Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology

Volume 22
Article 4
Issue 2 July

Summer 1931

A Practical Study of Some Etiological Factors in

Theft Behavior
Fred Brown

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Recommended Citation
Fred Brown, A Practical Study of Some Etiological Factors in Theft Behavior, 22 Am. Inst. Crim. L. & Criminology 221 (1931-1932)

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A PRACTICAL STUDY -OF SOME ETIOLOGICAL
FACTORS IN TIEFT BEHAVIOR

FRED BROWN*

Strangely enough, little attention has been paid in the past to the
crime of theft altho passing allusion to it has been made in extensive
studies of crime in general. Recent contributions of psychoanalysis
and psychology indicate that a generalized treatment of so complex a
problem as crime can only prove sterile. The term "Crime" covers a
multitude of misdemeanors; but the sharp scalpel of scientific research
has failed to dissect out the constituent parts of the whole. Crimes
are committed by human beings; the acts themselves are overt and
classifiable; finally, it is generally acknowledged that the average
law-breaker persists in practicing that form of behavior which re-
peatedly sends him to the penitentiary. Here, then, we are confronted
with three definite variables which invariably operate in the crime of
theft. The antecedents of these variables must be assiduously sought
for. It is quite obvious that the determining elements in the theft
configuration will differ from those of murder, robbery or arson.
Therefore, any attempt to posit general causes of crime must be re-
garded as an illogical attempt to measure widely different phenomena
with one yardstick. Sweeping generalizations on crime neglect wide
differ'races between types of anti-social conduct. Of greater im-
portance is the neglect of individual psycho-sociological differences
between the individual offenders within the differentiated group.
We are slowly approaching the time when study of the criminal
will be wholly individualized. Before this point is reached, crime itself
must be divided into separate behavior categories and investigated, not
as a legal abstraction, but as a behavior mode.
It is the purpose of the present investigator to study theft as a
type of behavior which presupposes a psycho-social background ex-
hibiting a syndrome that is different from other anti-social acts.
In the present study an attempt was made to determine what
factors operated in the formation and composition of the criminal
personality which ultimately led to the commission of the criminal act.
For this purpose, a study was made of 40 inmates of the Ohio State
*Department of Clinical and Abnormal Psychology, State University,
Columbus, Ohio.
222 FRED BROWN

Penitentiary who were apprehended and convicted on the charge of

both grand and petty larceny, (i.e. the appropriation of another's
property without consent of the owner and without the use of force
or arms). This offense was selected rather than another because (1)
of its very great prevalence, (2) the fact that it generally marks the
first step in the commencement of a criminal career and (3) it rules
out to a great extent the possibilities of grave abnormalities such as
we might expect to find in cases of arson, murder, rape, incest, etc.
Robbery 1 was ruled out because it was felt that the psychological
constitution of the robber differed from that of the thief, the act of
robbery generally demanding greater aggressiveness.
The group studied ranged in age from 20 to 30 years. It was
decided to remain within this limit for various reas6ns; among them
the fact that very often the offender is convicted for a first offence
and is past the age for a reformatory commitment. It was thought that
a study of such types might prove valuable. Again, individuals between
these ages are more cooperative and plastic than older offenders, thus
affording a greater possibility, of obtaining data. There is also the
factor of memory, which is more reliable in, the formative years.
The tests employed comprised (1) the Morgan intelligence test,
which tests verbal intelligence and is self-administering. The whole
test consumes 40 minutes. (2) The Myers Mental Measure, a non-
verbal test which tests memory and ability to comprehend abstract
relationships. (3) The Ohio Literacy Test, which provides a means
of determining the school grade reading level of the individual tested
and is, in addition, a fairly good test of intelligence.
For the purpose of dscovering any indications of psychopathy, the
Ohio State Revision of the Woodworth-Wells Psychoneurotic In-
ventory was utilized. This form consists of 75 instead of 115 ques-
tions. All those of a redundant or too general nature are omitted.
In order to facilitate the gathering of data relative to education,
marital status, economic status or parents and offender, occupation of
parent and offender, vocational training, family relations, religious
training, recreational preferences, etc., a questionnaire was employed,
this being used merely as a means of ready classification and uniformity
2
in obtaining information.

'Wedefine "robbery" as follows: "The felonious and forcible taking from

the person of another goods or money of any value; from the person of another
by violence
2
or putting him in fear. (Bouvier's Law Dictionary.)
1n most cases the questions served as detonators for volunteered informa-
tion. Often the reply would impart detailed information of great value.
THEFT BEHAVIOR 223

The present research was begun with a careful analysis of the

case-record folders in the record office of the penitentiary. These were
found without exception to contain a copy of the indictment, a record
of the physical examination at time of admission, the result of a
3
Wasserman test, the physician's estimate of the prisoner's mentality,
a history of the crime for which the prisoner had been immured, the
prisoner's own statement of same, the opinion of the judge and prose-
cuting attorney and a record of previous commitments. Very often
letters from the parent of the prisoner to the Warden were found
which contained statements concerning the prisoner's character and
previous behavior. 4 Letters from the prisoner to the Warden, Gover-
nor, and members of the family or relatives were carefully examined
for significant details. A record of the prisoner's conduct while in the
institution was also included and served as an indication of adapta-
bility.
A specially prepared questionnaire was sent to those institutions
mentioned in the criminal record. This questionnaire bore upon be-
havior while in a previous prison or reformatory. Items on the medical
examination record were interpreted with the aid of the prison
physician and Dr. Henry H. Goddard. This interpretation was made
for the purpose of ascertaining the r6le played by any specific physical
disorder in the life history of the individual.
After the records in the folders had been carefully examined
and all important details noted, the prisoners to whom they referred
were sent for. This was made possible by the excellent cooperation
of the men in the Deputy's office, who traced the prisoner to his
company and brought him to the office without delay. Two men were
generally called in at the same time. The writer was permitted to
interview the men at any time until 4:30 P. M., and was allowed to
remain with them unmolested for as long as three and one-half hours
at a time.
As soon as the men were brought in they were turned over to
the writer. At first the Deputy's private office was used for confer-
ences. Later this was discontinued and the court-room was substituted.
This room is well-lighted and ventilated, contains a long table and three
comfortable chairs and is perfectly free from distractions in any
form. The men were referred to by name and invited to make them-
8No mental tests are given prisoners, either upon entrance or during stay
in the institution.
4
Too much faith was not placed in these letters, inasmuch as the emotional
element, which in these cases tends to condone and forget previous wayward-
ness, seemed to predominate.
 FRED BROWN

selves as comfortable as possible. The writer then introduced himself

and stated as briefly as possible the nature of his mission and stressed
the necessity for honest cooperation: The men were assured that any
disclosures made would be treated confidentially, and that no names
would be mentioned at any time. One point was strongly emphasized;
that in any case where the individual wished to withhold information
he was to do so without substituting pseudo facts for the benefit of
the investigator. Another item always insisted upon was that the
whole procedure was to be considered as purely voluntary. This was
done in order to eliminate those who might regard the interview as a
hardship and consequently mislead the examiner. Of the total number
interviewed, five chose to leave. These were characterize4 by those
who had accompanied them as persons who had very little to do with
the rest of the men.
The tests were not begun at once. An acquaintanoe period
of from ten minutes to a half hour, in which rapport was
established, was first allowed to elapse. During this period, the prison
in general, with reference to discipline, cuisine, etc., was discussed.
Unobtrusive questions were asked concerning the prisoner's attitude
toward his confinement, his hopes and plans' for the future and his
impressions of institutional life.
One of the men was then given a Morgan test to work on while
the other was taken into an adjoining room and there interviewed at
length. Before commencing, however, he was again warned against
imparting fictitious data. In no case was the questionnaire filled out
by the men. It was employed rather as a census, the interlocutor ques-
tioning the prisoner and the prisoner replying. Each individual con-
ferred with was encouraged to elucidate in detail, the interviewer
speaking as little as possible.5
At the expiration of forty minutes, the other prisoner, who by
this time had completed the Morgan, was interviewed, while the latter
was given the test. Following this, both were given the Myers and
the Ohio Literacy. These were followed by the Woodworth-Wells.
which was preceded by an offer to explain any question not clear.
After this procedure had been completed, the interview was concluded
imless more explicit knowledge was required. In such cases one or
both of the men were retained and additional information sought.
5
A useful device in the case of Catholic prisoners was to liken the inter-
view to a confession, the comparison being made that all information would
be as confidential as if spoken in a confessional. Strange as it may seem,
.this 6device served to melt the strongest reticences.
The inactive prisoner was either asked to rest or given popular magazines
which the interviewer carried with him for this purpose. 0
THEFT BEHAVIOR 225

