for halal
slaughter in western countries.
Unit 6. Fabrication and Identification of Meat Cuts

A. Factors Affecting Carcass Yield

Carcasses of meat animals are generally evaluated commercially in terms of yield and
quality of lean. Yield refers to the percentage of closely trimmed, boneless retail cuts
(edible lean) on a carcass weight basis. The carcass yield or dressing percentage could
be derived by dividing the unshrunk liveweight into the hot carcass weight after the
visceral organs, feet and head were removed and expressed as percent values. Dressing
percentages are highly variable because they are influenced by factors such as live
weight, fat level, age, gender, diet, breed, distance trucked, amount of gut fill at slaughter
and body condition.
B. Meat fabrication defined
Meat fabrication – is the cutting of carcass into standard wholesale and retail cuts.

Proper fabrication leads to:

• Lowering of cutting losses
• Making buyers conscious of what they are buying
• Giving confidence to both producers and consumers

General principles of fabrication:

• Tender meat is separated from tough meat
• Thick portion must be separated from the thin portion
• Muscles are cut across the grain or meat fibers so that the grain breaks and
separates fast while chewing.
• Cheap parts must be separated from the expensive parts.

Importance of bone structure in meat fabrication

• It acts as a guide in cutting carcasses
• Serves as a clue to the tenderness of the cut
• Majority of the wholesale and retail cuts are identified and named after the bone
present
• Examining the bone could identify if the animal is old or young

Beef and carabeef carcass fabrication

a. Steps in fabricating the frontquarter
1) The first step in fabricating the frontquarter is to separate the rib and the
plate portion by cutting between the 5th and 6th ribs.
2) Remove the plate from the rib by cutting the center midway the ribs.
3) Remove the brisket and foreshank by cutting perpendicular to the ribs just above
the arm and elbow joint.
4) Separate the shank from the brisket by cutting through the natural separation
between the foreshank and brisket.

Wholesale cuts of the frontquarter

1) Ribs – include the portion of the back bounded by the 6th and 12th ribs
2) Plate or short plate – thin portion of the frontquarter and lies opposite the ribs
 3) Brisket – piece containing the sternum
4) Foreshank – portion below the arm and elbow joint
5) Chuck – shoulder portion and includes the parts of the blade bone, arm bone, five
ribs, thoracic vertebrae and neck bones.

Retail cuts of the frontquarter

1) Ribs (costillas or tadyang)
• Short ribs
• Rib steak
• Rib roast
2) Plate or short plate (liempo)
• Short ribs
• Plate stew
3) Brisket (punta de pecho)
• Brisket stew
• Boneless brisket
4) Foreshank (kinchi)
• Foreshank stew
• Soup bones
• Lean trimmings
5) Chuck (batuk)
• English cut
• O-bone roast or arm pot roast
• Chuck roast or blade roast
• Neck soup stock

b. Steps in fabricating the hindquarter

1) Remove the flank by trimming slightly over the face of the round and continue cutting
down the flank so as to remove the greater portion of the thick flank region. The 13th rib
should be cut at a point approximately one inch from the eye muscle of the loin.
2) Remove the round by sawing ½ inch below the aitchbone. The saw blade will cut
through the third sacral vertebra.
3) The left portion is the loin composed of the short loin and sirloin.

Wholesale cuts of the hindquarter

1) Flank – it contains part of the 13th rib and the abdominal muscle
2) Loin – it contains the back bone which consists of the spine bone (spinous
process), chine body (body of the vertebra) and finger bone (transverse process)
3) Round – this contains the hindshank and bone of the thigh

Retail cuts of the hindquarter

1) Flank or navel (kanto)
 • Flank stew
• Flank steak
2) Loin (cadera)
• Sirloin steak
• Porterhouse steak – the most expensive cut of beef
• T-bone steak
• Club steak
3) Round (pierna corta or tapadera)
• Rump roast
• Sirloin tip
• Round tip
• Round steak
• Heel of round
• Soup bones or cross cut shank