In the second conference, which was held with more than half
of the cases, the individuals were called in singly. In this interview
the rapport established in the previous meeting was found invaluable.
No notes were taken in most instances, the data being jotted down
immediately afterwards. This gave the meeting an informal air which
encouraged greater confidences. Much was often discovered in these
second meetings which had been withheld in the first.
In some instances it was necessary to convince the men that they
were not being tested for an insane asylum. Another factor often met
with was the fear of newspaper publicity. The usual objection to such
publicity was that "They had had enough." Others feared it might
interfere with their chances for parole or endanger -the possibility of
procuring work after discharge.
The following cases constitute a fair representation of all those
studied. As complete an account of the individual's life history, in
all its various aspects and phases as it has been possible to obtain, has
been presented in each case. A diagnosis and prognosis of each case
is also appended. The writer intends to make a follow-up study of the
same individuals after their parole or release.

CASE I.
Frank-Age 27.
Frank's parents were French Canadians who owned a small farm
in Maine. The produce from the farm sufficed to provide the family
with food. Frank was the only child. His mother died when he was
very young but he learned from his grandmother that she was a quiet
woman, of frail constitution physically. When Frank was four years
old his father remarried. The second wife, according to Frank's
description, was "as wide as she was long", highly nervous and sub-
ject to hysterical seizures during which she would scream and hurl
at him anything she could lay hold of. This woman seems to have
developed an intense hatred against the child and sought on every
occasion to injure him. Frank claims that he regards his three foster
brothers and one step-sister as total strangers, no friendship having
ever developed between him and them. He expressed himself with
intense feeling as he recounted the earlier years of his life which appear
to have been considerably embittered by his step-mother, who vented
her sadistic impulses upon him.
His father, who had never gone to school, was an alcohol addict.
Frank was never sent to school. Instead, at the age of 10 he rose at
4:00 A. M., did chores about the house, then went off to a neighboring
 FRED BROWN

lumber camp and worked "on the other end of a saw" until night-fall.
He did not mind this so much although he claims he would have liked
to have gone to school. His father frequently boasted of his son's
strength, evidently regarding its possession as far superior to that of
brains. Frank states he was whipped very frequently with a horse-
whip, generally because of fancied or justifiable rebellion against his
step-mother. At times neighbors, stirred by the cruelty of these pun-
ishments. interceded for him.
He was given no religious education, although prayers were of-
fered morning and evening at home. At the age of eleven he received
his first communion, which he did not understand and which seemed
"crazy" to him.
His first misdemeanor occurred at the age of ten. He tells that
his father was away from home for about a week. During this time
he was forced by his stepmother to live in the barn. He went without
food for two whole days and finally, to relieve his hunger, removed
the putty from a grocery store window, entered and stole two sacks
of candy. His stepmother discovered the theft and threatened him
with dire punishment upon his father's return.
Frank fled but was apprehended forty miles from home. His
father called for him and brought him back. Seven miles from home,
he states, his father turned to him, cursed vilely and promised to
teach him a lesson. Frank claims he was then tied to the sled
and dragged the remaining distance. Upon arrival he was soundly
thrashed with a whip made of baleing wire. His second flight from
home followed an altercation with his stepmother wherein she hurled
a pitchfork at him and pierced his ankle.
For the next few years, up to the age of 20, he worked on farms
and in lumber camps. In all this time he never conflicted with the
law (and indeed, he has no criminal record at the penitentiary). He
later drifted to Chicago where he bootlegged for a few weeks, finally
giving it up because he had to carry a gun and feared that its use might
cause trouble. During this period he also picked up some knowledge
of automobile engines and worked in a garage, where he claims to have
earned $125.00 a month. He worked at this trade for two years.
In 1925 he met his present wife. She was working in a restaurant
at the time, earning $20.00 per week. He describes her as plain
in feature but good-hearted. He courted her one year and finally
married her, although he was a Catholic and she a Protestant. Due
to her, however, he changed his religious affiliation, rationalizing his
transfer by claiming that "he couldn't see how a priest could forgive."
THEFT BEHAVIOR 227

His intention at this time was to return to Maine and settle down.
He claims to have bought a second-hand car and a camping outfit
with which to travel to Maine, combining business with pleasure.' On
the way, he states, his car and equipment caught fire and was totally
consumed. With what money he had both he and his wife went to
Ashtabula and were stranded there. He found work in a garage and
stayed for two weeks. Then he appropriated a Ford car and left town
with his wife, intending, he claims, to leave the car in a garage at his
destination and notify the owner. He was apprehended in Pittsfield,
Mass., and sentenced to the Ohio State Penitentiary for from 3 to 15
years. After being sent to the prison camp he walked away, but was
caught in 12 hours, and assessed two years. His minimum is nearly
up but he must serve two more years in consequence of his escape.
He explained this escape as due to an uncontrollable desire to be'
with his wife who was ill in a Detroit hospital at the time with no
one to help her. He showed the writer the letters he received at the
time. In the circumstances he cannot be blamed for his conduct.
A physical examination upon entering the penitentiary showed
hardening of the spermatic cord, left side; acne vulgaris on the back ;7
broken arches in both feet and reflexes sluggish. He also stated
that his right eye was congenitally weak. The Wasserman indicated
a 4 plus reaction. Frank denies ever having had a venereal disease.
He may have contracted syphilis during his stay in Chicago, where
he attended public dances and went joyriding. He claims never to
have frequented poolrooms. There is also the- possibility of con-
genital syphilis.
He expresses himself quite clearly and speaks with a forceful
intensity. His choice of language is fair when one considers that he
spoke only French up to the age of 12. He states he never read until
he came to the penitentiary, where he gradually learned.
The mental examinations, which he appeared to enjoy, showed
a mental age of 11.3 on the Morgan, 16 on the Myers, and 11 on the
Ohio Literacy. There were 23 atypical answers on the Woodworth-
Wells, however.8 At the time these tests were administered he was
deeply dejected over his extended sentence and constantly worried
over his wife's condition. When interviewed two months later he

,The appearance of welt scars and Acne vulgaris is very similar. See
"Diseases of the Skin," R. L. Sutton, M. D. Mosby, 1917. P. 828-832.
8
A very recent re-test on tht Woodworth-Wells finds this number reduced
to eight.
228 FRED BROWN

appeared altogether different and would, no doubt, score higher if

re-tested.
A letter from his wife to the warden states, "I kept company
with him one year before I was married to him, and think of it, only
three months till this trouble came over him. As I knew him he was
a good hard-working husband, did not drink, and as for him being a
thief at heart, I know he was not."
Frank also showed the investigator numerous letters from his
wife wherein she encourages him and holds out the hope of a new
life after release. This factor makes his present situation bearable.
He remarked that the time he took the car he told her it was loaned
to him by his friend under whom he worked at the garage. He did
not want her to know he took it.
The prosecuting attorneys says, "Man is a 'bad actor' generally.
Stole Dort Touring car before stealing Ford. Found guilty of theft
various other times. Had in his possession at time of arrest master
keys and large assortment of auto keys. An habitual auto thief."
Frank emphatically denies the accusation. The keys, he says,
were taken from the garage where he worked at the time he took
the car. Such keys were always kept about in order to move cars
and make room for others.
His conduct in prison has been fairly satisfactory. In three
years he has been guilty of only six violations which are as follows:
(1) Disobedience-talking; (2) Sleeping in church; (3) Talking; (4)
Smoking; (5) Escape; (which cost him two years), and (6) dis-
obedience to orders. On one occasion he fought with his cell mate
because, he claims, that individual expectorated indiscriminately in
the cell.
As he looks back upon the theft of the car he realizes the un-
happiness it has brought him and his wife. He admits it was an
exhibition of poor judgment but no other alternative seemed possible
at the time.
His attitude toward life is a mixture of cynicism and tolerance.
He admits being swayed by two impulses; one, to build a shack in
the woods and live as a recluse, another, to buy a small farm and
raise a family. Asked if he would give them a good education,
replied, "If I had gotten an education instead of being kicked around,
I wouldn't be here now." Asked about his two year extension he re-
flected, "It's like letting apples lay on the ground after they drop
from ripeness . . . they get rotten."
THEFT BEHAVIOR

It appears from our study of this case that Frank has led an
unfortunate life. His intelligence, as tested by the, Myers Mental
Measure, is good. It is very probably true that the lower scores on
the other two tests are attributable to his reading deficiency and will
increase commensurately with improvement along this line. He is
strongly attached to his wife and with such a guiding influence should
be able to maintain himself on a farm and stay out of trouble. What
two more years in a penitentiary will do to him is conjectural. One
may hazard a. guess, however, that no benefits will result therefrom.
He has shown ambitious tendencies in the past three years by learning
to read. At the present time he is learning to figure. This ambition,
if given an opportunity might flower in society and make Frank a law-
abiding citizen. Under the present circumstances, especially if his
incarceration should deprive him of a wife, society may be breeding
a dangerous enemy.

CASE II
Charles-Age 26.
Charles was born in Philo, Ohio, eight miles below Zanesville. His
parents were native born Americans. Charles was the fourth in a
family of six; there having been four males and two females. The
family lived in a five-room company house rented from the company
in whose mine the father labored. His income ranged from thirty to
thirty-five dollars per week. Charles could not tell whether either of
his parents had ever attended school.
. The mother is at the present tiine in a home for the feeble-
minded at Orient, Ohio. Two brothers are in institutions for the
insane. No information concerning the rest of the family is available.
In school Charles attained to the third grade by the age of 15.
He then quit because of poor eyesight, his right eye barely being able
to distinguish between night and day. There is strong reason to
believe that he became discouraged over his lack of progress. His
religious training was entirely neglected. He states that his parents
never went to church as far as he knows nor were there ever any
religious observances in the home such as grace, prayer, etc. He also
asserts that the nearest church was situated approximately 6 miles
from his home.
After leaving school, Charles procured work on a neighbor's farm,
where he stayed until the age of 17. He then worked in the coal mine
and did other labor, especially railroad construction work. In common
with other boys of his own age in such communities he went joy-
 FRED BROWN

riding every Saturday night. It was on such an occasion that he con-

tracted syphilis. He was 19 years old at the time. He confided the
matter to his father who advised him to "do something for it."
Charles forgets whether something was done or not.
When Charles was 23 years old his father was killed in a mine
explosion, a calamity which disintegrated the family. Charles went
to Zanesville and procured work in a power plant where he earned
from fifteen to eighteen dollars a week. After staying on this job for
seven months, he returned to Philo and resumed mine work. In-
dustrial conditions were very poor at the time, and therefore mine
labor was so distributed as to give each worker at least two days of
work a week. Charles fell behind in his board bill and was considerably
worried. He tried to borrow money but to no avaiL
One day, as he was walking along the river on company property
(although he says he was unaware of this), he noticed a drill, covered
with mud and water, laying on the river bank. He claims to have seen
it there before and thought no one wanted it. He therefore appropri-
ated it and sold it for junk, together with other iron he had previously
collected.
He was arrested at his home the following day and immediately
confessed the theft, even offering to give part of his wage in payment
thereof. He was promised immunity. This promise, however, failed
to materialize and he was sentenced to the Ohio State Penitentiary
on a charge of grand larceny with a sentence of from one to seven
years.
The physical examination revealed palpable cervical glands, gen-
itals microphallus, varicocele left, reflexes exaggerated (a result of his
syphillic infection). The Wasserman gave a 4 plus reaction.
He admitted gonorrhea twice in 1928 and syphilitic chancre in
1925. His test scores showed a low mental level, with a mental age
of 10.7 on the Morgan; 10.8 on the Myers, and 12 on the Literacy.
The Psychoneurotic Inventory results were insignificant. Throughout
the interview he was pathetically eager to comply with all requests.
The prosecuting attorney says of him, "I do not believe the man
to be criminally inclined, but I believe that careful observation of him
may be beneficial to the man after he is set at liberty from the institu-
tion." It is difficult to understand in what manner such observation,
especially under the eye of a guard, might be of benefit to Charles.
Charles is somewhat puzzled over the whole matter. He feels
that some mighty power has changed the course of his existence but
THEFT BEHAVIOR 231

is not altogether clear about the process. He is still willing to give

half his earnings to the company if they will set him free. He plans
to work on a farm after the expiration of his sentence, and leave
mines alone., Big money is not his aim; a living will satisfy him.
It is evident that prison is no place for Charles. He should be
installed on a good farm under kindly supervision, where he would be
assured of food and lodging plus a small wage in return for his
services. Men of his type become dangerous to society only when
thrown in contact with vicious individuals in prison idle houses. There
is only one thing the penitentiary can do in this particular case; check
the syphilitic infection and rehabilitate the man physically. Unfortun-
ately, Charles will emerge from his incarceration a well-observed man,
probably more diseased than at present and with a strong feeling that
he has been unjustly treated.

CASE III.
Thomas-Age 30.
Thomas, born in a small Pennsylvania town, was the fifth of seven
children, three male and four female. The sisters, three of whom
were nurses, are all in good health and happily married. One brother
is route manager for a baking company. The other has recently been
honorably discharged from the navy.
The father, who immigrated to America from Sweden after
marriage, was a blacksmith and earned a comfortable livelihood. He
owned the ten room house in which the family lived arid made no
demands upon the earnings of his children. Payment for board was
purely optional. The mother also worked, acting as cook for a wealthy
family.
Both parents were in the habit of losing their tempers, but on the
whole, family life, as Thomas looks back upon it, was very pleasant.
Religious training was not neglected. The family was of Catholic
persuasion and emphasized the value of church and prayer. Thomas'
church affiliation lasted until the age of 19, when his attendance be-
came irregular. In addition to religious observances he also belonged
to a church Young Peoples' group, which he attended irregularly.
He attended both a parochial and public school. His school career
was normal enough except that he truanted often and was frequently
involved in "Squabbles" with other children. After reaching the eighth
grade, he terminated his education. His recreations were not especially
anti-social, consisting of baseball, football, and boxing. He played
232 FRED BROWN

regularly on the Sunday School team as third baseman. Three nights

each week were spent in pool-rooms, movies were visited once each
week while joy-riding was indulged in once or twice a week. Thomas
states that he was restrained from more frequent excesses by the
fear of wasting his energy. At this time he commenced to gamble
occasionally with both dice and cards, learned to drink and chew, and
caused his parents much unhappiness by evidences of wayward con-
duct. He tells of early irritability which later became so ac-
centuated that he was regarded as the incoriigible member of the
family, the black sheep. Every thing, he says, made him "grouchy"
and pugnacious. He wanted to fight the world. Everything seemed
evil to him and everyone appeared to pick on him. He sought an
escape in questionable companionship, frequented pool-rooms more
often and resented all attempts at correction. He claims to have been
the favorite of the family, however, a fact which might have been due
to his strange behavior and the concern manifested by his parents in
regard to it. During this time he was also a prey to gloomy moods.
When informed about the characteristic changes in behavior during
adolescence he claimed to know about these but added that in his
case the change was very grave and lasted until very recently.
He earned money during this period by running errands, and do-
ing odd jobs. At 17 he found work in a restaurant kitchen were he
learned to cook. He stayed on this job until the following year, when
his mother died. His father followed three years later, at which time
the children separated. The next few years were spent in wandering
around the country. He worked on a Michigan Central dining car
for a while but lost his place through drinking. After this he drifted
from one thing to another, working on steamships, in shipyards and
lumber camps. He claims to have worked at all times, sometimes
earning as high as $45.00 a week. None of this money, however was
saved. Most of it was spent for expensive clothing and good times. He
claims never to have been jailed in all this time although he drank to
excess and was very frequently involved in fights. As he expressed it,
"I was a pretty dangerous man to tamper with; one word, and my
fist flew in the other fellow's face."
On April 10, 1926, he was arrested and sentenced to Western
State Penitentiary in Pittsburgh on a charge of robbery for a term
of from 23/1 to 5 years. He explains this act as a "misinterpretation"
of the law. After picking up a watch from the street it was claimed
by another person. Refusal to surrender it precipitated a fight. The
claimant charged robbery.
THEFT BEHAVIOR 233