Pork carcass fabrication

a. Step in fabricating pork carcass
1) Separate the shoulder from the rest of the carcass by cutting across the side between
the second and third ribs and right angles to the general top line.
2) The ham, pig’s feet and tail portion are cut by sawing across the carcass at a site of
about two inches anterior the protruding pubic bone.
3) The tail is removed by cutting along the coccygeal bones and the pig’s feet are cut at
the joint between the hindshank bones and the hind feet.
4) The loin is separated by cutting the ribs from a point as close as possible to the
remaining tip of the blade bones at the shoulder and to a point just below the tenderloin
muscle at the other end.
5) The left portion will be the belly or side.

Three categories of pork cuts

1) lean cuts – composed of the ham, loin and shoulder
2) primal cuts – composed of the ham, loin, belly and shoulder
3) miscellaneous cuts – composed of the pig’s feet, tail, fat and lean
trimmings, neckbones and spareribs

Wholesale cuts of pork carcass

1. shoulder
2. ham
3. loin
4. belly or side

Retail cuts of pork carcass

1) shoulder (batuk)
• shoulder butt or boston butt (paypay)
• picnic (kasim)
 • clear plate
• neck bones (buto sa leeg or buto-buto)
• jowl
2) ham (pige)
• trimmed ham
• ham shank
• ham butt
• center slice
3) loin (lomo)
• pork chop (kostillas)
• loin end
• center loin
• blade end of the loin
4) belly or side (liempo)
• spare ribs (tadyang)
• trimmed belly

Goat and sheep carcass fabrication

Goat carcass seldom undergoes standard fabrication. In the singed method of
slaughtering goat and sheep, the whole carcass is sliced while it is singed. Carcass
dressed using flayed method of slaughtering seldom undergoes standard fabrication.
Goat carcasses are handled this way probably because of the marketing system in the
Philippines. Most goat are sold on a per-head basis and are used as a delicacy item by
some ethnic groups but not as a regular meat item in the market.
The fabrication procedure for goat carcass suggested here is revised from the
standard fabrication system for lambs used by the Americans. There are five cuts derived
from goat carcass:

1) Leg – it is separated by a cut at the tip of the pelvic bone perpendicular to the underline
when the carcass is extended. The posterior portion of the carcass is the leg.
2) Loin – it is the region of the carcass from the tip of the pelvic bone to the 12th rib

3) Rib – it is the cut from the point where the loin is separated and between the third and
fourth rib
4) Shoulder – it includes the regions from the third rib and second cervical vertebra. The
shank portion is included in this cut.

5) Neck
FIGURE 1. WHOLESALE CUTS OF BEEF CARCASS

FIGURE 2. WHOLESALE CUTS OF PORK CARCASS

 Unit 7. Principles of Meat Preservation

A. MEAT PRESERVATION

1. Meat preservation defined

Meat preservation is lengthening the storage life of meat by the application of

processes to delay meat spoilage. The physical appearance, chemical composition and
consistency of the meat may change, but as long as its fitness for human consumption is
prolonged, preservation is achieved. Any method that can contradict the forces of meat
deterioration is a good preservation method but its application to meat must be done as
soon as possible. Meat deteriorates very fast under normal room condition.The causes
of meat spoilage are biological, physical and chemical forces. Among the forces of
deterioration, the biological are the most prevalent and the most destructive.