At the penitentiary he was given iritelligence tests which showed

a mental age of 14.3 years with an I. Q. of 89 on the Binet; Stanford.
revision. The Illinois General Intelligence Test gave an I. Q. of
83 with a mental age of 12.6. He was given employment in the peni-
teniary kitchen where his work record was excellent. No attempts at
escape were made nor was he ever reported for any infraction of
discipline.
On September 8, 1926, he was admitted to the prison hospital
and an operation performed for strangulated inguinal hernia; he was
discharged from the hospital on October 4, 1926. On August 18,
1928, he was paroled.
While in the penitentiary he discovered that he had thyroid
trouble. Interested in the subject, he borrowed books from the prison
doctor and informed himself thoroughly as to the effects of the dis-
order. He also complained of kidney and stomach trouble at the time
but took no action in regard to these. After release he wandered about
for a time, worked at construction temporarily but suffered from
fatigue. He felt that his eyes were glassy, his blood sluggish and his
general condition one of great irritability. It occurred to him to have
his thyroid removed but he lacked money. There was, according to
his story, only one way out of the predicament.
On January 7, 1929, he was arrested at Massillon, Ohio, on a
charge of grand larceny. The theft had been perpetrated in the com-
pany of another man and had consisted of stealing merchandise and
material from the Massillon Provision Company. His reason for
committing this crime, he confided, was to be sentenced to the Ohio
State Penitentiary where he could be operated on gratis.
At the Ohio Penitentiary a physical examination showed sluggish
and protruding eyes and an enlarged thyroid. An operation performed
on him was successful and the thyroid was excised. When interviewed
by the writer he was pleasant in demeanor and cooperated willingly.
His test achievements are as follows: Morgan Mental Test, M. A.
14.0; Myers, 12.4; Ohio Literacy 13.0. These scores correlate well with
the Binet and Illinois test scores made at Western Penitentiary. The
WVoodworth-Wells indicated nothing. His conduct since sentenced is
exemplary.
Thomas is employed in the prison kitchen at the present time. He
remarked that since the operation he has had no recurrence of ir-
ritability or sluggishness. He now understands his youthful incor-
rigibility and ascribes it to both the hernia and thyroid disorder. The
kidney and stomach ailments have also left him.
234 FRED BROWN

He has begun to read, his favorite magazines being the American,

Cosmopolitan, Colliers, Liberty, and Saturday Evening Post. (These
were given in order of preference.) Cooking recipes interest him most
in newspapers.
After release he hopes to work steadily, saying that anyone can
work but few people can work continuously. He has, however, the
remainder of his previous sentence still to serve as a result of breaking
parole.
The case of Thomas appears to have its roots in an abnormal.
organic condition. It is well known that a toxic thyroid is conducive
to restlessness and irritability and is generally detrimental to stability.
Now that the condition is removed, he should become an adapted
member of society. His further history after release will be carefully
noted in order to ascertain whether the operation was really beneficial.

CASE IV.

Raymond-Age 23.
Raymond began life with two great handicaps; a low mentality
and a very pronounced speech defect. To what extent the former was
influenced by the latter we do not know. We can only surmise that
some relationship existed between them.
He was born in a small Virginia country town, the fifth of six
children. Of the four older children, two, a male and female, are
dead. The others have drifted to parts unknown.
When Raymond was three years old, his father, who eked out a
living by farming, died. Family cares devolving upon the mother and
older children left no time for individual care so little attention was
paid him beyond satisfying his physical needs.
He began school at the age of eight but made little progress. T-o
years were spent in the first grade and two in the third. He finally
left while in the sixth grade, at the age of 15. He remarked how un-
happy his school years were because of his stammering speech. The
other children mimicked and ridiculed him until he was "afraid to say
anything", this was especially the case in recitations. At the age of
8 he commenced Sunday School attendance regularly at the Baptist
church which was situated one mile from his home. The mother and
other members of the family attended church regularly.
His cessation of school and church attendance as well as flight
from home was synchronous with his mother's second venture into
matrimony. The second husband, a policeman, failed to develop any
affection for his acquired family.
THEFT BEHAVIOR 235

Raymond, always sensitive, ran away from home in order to

"make his way for himself." He was well built and looked much
older than his age indicated. He arrived in Akron, Ohio, and found
work in a tire factory. Here he met other young men who took an
interest in him and included him in their group. For 7 months life was
made up of work during the day, and shows and poolrooms in the
evening. He was extremely unstable and could not remain long in one
place. The longest job he ever held was in the Goodyear Tire and
Rubber Company, where he remained one month. He guessed that he
had held approximately 15 jobs while in Akron. He learned to play
poker and dice, gambling heavily for the excitement he derived there-
from. He also developed the habit of drinking frequently "ad stultum".
Girls, he claims, did not enter into his existence nor did he ever fre-
quent dance halls.
In 1921 he was sentenced to the Boys Industrial School at Lan-
caster, Ohio, for stealing $60.00 from a restaurant. He had lost his
job the previous week and claims he needed the money badly in order
to "keep up with the bunch." He also states that he was intoxicated at
the time. After being released in 1922, he again committed the same
crime under similar circumstances and was sentenced to the Boys
Industrial School for an indeterminate period. This was on March 19,
1923. He was 16 years old at the time, and, according to a report
from the reformatory, was 5 feet 8 inches in height, weighed 14732
pounds, and except for an erupted skin, was in good health. He was
considered as cooperative, made no attempts at escape and exhibited a
fair attitude toward his work in the Lawn and Poultry Department
(4th grade).
Upon being paroled (February 2, 1924) he broke into a small
hotel in South Akron and stole a small amount of money. This cost
him five days in city jail. We may surmise, although Raymond does
not admit it, that he was given his choice between the reformatory and
the army. The latter was chosen and four days after parole (2-6-24)
he enlisted in the United States Army and served for fourteen months
until discharged, June 9, 1925, at Fort Hays, Columbus. In the Army
he learned to cook and at the present time regards it as his trade.
The next four years were spent in trying one job after another,
drinking excessively and serving short jail sentences on charges of
suspicion and intoxication.
His next major offense took place in January, 1929, when he
stole money and various articles to the value of $90.00 from an East
Akron restaurant while working for the owner. He left Akron
 236 FRED BROWN

shortly after the theft and went to West Virginia where he stayed for
approximately two weeks and then returned to Akron where he was
promptly arrested. At the time of arrest he had with him a diagram of
the places in Akron where he intended to blow safes. Among these
were two jewelry stores. He was to cut the windows with a glass
cutter and two companions were to blow the safes.
Physical examination at Ohio State Penitentiary, where he was
sent to serve from 2 to 5 years, revealed an infantile right testicle. It
was also discovered that he had had measles at 12 and chickenpox at
an earlier age. Wasserman test gave negative results.
Our mental tests show him to be definitely defective mentally.
His scores are as follows: Morgan mental test, 10.2 M. A.; Myers
mental measure, 7.8 M. A.; Ohio Literacy test, 10.6; The psychoneu-
rotic inventory indicates a high probability of psychopathy with 30
atypical replies.9
He explains his present and past predicaments as results of drink-
ing, saying he never found it absolutely necessary to steal otherwise.
It is only under the influence of liquor that he is unable to resist
thievery. He also blames gang affiliations for his drinking habits
and vows never again to associate with his old cronies after parole.
He plans to work on an uncle's farm where "he can behave himself and
straighten out." Two subsequent interviews with this man explained
his case, which is more in the domain of the psychologist and psy-
chiatrist than in that of the law.
We have previously mentioned Raymond's speech defect, which is
so serious that at times he stops in sheer helplessness and fears to con-
tinue his conversation. The defect manifests itself in stuttering and
stammering of an aggravated type which demands great patience on the
part of the auditor.
In school days, the constant ridicule which attended his efforts at
expression developed him into an introvert, at the same time giving him
a strong feeling of inferiority. He was of no importance, people refused
to listen to him. The origin of his defect was finally traced to the
practice, on the part of his brothers, of tickling him. This was often
done in his earliest years and sometimes rendered him speechless.
His flight from school and home was an escape from surroundings
which constantly reminded him of his inferiority. Later, he resorted
to drink in order to bolster up his ego and while intoxicated and
9
1t is noteworthy, that among all 40 cases, this is the only one where the
62nd question, "Do you ever feel a strong desire to go steal things", is answered
in the affirmative.
THEFT BEHAVIOR

uninhibited, he gave free play to a "wish-for-power" which manifested

itself in the aggressive behavior of theft. The deed was usually done
quite openly, with no attempt made at concealment.
His inferiority is further evidenced by various phobias, especially
the feeling that people are watching him wherever he goes.
His infantile testicle may be another source of inferiority with
reference to organs. This condition, a congenital one, is usually linked
up with thyroid hypo-function. There is some possibility of a ligation
betweeen the stammer, defective gland, and low mentality.
The speech condition, if remedied, might alter Raymond's career.
Otherwise, our prognosis for his behavior after parole, is not hopeful.

CASE V.

James-Age 24.
James is the son of native-born protestant parents. His father, a
farmer in a small Virginia country town, reached seventh grade in
public school while the mother attained to the sixth. The family con-
sisted of eight children; five male and three female. James ranked
second in age. None of the sisters is married to date, all are still living
at home. The youngest, aged 13, attends public school. Both parents
are in good health.
Although the church was situated only two miles from where he
lived, he never attended services. As he remarked, "I never had
nothing to do with church, no one else in the family did either."
From his account there were no prayers or religious practices of any
sort in the home.
The father was an easy-going individual whose main concern
centered on crops and the state of the weather. He also played the
violin at times. The mother ruled the family, frequently applying "a
good whip" to the errant members of the household.
James attended grade school intermittently, truanted often and
made very little progress in his studies. In the seventh grade he sur-
rendered the battle for knowledge and left school forever. His age at
the time was 17.
Up to this time his amusements were simple enough, consisting
mainly of baseball, checkers, and a movie once a month. There were
no dances, joyrides or poolrooms. He played with the children of
other farmers and was pleased with life. Altho there was also a
great deal of work to be done he did not mind this. Boys, he com-
 FRED BROWN

mented, are used to hard work on a farm. At the age of 13, he boasted,
he had plowed with three horses.
At 19, while working on a farm in his home town, he appropriated
an automobile, and drove off in no particular direction. He had a few
dollars in his -pocket at the time, the remainder of his month's pay.
At that time he was earning $30.00 a month and keep. He cannot
understand why he took the car-"he just took it."
He was arrested in Washington, D. C. June 13, 1925, on a charge
of joyriding and grand larceny and was sentenced to two years in the
federal penitentiary. He served his sentence, was released and went
back to farm work. He procured a job which paid him $60.00 a
month instead of the $30.00 previously received. With his savings he
made a down payment on a Pontiac coupe and was supremely happy
until it was taken from him for payment lapses.
Two weeks later, for no other reason than that he saw it un-
occupied along a curb, he drove away in a strange car and was arrested
in Pittsburgh (12-7-28), charged with violation of the National Theft
Act (Transporting a stolen car from one state to another) and sen-
tenced to Atlanta Prison for one year and a day. He was released at
the expiration of his sentence, (9-5-29).
He returned to Ravenna, Ohio, and worked on a dairy farm for
one month, then stole a car and drove it to Alliance, Qhio, left it there
and stole another which he drove to Pittsburgh. There he was arrested
and returned to Atlanta. Extradition followed and he was sentenced to
serve from 1 to 7 years in the Ohio State Penitentiary.
His physical examination notes; eyes: sluggish; tonsils: hypertro-
phied. Neck: slightly enlarged thyroid. Wasserman: negative. In the
interview he told of influenza in 1922.
James is a rather sluggish individual. His facial expression is
particularly vacuous, its monotony occassionally relieved by a silly
smile. He shrugs his shoulders when asked his reason for stealing
cars and replies that he does not know why. He sees a car, steps into
it and drives away.
His mental test scores are illuminating: Morgan test, 9.5 M. A.;
Myers Mental Measure, 9.9 M. A.; Ohio Literacy, 8.2 M. A. His
replies on the Woodworth-Wells indicate that he suffers bad pains in
his head, is shy with girls and sometimes loses track of what he is
doing. Of particular significance is the fact that although he was
admitted to the institution on September 21, 1929, he gave September
16, 1928, as the date in the interview. He loves to drive a car, he ad--
THEFT BEHAVIOR 239

mitted, but cannot afford to own one. His conduct, both while here
and in other institutions, is model in every way.
James is certainly out of place in a penitentiary. He belongs more
properly in an institution for the feebleminded, where this thyroid
condition could be attended to. He has no purpose in view when steal-
ing a car except to drive it and enjoy the sensation. There is no
doubt that if he had a car he would cease being a public charge. Un-
fortunately, his mentality is such that he cannot command the necessary
income required both for purchase and upkeep. We predict that he
will continue his previous career after being set at liberty, even though
he tells us of plans to return to the farm.

CASE VI.
A Comparison of Accomplices in the Same Crime.
William-Age 25 (22 at Commitment).
William was born in Roumania. His father made a fair living as a
carpenter although he was generally in poor health and rather irritable
at times. From William's description he was a chronic fault-finder
and had frequent altercations with his wife, who left him when William
was 10 years old. There were two younger children in the family, one
male and one female. All lived in a three room dwelling which the
family owned.
William attended school in Roumania but only attained to our
equivalent of the sixth grade. He was 12 years old at the time he had at-
tended school under compulsion only. After leaving school he was
apprenticed to a blacksmith who taught him the trade he now claims
as his own. He worked at it for two years and admitted a high
degree. of proficiency for which there is no demand in America. His
father remarried immediately after separation but the second wife
quickly adjusted herself to the family group. The church, located 12
miles from home was attended every Sunday by all members of the
family, who were Greek Orthodox in faith.
When he was thirteen years old his father died and the following
year he niigrated to America where he hoped to find wor and make
much money. He stayed with a relative in Detroit for the next four
years and claims he never appeared in a jail or courtroom in that whole
period. The jobs he held in this interval included that of delivery boy,
elevator operator, janitor's helper and waiter in a restaurant. He found
his own trade useless in America.
He never attended church after leaving home. His recreations
consisted of frequent "girl-chasing" rides, movies once or twice each
240 FRED BROWN

week, gambling and a regular poolroom patronage. He admits having

been under the influence of liquor- a number of time§, especially when
in the company of girls.
At the age of 19 he "got tired of being told not to do this and not
to do that" by his relatives so he left them .and roomed elsewhere.
At this time he met Arnold, also a Roumanian, in the poolroom where
he spent many of his evenings and was introduced, so -he says, to ways
other than legitimate of earning money. together they' perpetrated
many- petty and grand larcenies and were successful until 1925, whenf
William was arrested and sentenced to Bridewell House of Correction
for stealing a sample case of silks, clothing, a typewriter, etc.
After release, he and his accomplice stole a raccoon coat and a
suitcase, both valued at $250.00, from a parked car. The following
(lay (3-5-27) police found the suitcase, bearing the victim's name, at
a second hand store. The same day both were arrested while together.
William had on a suit which was in the suitcase when it was stolen. He
told police that they had opened the car door with a piece of pipe
and pawned the stolen goods. He was received at Ohio State Peni-
tentiary on March 22, 1927, on a sentence of 3 to 7 years for grand
larceny.
Physical examination revealed -an hypertrophied left testicle and
hyper-active reflexes. Wasserman reaction negative. He admitted hav-
ing had syphilis in 1922, which accounts for the hypertrophied testicles
and may also be related to the hyper-active reflexes. His general
physical condition was good. On August 26, 1928, he walked away
from the Roseville Brick plant where he had been sent, but returned
voluntarily on September 4, 1928.
When given a detailed questioning by the writer in a second inter-
view, he admitted having been in jail on numerous- occasions for
"strong arm stuff", i. e., robbing inebriates.
His mental test scores are as follows: Morgan test, M. A. 9.5;
Myers Mental Measure, M. A. 7.9; Ohio Literacy, M. A. 12.0. He
gave 18 typical replies on the Woodworth-Wells test which indicate
that he feels he has been discriminated against both in school and at
work, that a certain detective is out to "get" him and always follows
him about and that people always blame him for everything that
happens. He answers the question, "Do you usually know just what
to do next ?" in the negative.
His conduct record in the institution is poor. He has been in
close confinement more than once for fighting. His other violations
have included being out of place, fighting in cell, talking in line, gain-
THEFT BEHAVIOR Z41

bling, and s.moking. He complains of poor health since incarceration.