B. CAUSES OF MEAT SPOILAGE

1. Biological causes of meat deterioration
This is brought about by microorganisms, flies, rodents and cockroaches. Among the
biological forces, microbiological spoilages are the most severe and account for almost
99.9% of all the biological deteriorations.
The organisms which spoil meat may gain access through infection of the living animal
or by contamination of the meat post-mortem. External contamination of the meat is a
continuing possibility from the moment of bleeding until consumption.
Growth requirements for the different microorganisms causing spoilage in meat are
the most important consideration in the inhibition of growth. Growth inhibition then can be
achieved by withholding one, two or all the required conditions and nutrients for growth.
Majority of the present day preservation methods are based on this principle. The
following are the growth requirements of microorganisms:

a. Moisture content - All microorganisms require water but the amount necessary for
growth varies between species. The amount of water that is available in food is
expressed in terms of water activity (aw), where the aw of pure water is 1.0.
Each microorganism has a maximum, optimum, and minimum aw for growth and
survival. Generally bacteria dominate in foods with high aw (minimum
approximately 0.90 aw) while yeasts and molds, which require less moisture,
dominate in low aw foods ( minimum 0.70 aw).

b. pH - Most microorganisms have approximately a neutral pH optimum (pH 6-7.5).

Yeasts are able to grow in a more acid environment compared to bacteria. Molds
can grow over a wide pH range but prefer only slightly acid conditions.
c. Available Oxygen - Microorganisms can be classified according to their oxygen
requirements necessary for growth and survival:

• Aerobes: oxygen required

• Facultative anaerobes: grow in the presence or absence of oxygen
• Anaerobes: grow only in complete absence of oxygen; if present it can be lethal

d. Temperature - As a group, microorganisms are capable of growth over an extremely

wide temperature range. According to temperature, microorganisms can be
placed into three groups:

• Psychrotrophs: optimum growth temperatures 20 to 30° capable of growth at

temperatures less than 7° C. Psychrotrophic organisms are specifically
important in the spoilage of refrigerated products.
• Mesophiles: optimum growth temperatures 30 to 40° C; do not grow at
refrigeration temperatures
• Thermophiles: optimum growth between 55 and 65° C

It is important to note that for each group, the growth rate increases as the temperature
increases only up to an optimum, after which it rapidly declines.

2. Chemical causes of meat deterioration

a. enzymatic action
Enzymatic action is a common cause of food spoilage. Enzymes are problem
substances, which will help speed up chemical reaction. This maybe reduced or totally
stopped by subjecting the meat to a temperature below or above the temperature range
needed for the activity of the meat enzymes.

b. oxidation
This chemical reaction is popularly known as rancidity. Development of rancidity
maybe controlled or delayed by eliminating the factors required for its development. For
rancidity to develop, light, air and free fatty acids must be available. If one of these is
missing, rancidity does not occur.
At present, rancidity can be delayed by vacuum packaging of products and by
adding antioxidants.

c. discoloration
Any deviation from the normal color of the meat muscle maybe described as
discoloration. Discolorations are usually associated with chemical changes in the muscle
pigments primarily in myoglobin. Discoloration is usually due to the presence of
metmyoglobin, which contributes the brown or grayish brown color of fresh and processed
meat.
3. Physical causes of meat deterioration
a. dehydration
The loss of moisture from meat surfaces during storage produces a dried, stale,
coarse, textured appearance that adversely affects eye appeal and acceptability. Unless
severe dehydration has occurred, the problem is confined largely to the surface. Severe
dehydration usually results in a very dry product following cooking, and thus, it can affect
palatability of meat as a food.

b. freezing and thawing

During freezing storage an excessive loss of moisture from meat surfaces will
result in localized areas of dehydration and discoloration. This harmless phenomenon is
called freeze burn. It can result when the wrapping material has been punctured or when
moisture proof wrapping is not used.
The physical damage caused by slow freezing results in a considerable loss of
fluid from the meat when it is thawed. This fluid will collect in a package upon thawing
and is called drip.

c. shrinkage under refrigeration

During refrigerated storage, meat loses moisture from its surfaces, resulting in a
weight loss called shrink. Other physical changes that accompany prolonged
refrigeration of meat include surface dehydration and discoloration.