He is slated for deportation after release but does not seem to
mind much, saying that if he had stayed in Europe he would never
have seen the inside of a penitentiary. If deported he hopes to resume
his old trade and live a normal existence.
He cannot ascribe a reason for his thefts. He always had enough
money for food, shelter and clothing, he says, and did not have tQ
steal. According to his account he made as high as $35.00 per week
but in the year previous to commitment he worked only 3 months,
holding three jobs in that period. For the remainder of the time he
*subsisted on the proceeds of gambling, theft, and "strong arm" stuff.
In William's case, low intelligence and lack of a restraining force
were influential in determining his conduct. He is a highly suggestible
individual and is unable to resist what looks like "easy money". His
desires are not commensurate with his intelligence and consequently
he pursues the path of least resistance, unable to visualize the ill effects
of his conduct. His total inability to forsee the consequences of his
acts is well demonstrated by his wearing a stolen suit the day after the
theft. In addition, he is somewhat psychopathic. Deportation may
benefit him. It will certainly benefit America.
We will now examine and compare his accomplice, Case X.

CASE VII.

Arnold-Age 25 (22 at Commitment).

Arnold came to America at the age of two years. He was the
oldest of four children, two boys and two girls. He never felt economic
pressure while at home although he was never given enough to spend
for amusements. His father generally told him to "go out and earn his
own money if he wanted good times." His father is a business man
who owns a hardware store at the present time and makes a comfort-
able livelihood. His temperament was quite stable, though sometimes
losing his temper when business worries made him nervous.
The mother was irregularly employed in the capacity of cook.
Discipline was maintained in the home, his father sometimes resorting
to the strap as a means of inflicting punishment. It appears that
Arnold's parents were incompatible but lived together for the sake of
their children. They were divorced in 1921 and have since remarried.
When Arnold was one year old'he was stricken with scarlet fever,
242 FRED BROWN

a disease which accounts for his present imperfect audition. Otherwise

there were no observable ill effects.
The family were Catholic, but attended church services irregularly.
Arnold became a Sunday School pupil at the age of six and continued
irregularly until he was 15 years old, when he ceased altogether. His
first confession, confirmation, and first communion took place in
prison. There were no religious observances of any sort in the home.
He began public school at the age of seven, skipped a whole year
and completed at the age of 13. He continued to high school and
graduated at the age of 17. While in high school he had taken a com-
mercial course and had specialized in business management. His
scholastic record was good.
While in school he was third basemen on the baseball team, end
on the football squad and forward on the basketball team. He played
regularly on the school teams. Other recreations included dances
monthly, movies weekly, poolrooms and joyrides seldom and a little
gambling now and then. He smokes a little but does not chew or drink.
Up to the age of 13 he had earned part time money by selling
papers. After graduation he worked for a year in his father's store
but shortly afterwards found a good position in an office where he
did clerical work. At this time he was still living at home and paid
30o of his income for board and room.
His first offence took place soon after graduation when he was
charged with larceny and sentenced to 30 days in the work house.
This was on January 30, 1922. He claims he needed money and could
procure none from his parents. His next offence was in 1924, when
he was arrested on a charge of disorderly conduct exhibited in a
street brawl.
The following year a number of things happened which may, to
a certain extent, have been related to each other. He met William
and exerted his influence upon him. This had two consequences; it
fed his ego by supplying him with a worshipper and gave him courage
to perpetrate other crimes, now that he had found an accomplice. He
was picked up in Toledo on a charge of being a suspicious person and
sentenced to six months in the Toledo work-house. At the expiration
of his sentence, which was reduced to four months for good conduct, he
returned to Detroit and on November 11, 1925, was arrested on a
charge of robbery by arms. In each of these cases he served a short
jail sentence and was then released, probably because of his youth
and intelligence.
THEFT BEHAVIOR 243

In 1926 his parents were divorced. As he remarked, "They just

couldn't get along together." Arnold left home and married a girl whom
he had known in high school. She was earning $18.00 per week in a
department store at the time but relinquished her job in order to care
for a home. Arnold evidently desired to turn over a new leaf. He
found a position in an advertising concern, liked the work and intended
to make advertising his profession. He earned $35.00 a week.
His married life, however, was not successful. There were many
arguments over trifles and Arnold was soon considering divorce as an
antidote. In the same year he was arrested twice; once in Flint,
Michigan, on a charge of grand larceny, where he was fined $150.00
and costs, and again, six months later in Detroit, charged with tamper-
ing with an automobile.
His fortunes were now going from bad to worse. Home life was
galling to him, a child had been born (in the latter part of 1926), he
had lost his job and was five months without work. He claims to
have needed money badly and saw no other means of obtaining it
except through theft. Accordingly, he and William left for Cleveland
where they perpetrated the larceny described in Case VII. Both were
arrested and given 3 to 7 years in Ohio State Penitentiary. His wife
divorced him immediately and has gone back to her previous job.
Arnold's physical condition showed chronic ceruminosis in both
ears, partial atrophy of the left testicle, chronic epidimitis and
absence of patellar response. Wasserman test proved negative. Ab-
sence of the patellar response may be indicative of a lesion in the
reflex level of the cord.
His test record shows superior intelligence. On the Morgan he
scores 172 out of a possible 190 points; on the Myers a mental age
of 16 and a perfect score on the Ohio Literacy. The prison physician
credited him with inferior intelligence. At the Cleveland Clinic, where
he was examined before imprisonment the report states, "From a
physical standpoint, aside from an old fracture of the nose, this patient
is in good health. Psychological level is decidedly superior with an
I. Q. of 110. There is no evidence of psychosis." This diagnosis was,
as far as the psychological aspect is concerned, entirely substantiated
by our results. The psychoneurotic inventory showed only 3 atypical
replies.
Arnold exhibited an excellent fund of general information, was
well oriented and seems to be free from nervous or mental diseases..
Of his last crime he says, "I consider it a youthful foolish act
that might not have happened had I been more schooled in life and its
244 FRED BROWN

responsibilities." His conclusion, after almost three years' imprison-

ment, is summed up in his own words: "I consider my present situa-
tion as a form of education which will help me greatly in after life."
His estimation of previous conduct is "pretty small". His attitude
toward the future is hopeful. He has studied correspondence courses
while in prison which have fitted him for the position of advertising
manager. If not deported he hopes to apply himself to this particular
field. He has only one extenuation for his acts....... .he would
never have done them had he been permitted to go to college.
In Arnold's case we might seek many causative factors. There
may be the element of organ inferiority and subsequent attempts at
compensation. This compensation mechanism in his case breaks out in
the form of fighting and frequent disturbances in the prison. Or else
constant strife in the home may have driven him to his anti-social acts.
There is no doubt that his physical condition played some part in his
conduct although just what this role was we cannot determine. Frustra-
tion of his hopes for college also appear to have influenced his actions,
for we find no misdemeanors until after graduation.
He admits making all plans for thefts in which William was in-
volved. His attitude toward the latter is distinctly scornful. They
rarely speak to each other. William considers Arnold as big-mouthed
and a "know it all." Arnold regards his former accomplice as hardly
worthy of mention.

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THEFT BEHAVIOR

One fact is noteworthy. In this case we have the combination of

a good intellect and leadership with a low mentality and psychopathy.
The alliance is a dangerous one to society in every case.
Both William and Arnold are being held for deportation after
the expiration of their respective sentences.

CONCLUSIONS
These conclusions are based upon an individual study of 40 men
between the ages of 20 and 30 who at the present time are serving
sentences at the Ohio State Penitentiary on the charge of petty or
grand larceny. This group, with the exception of five who were un-
willing to meet the investigator, comprises practically the entire popula-
tion between the above mentioned ages who were, at -the time this study
was made, serving sentences for the crime of theft. Any conclusions
made therefore, may be accepted as indicative of perhaps the major
portion of those who are charged with larceny; particularly if our
results are to be accepted at their full worth.
Assuming a high truth-value for our data, we may safely say that
in virtually all our cases, with the exception of one or two, the cir-
cumstances leading up to the present incarceration were of such a
nature as to preclude the'possibility of control. Broadly speaking, our
cases are victims of adverse social or organic conditions over which
they were able to exercise only the slightest influence.
Proceeding on a strictly scientific basis, a procedure which de-
mands a thorough knowledge of the antecedent causes of any particular
phenomenon, we have discovered a highly complex constellation of
events in the early lives of our cases which at once eliminate the
hypothesis of deliberate choice on the part of any single individual.
We must, if our data are at all reliable, rule out any non-causative ex-
planation of theft. We are willing to assert that in almost every one
of our cases, proper measures, employed at some stage in the life
history of that individual, might have reclaimed him for society. The
present status of our subjects stands as concrete evidence of what
social neglect, physical and mental inferiority, reformatories and
prisons make of those who at one time, certainly, stood at the parting
of the ways. We must bear in mind that the "common thief" is so
through preventable circumstances; that he represents, not an indi-
vidual who has chosen a life of theft in preference to one of honesty
but rather one who has been forced into his present mode of life
because of many highly complex adverse circumstances, some of them
operative before powers of discrimination had'been fully developed.
246 FRED BROWN

In the following tables and comments we will attempt, as concisely

as possible, to present our evidence and show the elements which com-
pose the criminal diathesis.

TABLE I
EDUCATION OF PARENTS
Grade Reached
Bus.
Grade ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Grad. Col. Teacher Total
Father 17 7 .. ..... 6 5 21 1 1 40
Mother 18 7 . 1 1 3 . 4 4 i i 40
It is evident from this table that more than half of the parents of
our prisoners had either no education or a very elementary one at most.
The education of the fathers is slightly better than that of the mothers.
The factor of poor education of the parents assumes great significance
when we consider the possible causes influencing such low educational
attainments. In addition to penury, which sometimes necessitates leav-
ing school, we must also include as a possible factor the element of
low intelligence. Children reared in an illiterate environment, deprived
of that supervision exercised by intelligent parents, are handicapped
from the day of birth.
TABLE II
GRADE PRISONER LEFT SCHOOL

Grade ....................... 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 Grad.

Number ..................... 1 2 1 2 3 6 6 10 3 2 1 2 .. 1

This table indicates that 20 of our cases, (50% of the total)

reached sixth grade or less in public school; 1 never attended school;
25% reached 7th grade; 6 attended high school. Some relationship
may exist between education of parents and offspring in these cases.
This much we may deduce; majority of the parents, of low educational
level, require the aid of their children almost as soon as they are able
to work. Again, poor home supervision, incompatibility of the parents
or other disruptive causes may terminate the educational career of the
child. To what extent this is true will be illustrated in the next table.

TABLE III
AGE AT WHIcH HOME WAS BROKEN (BEFORE 15)
Age of prisoner at time ......... 2 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13 14 15 Total
Number of cases ............... 2 2 5 1 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 22

Of 40 cases of larceny, 22 of those committed lacked normal home

care before the age of 15. Sixteen of these were deprived of parental
THEFT BEHAVIOR

care before the age of ten. By the term "broken home" we include
those homes in which either of the parents died, separated, were
divorced or had remarried before our subject was 15. It is unnecessary
to enlarge upon the ill-effects of poor home life. There are however,
a few outstanding results which it will be well to mention; these are,
(1) the effect upon the child, psychologically, of family inferiority.
(2) The effect of altercations which sometimes precede divorce, these
altercations being caused by inebriation and other factors. (3) Lack
of discipline and guidance in the child's life, thus permitting it to grow
up without any definite standards or values. (4) Lack of adjustment
to the new home condition following death or re-marriage of the
parent. This condition is very often a proximate cause of Nomadism
and truancy. Our nekt question is, "What percentage of our cases left
home before the age of 15?"

TABLE IV
AGE PaIsoNER LEFr HomE (To 15)
Age at leaving ......................... 11 12 13 14 15 Total
Number of cases ...................... 1 2 1 3 2 9

Out of 40 cases, nine had left home before the age of 15. In the
main, this was due to either a reformatory sentence or deliberate flight
from a home where life was unbearable. Only in one case does hyper-
kinesis appear to be a determining cause, i. e., where the individual
expressed no other reason for his flight than that "he wanted to see
the world."
The number of children in a family and the offenders place therein
is sometimes viewed with interest and regarded as highly important
in an understanding of subsequent behavior. Our findings on this point
are as follows:
TABLE V
SIZE OF FAMILY
Number of children in family ............... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total
Number of cases .......................... 5 5 8 7 5 5 7 2 1 40
TABLE VI
PLACE IN FAmILY

Place in family ....................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

Number of cases ...................... 14 11 7 5 2 1 40
From these two tables we learn that in 15 of our cases the number
of children in the family was six or more. It is probably true that
248 FRED BROWN

in some of these cases the present offender was given inadequate atten-
tion. An important and highly significant fact is brought out in table
VI; here we note that 25 of our cases, more than 60% of the total,
were either first or second in order of birth. The significance of this
factor is twofold: (1) The eldest son, especially in those cases where
the family is disrupted, must rely mainly upon his own judgment for
guidance. In the present cases it appears that such judgment was
perverted by many distracting factors, these to be noted later. (2)
Where we find large families (15 cases in this study) associated with
primacy of birth we may have a condition where care is concentrated
upon the younger members of the family while the older are left to
their own resources.
Distribution in regard to locale of our men was as follows:

Country Village Town City

10 3 11 16

While many of our cases were reared in the city, the difference be-
tween this group and the other two is too small to warrant inference.
The matter of occupation is of paramount importance. It is un-
likely that the individual who is employed in a lucrative trade will
steal for a livelihood. It becomes evident, therefore, that theft will
sometimes provide an avenue of escape from monotonous and under-
paid work. A survey of occupations among our cases yielded the
-
following information:

TABLE VII
OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF CASES
Skilled Unskilled
Occupation Cases Occupation Cases
Advertising .................... 1 Cook .......................... 4
Blacksmith .................... 1 Hardware clerk ................ 1
Carpenter ..................... 4 Farmer ........................ 7
Electrician ..................... 1 Coal M iner ..................... 1
Interior decorator ............... 1 Salesman ...................... 1
Mechanic ...................... 1 Truck driver ................... 7
Steam engineer ................. 1 Taxi driver ................ I
Tailor ........................ 1 Hospital orderly .............. 1
Tinsmith ...................... 1 Laborer ....................... 5
Total ..................... 12 Total ..................... 28

Analyzing the above table, we find that of 18 occupations listed,

9 are classifiable as unskilled. The total number of individuals enrolled
in the unskilled occupations amounts to 28, or 70% of all our cases.
THEFT BEHAVIOR

Considering the high percentage of broken homes and poor education

in our group, we may regard the above figure as a natural outcome
of such adverse circumstances.
We will next consider the habits of our men. That there is a
strong correlation between intelligence, home environment, education
and amusements, is fairly well substantiated. In our investigation it
was found that where the individual read often and well, antisocial
recreations were less often resorted to. In the following tables a prac-
tice was designated as indulged in often if the individual admitted
excesses to the extent of four or more lapses per week. "Sometimes"
is taken to mean twice per week or less.