C. METHODS OF MEAT PRESERVATION

The principles underlying meat preservation include:
1. removing and keeping the microorganisms out (asepsis)
2. hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms
3. killing the microorganisms
4. destroying and inactivating food enzymes

For preservation method to be effective, the meat must be sound and must contain
low microbial load. The method must be practical, usable and should not render the
product unpalatable or destroy its appearance. It should counteract or stop the action of
forces of meat deterioration. These are the following methods of meat preservation:

Temperature Control
• Freezing
• Chilling
• Thermal Processing
Moisture Control
• Dehydration
• Drying
• Freezedrying
 • Curing
• Smoking
Direct Microbial Inhibition
• Ionizing radiation
• Antibiotics
• Chemical preservatives

1. Temperature Control
a. Low Temperature Processing

1) Chilling
Chilling is subjecting meat to a temperature between 0-4ºC. This temperature can affect
rapid cooling of the meat but does not cause hardening and freezing of meat juices.

2) Freezing
This refers to the process of exposing meat to a temperature range of (-32ºF)
resulting to crystallization of water in the tissues.

Types:
(a) quick freezing – infers a freezing of 30 minutes or less. This is usually attained at a temperature range of (-15ºC) to (-46ºC).

(b) slow freezing – freezing of the meat takes from 3-72 hours usually at (-15ºC) to (-29ºC).

Advantages of quick freezing:

• Less mechanical destruction of meat cells
• Less time for diffusion of soluble materials and separation of ice
• There is more prompt inhibition of microbial growth

b. Thermal Processing
1) Blanching
Applied to inactivate the enzymes before further heat treatment (65°C)

2) Cooking
Applied to improve the sensory characteristics of meat (85°C)

Methods of cooking meat

The method used in meat cookery depends on the nature of the cut to which it is applied.
In general, there are three methods of cooking meat:
a. Dry heat cooking – in this method, the meat is surrounded by hot air. It is used in preparing the more tender cuts or those than
contain little connective tissues. The common methods of cooking by dry heat are:
 1) roasting – method in which the meat is cooked in an oven by heated air
surrounding the meat. It is not covered and no water is added.

2) broiling – cooking by direct heat from a flame, an electric unit or glowing coals

3) panbroiling – cooking using frying pan but no water or fat is added, heat from
a flame or glowing coals can be used in cooking

4) panfrying – small amount of lard is added in an uncovered pan over direct

heat
b. Moist heat cooking – cooking by moist heat or makes use of hot liquid or steam. It is generally used in preparing the less tender
cuts, those containing more connective tissues that require moist heat to soften them and make them tender. In this
type of cooking, the meat is surrounded by hot liquid or by steam. The common methods of moist heat cooking are:

1) braising – cooking is steam trapped in a covered container or foil wrap. The

source of steam maybe water or any other liquid added to the
meat or its maybe from meat juices.

2) simmering/boiling – cooking meat in liquid. This is used for large cuts and
stews. In simmering, the liquid is heated below boiling whereas
in boiling, the liquid is allowed to boil.

3) pressure cooking – this uses pressure that results in higher cooking

temperatures; it minimizes the time required to gelatinize the
collagen and produces tender meat in a relatively short time.

c. Microwave cookery – this makes use of a portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum. In principle, the microwaves are directed and reflected from the
metal walls back and forth through the food (a dielectric substance) so
that food absorbs energy from the electromagnetic field. Upon being
absorbed by the food, the energy is converted to heat by intermolecular
collisions. Heating is done within the food per se and not by transfer of
heat from the surrounding environment.

3) Canning
This is the hermetic or airtight sealing of foods in cans or jars at 212ºF (100ºC) at 10-15
pounds pressure for a specific period of time. This is the most important and efficient type
of meat treatment because food free from viable microorganisms can be obtained and
products can be stored without refrigeration.
 a) Pasteurization - destroys pathogenic vegetative cells but certain heat resistant
microbes and spores can survive. Products subjected to this treatment require
refrigeration.
b) Sterilization - destroys both microorganisms and spores but affects the quality of
meat to a considerably greater degree. Meat is subjected under pressure at
temperature above 110°C. These products are shelf stable and need no
refrigeration.

The major reason for canning meat is to provide safe products that have desirable flavor,
texture and appearance. Successful production of commercially sterile canned meat
products requires that all viable microorganisms be either destroyed or rendered dormant.
The process must also inactivate raw material enzyme systems.

2. Moisture Control
a. Drying
This is the oldest method of meat preservation. This is defined as removal of
moisture from meat. The method involves the reduction of the original water content.
Two ways of drying:

1) natural drying (drying)– natural sunlight is used to reduce the moisture content of meat
2) artificial drying (dehydration) – a chamber equipment with heating elements maintained at a

temperature of 110-120ºF and relative humidity of 85% is used for drying

b. Freezedrying
Removal of water from meat by sublimation from the frozen state

c. Smoking
This is a process of subjecting meat to smoke produced by burning wood or
sawdust.

Two methods:
1) natural smoking – exposure of the meat to wood smoke which causes the deposition of phenolic

and pyroligneous compounds on the meat surface that acts as preservative and flavoring agent

2) artificial smoke (liquid smoke) – smoke flavor is incorporated in the pumping pickle for ham and

bacon.
 The effectiveness of smoking in meat preservation is therefore dependent on the
dryness of the product, thoroughness of smoking and the amount of smoke compounds
that adhere to the meat surface.

d. Salting
This is a simple method of dehydration in which the salt caused the withdrawal of
water from the tissue of both the meat and the spoilage organisms resulting to the
shriveling and plasmolysis of bacterial cells. Salt also ionizes to yield chlorine ion which
is harmful to organisms. Salted meat becomes tough, shriveled and loses some of the
important meat flavor.

e. Curing
This refers to the application of salt, sugar, nitrates and other preservatives and adjunct
to prolong the keeping quality of the product. Curing ingredients inhibit the growth of
microorganisms. If the ingredients are absorbed by the meat ahead of the penetration of
destructive microorganisms, curing is a success.

f. Pickling (pickle curing)

In pickle curing, curing ingredients are mixed in water to form a pickle solution. This
solution can be introduced into the meat in any of the following ways:

1) stitch pumping – a single needle with multiple openings or multiple needles with single
opening maybe used to inject the solution into the meat

2) artery pumping – solution is injected into an artery and distributed throughout the cut
via the vascular system

3) tumbling or massaging – utilizes a machine that resemble a concrete mixer to tumble

or massage cuts as they are cured.

4) vat curing – meat is submerged in a vat containing pickle solution until the solution
completely penetrates the meat.

Basic ingredients for curing meat

There are some meat processing ingredients or food additive that should not be
used in liberal amount in processing of meat products. Some ingredients when used in
excessive amount may cause the product to be less attractive in appearance or maybe
hazardous to health of consumers.

1. Salt
Salt is basic to all curing mixtures and is the only ingredient necessary for curing. It is an
important ingredient in the preparation of meat emulsions for imparting the typical flavor
and texture of processed meats and to contribute to keeping quality by preventing the
growth of putrefying bacteria. A higher salt content would produce a salty taste. In
addition, salt alone results in a dark, undesirable colored lean that is unattractive and
objectionable to consumers.

2. Sugar
It adds flavor, helps overcome saltiness and counteracts the toughening effect of salt.
Sugar also interacts with the amino groups of the proteins and when cooked, forms
browning products that enhance the flavor of cured products. It aids in the lowering of pH
of the cure by providing food for some of the lactic acid fermenting bacteria that develop
the characteristic flavor of some dried cured products. It can also reduce the shelf life of
the meat by providing food for spoilage bacteria, yeasts and molds. Corn syrup, molasses
and other natural sugar substitutes are sometimes used in place of sugar.

3. Nitrates and nitrites (curing salt)

Nitrates and nitrites are curing ingredients. Examples of these ingredients commonly
available in the market are:
a. potassium nitrate and nitrite (KNO3, KNO2)
b. sodium nitrite (NaNO2)
c. sodium nitrate (NaNO3, Saltpeter)
a. prague powder (salitre)
b. ultra cure and regal cure

The function of nitrite in meat curing includes:

a. to stabilize the color of lean tissues
b. to contribute to the characteristic flavor of the meat
c. to inhibit growth of a number of food poisoning and spoilage
microorganisms ( Clostridium botulinum in canned products)
d. to retard development of rancidity

Nitrate itself is not effective in producing the curing reaction until it is first broken
down into nitrite. This is a slow process that depends upon the presence of bacteria in
brine and meat. Therefore, nitrate has largely been replaced by nitrite.
Nitrite provides the ultimate source of the nitric oxide that reacts with the myoglobin
pigment of the muscle tissue. Levels in excess of 200 parts per million (0.02%) of sodium
nitrite should not be used. Since nitrate and nitrite are added in small amounts, it is
recommended that they be first dissolved in water to ensure uniform distribution.
Nitrates have been implicated in the formation of cancer-producing substances
(called nitrosamines) in meat under certain circumstances.

4. Phosphates
This is adjunct that is used to increase the water holding capacity of cured
products. With increase water holding capacity, product yield increase, and product
surface is drier and firmer. The action of phosphates in improving water retention appears
to be twofold: raising the pH and causing an unfolding of the muscle proteins thereby
making more sites available for water binding.
 As cured products containing phosphates loss moisture after processing, the
phosphates may precipitate out on the surface forming “whiskers” or phosphate crystals.
Excessive levels have been accused of causing soapy taste.
Examples of phosphate commonly available in the market are FOS, Accord and
Ultra bind. It is used not more than 0.5% of the mixture.

5. Ascorbates/Erythorbates
Ascorbates serve three functions:
a. take part in the reduction of methmyoglobin to myoglobin thereby
accelerating the rate of curing
b. it reacts chemically with nitrite to increase the yield of nitric oxide from
nitrous acid
c. excess ascorbate act as antioxidant, thereby stabilizing both color and
flavor
d. under certain conditions ascorbates have been shown to reduce
nitrosamine formation

Examples are ascorbic acid, erythorbic acid, sodium ascorbate, citric acid and sodium
citrate. It should be used not more than 500 parts per million (0.05%) of the mixture.

6. Vinegar
It is added for flavor but it also has some antiseptic value. It therefore aids in prolonging
the shelf life of the finished product. The acetic acid content should be between 4.5% and
5.0%.

7. Extenders/Binders/Filters/Emulsifiers
Extenders in general are added to lower quality products for economic reasons.
Some of them improve binding properties, cooking yields, slicing characteristics and
flavor.
Binders are proteinaceous agents that improved water-binding properties of
comminuted meat products. Fillers are carbohydrate products which absorbed extensive
quantities of water. However, they are not good emulsifiers. Extenders are nonmeat
materials, add in an amount that they are able to increase the bulk or modify the quality
of sausage or meat loaf products. It is usually plant protein. Most extenders are usually
limited to 3% in the dry state or to 10% after swelling.

Examples of these products are:

a. dried skim milk and milk products
b. various cereal flours such as wheat, rice oats, corn
c. soy products such as flours (containing about 50% protein)
 d. grits (similar to soy flour in composition but larger in particle size and more
adaptable to meat products)
e. textured soy protein (similar to grits except that the texture is changed to
more closely resemble the texture of ground meat)
f. soy protein concentrates (containing about 70% protein, that is available
either in a coarse granular form as a flour)
g. soy protein isolates (containing about 90% protein) useful both as binders
and emulsifiers

8. Seasoning
Seasoning is a comprehensive term for ingredients, which improve the flavor of
processed meats. Salt and pepper form the foundation upon which many seasoning
formulas are built. Other ingredients such as spices, herbs and vegetables are
supplementary, although necessary to obtain the distinctive flavor associated with various
products.

Spices are aromatic substances of vegetable origin and include cinnamon, cassia,
clove, ginger, mace, nutmeg, paprika, pepper, cardamom, coriander, and mustard. They
vary in composition. Spices increase zest and product variety to the diet. They also
stimulate the flow of digestive secretion thereby aiding digestion. The aromatic and
pungent components which render them valuable are present in volatile oils and resins.

Condiment herbs include sage, savory, bay leaves, thyme and marjoram. The
dried leaves of any of them can be used in the preparation of sausages and other meat
products. Condiment vegetables are onion and garlic.

9. Other ingredients
Anisado wine, monosodium glutamate (MSG) and soy sauce are added to further
improve the flavor of the product.

3. Direct Microbial Inhibition

a. Irradiation
The use of radiation that have wavelengths of 2000Å or less in order to destroy
microorganisms in and on meat without raising the temperature of the product. This
process is called cold sterilization.

b. Use of Antibiotics
Since their effect is bacteriostatic it is more effective where the total bacterial
population is low. Since they do not sterilize food, they delay rather than prevent
spoilage.There is possible development of resistance of microorganism in meat.
 Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can produce several antimicrobial compounds including
organic acids, carbon dioxide, bacteriocins that may play a role in meat preservation and
could be used as alternative for chemical preservatives. Bacteriocinogenic starter
cultures and their bacteriocins can be included in the meat batter, sprayed onto the
surface or added to active packaging

c. Use of Chemical Preservatives

A chemical preservative is any substance which is capable of inhibiting, retarding,
or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification or other deterioration of food or of
masking any evidence of putrefaction. Examples: nitrite, nitrate, sorbic acid, acetic acid.

D. CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESSED MEAT

Processed meat maybe defined as meat that has been changed by any
mechanical, chemical or enzymatic treatment, altering the taste, appearance and often
the keeping quality of the product.
Classification of processed meat
a. Sausages (comminuted products)
b. cured whole muscle cuts (non-comminuted products)
c. restructured meat products
1. Sausages
These are comminuted, seasoned meat that maybe cured, smoked, molded or heat
processed. The numerous varieties of sausages necessitate several and slightly different
processing procedures. The meat can come from beef, veal, pork, lamb, poultry or
combination of these sources. Some sausages are made from meat that is cured, smoked
or cooked or treated by a combination of these processes. Products such as bologna,
frankfurters and many loaf types of luncheon meat are made from finely ground meat
emulsions. Other products such as smoke pork sausages or Italian and Polish sausages
are coarse in texture and do not require emulsification. Production of dry and semi-dry
sausages requires carefully controlled fermentation and drying.

2. Cured whole muscle cuts

Whole muscle cuts like ham, corned beef, pastrami and bacon are considered processed
meat products because they have been treated with a curing solution, dry cured, smoked
and/or seasoned.
a. Ham – defined as the hindleg of pork that has been cured and smoked or cured and canned

b. Corned beef - the brisket is the most popular cut of meat used for corned beef, although beef round

is also used. Formerly, “corning” referred to the process of preserving beef by sprinkling it

with grains (corns) of salt. Today, corned beef is cured with pickle solution consisting of

water, salt, sugar, nitrite and spices.

c. Bacon – it is produced primarily from pork bellies. Beef bacon is made from the boneless beef short

plate. Canadian style bacon is made from top loin muscle of pork. These are cured and

smoked giving them their unique flavor.

d. Pastrami – made from the brisket, plate or top round muscle of beef. After dry curing with salt, the

beef is washed, and then rubbed with a paste of garlic powder, ground cumin, red pepper,

cinnamon, cloves and allspice. It is then smoked and cooked.

4. Restructured meat
Restructured meat products are generally made from flaked, ground or sectioned
beef or pork, which is shaped into roasts, steaks or loaves. Examples of restructured meat
are smoked sliced beef and most boneless hams.
The process of restructuring consists of three steps: a reduction or modification in
particle size, blending and reforming into the desired product size and shape. Some
restructured hams look very similar to their whole muscle counterparts. In fact, some are
simple chunks of ham that have been bound together to form a larger piece.
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