TABLE VIII
Gambling -Liquor - -Pool-room -
Often Sometimes Never Often Sometimes Never Often Sometimes Never
5 11 24 8 7 25 9 11 20

Reducing these figures to temperate and intemperate we find that

16 gambled; 15 drank; while 50%o frequented pool-rooms. We are
inclined to regard the pool-room as an important factor in the genesis
of crime, especially the crime of theft. The offender meets here
a social group of his own level and perhaps for the first time
feels he "belongs". From the pool-room the path to liquor, gam-
bling, and illicit sexual intercourse is a short one. A type of be-
havior is developed which makes the acquisition of ready money
requisite. The meager incomes of our cases are insufficient to maintain
them in their new-found group. Theft is sometimes resorted to as an
escape from this dilemma.
We found no evidence to show that religious training was of any
special benefit as a crime deterrent. If we consider that religious prin-
ciples are learned, if at all, before the age of adolescence, before the
stage where the ability to generalize is reached, we will find these and
similar results normal. When confronted with the necessity of main-
taining themselves, rote lessons learned in Sunday School were auto-
matically cast aside and those of our cases who had received a religious
education acted in accordance with the demands of their constitution
and environment. Religious teachings must have fertile soil in which
to grow, a soil lacking in the early environments of our cases. Our
figures on this score are:
250 FRED BROWN

TABLE IX
RELIGIOUS TRA INING
Good Poor Absent
25 12 3
Of the total number of our cases, 17 had married. Seven of these
are divorced at the present time, giving as reasons infidelity, mother-
in-law, and prison sentence.
We find a relatively high percentage of disease in our group.
Selecting only those diseases which may have a direct bearing on the
behavior of our subjects we find:
Glandular Disorders Syphilis Gonorrhea
8 11 13
In cases of venereal diseases we sometimes find both syphilis and
gonorrhea in the recent history of the case. In all, there were 15 cases
of venereal disease in the group studied. The prevalence of this disease
among the prison population is another indication of lack of proper
inhibitions. We are inclined to attribute this lack of inhibition to
poorly integrated nervous structures, rendered so by absence of proper
developmental training or poor physical heredity.
An outstanding factor in our results is the high percentage of sub-
normal intelligence discovered in our cases. While low intelligence
does not entirely explain crime as such, there is a great probability that
it is a highly significant variable in the crime of theft. In most cases
of our investigation the larceny was perpetrated either to procure
necessities or else the means of purchasing those things which raise
the possessor in the esteem of his companions. For most of the group,
attainment of these substances is possible through the medium of wage
earning; where they are inaccessible, well-oiled inhibitions forestall
anti-social means of acquisition.
When, however, we have individuals endowed with low or educa-
tionally undeveloped mentalities, who share the desires of others in
the environment but are limited in adapted acquisition techniques, we
'will find and have found, many illegitimate and socially unacceptable
devices employed. As an evidence of the type of mentality back of the
deed we have only to examine it cursorily-the lack of ingenuity, the
transparent simplicity, the almost primitive directness which character-
izes most larceny crimes, is almost irrefutable evidence of its essential
nature. The mentally and constitutionally inferior organisms, ham-
pered by an adverse social environment, which includes lack of training
in social norms of behavior and the significance of these norms, must
of necessity prey upon the strong in order to survive.
THEFT BEHAVIOR Z31

TABLE X
TABLE OF MENTAL TEST SCORES IN TERMS OF MENTAL AGE TOGETHER WITH
NUMBER OF ATYPIcAL RESPONSES ON THE WOODVORTH-WELLS PSYCHO-
NEUROTIC INVENTORY OF 40 PRISONERS SERVING SENTENCES AT THE
OHIO STATE PENITENTIARY ON THE CHARGE OF PETTY OR
GRAND LARCENY
(Morgan scores arranged in ascending order.)
Woodworth-
Morgan Myers Ohio Lit. Wells
Case No.
7.8 10.0 8.2 20
1 4
2 7.8 8.6 9.4
8.5 6.9 9.6 14
3 5
4 8.8 10.9 9.5
10.9 9.5 5
5 8.8 18
6 9.2 10.6 9.5
9.9 10.0 13
7 9.2 9
8 9.2 10.0 12.0,
9.5 7.9 12.0, 18
9 1
10 9.5 11.6 11.0
9.5 9.9 8.2 12
11 30
12 10.2 7.8 10.6
10.3 11.8 1
13 10.2 2
14 10.2 10.5 9.8
15 10.7 10.8 12.0 12
12O 8.4 17
16 10.7 1
17 10.7 11.0 15.0
10.7 16.0 14.4 5
18 12
19 11.3 9.2 14.8
11.3 119 9.5 2
20 23
21 11.3 16.0 11.0
12.0 13.0 6
22 11.6 2
23 11.8 9.9 9.5
11.8 9.9 15.0 2
24 2
25 11.8 12.0 16.0
26 12.4 11.6 13.6 15
27 12.4 13.0 14.0 11
28 12.4 14.0 11.0 2
29 12.9 8.4 11.8 5
30 14.0 12.4 13.0 3
31 14.0 16.0 18.0 6
32 14.0 16.0 17.8 14
33 14.6 12.9 11.8 10
34 15.1 12.8 18.Oplus 7
35 15.7 11.5 16.0 0
36 15.7 11.5 14.0 15
16.0 14.6 3
37 15.7 9
38 16.2 16.0 11.5
39 17.3 16.0 17.4 4
40 19.Oplus 16.0 18.0 plus 8

Morgan Mental Test 'Quartiles.

I. III. IV.
IL
7.8-9.5 9.5- 11.3 11.3 - 14.0 14.0- 19.Oplus
Myer3 Mental Measure Quartiles.
6.9-9.9 10.0-11.5 11.5-12.9 13.0- 16.0
Ohio Literacy Test Quartiles.
8.2- 9.6 9.8- 11.8 12.0- 14.6 14.8- 18.0 plus
252 FRED BROWN

Woodworth-Wells Test Quartiles

0-2 3-6 7-13 14-30

In Table X we note that more than half of the cases are mentally
sub-normal, the mental age remaining at 11.3 on the Morgan until case
22 is reached. An examination of the quartiles of the three tests will
show that the variations between them is sufficiently small to warrant
the generalization that in the present group slightly more than 50%
of those examined may be regarded as mentally sub-normal. The
findings on the Woodworth-Wells were, with one exception, entirely
negative.
In conclusion, it may be of interest to list the rationalizations given
by the men themselves.

Rationalization Frequency
1. Liquor .......................................................... 7
2. Innocent ............................................... 7
3. Evil companions ................................ ................ 3
4. Out of work ..................................................... 2
5. Needed tools for work ........................................... 2
6. T hrill ........................................................... 2
7. Women .......................... ............................. 1
8. No reason (could not explain) ............................. ..... 3
9. Money for marriage ............................................. 1
10. Stealing in order to supply brother with funds .................... 1
11. Irresistible compulsion ........................................... 2
12. Joyriding ........................................................ 1
13. Gambling debts .................................................. 3
14. Foolishness" ...................................................... 1
15. Trying to live beyond means ..................................... 2
16. Absolute need for transportation, stole auto ....................... 1
17. Crime in order to receive surgical attention ........................ 1
T otal ........................................................ 40

This study confirms a rapidly growing point-of-view; namely,

the necessity for more individualized study of the offender. The gen-
eral labels of "Thief", "Crook", etc., are meaningless terms in the light
of modern criminal psychology and psychiatry. We have found cases
neither of deliberate and willful theft nor any others in which no
demonstrable causative factor was apparent. Again, while there ap-
pears to be a certain similarity in the histories of our cases, no two are
alike in every respect. A careful study of our material reveals one
salient fact; that adjustment at the proper time in perhaps each of
these lives might have saved the state much money, society as a whole
much annoyance, and the prisoner himself much unhappiness. The
problem is by no means solved. There is still ample room for objective
research and preventive measures.
THEFT BEHAVIOR

Recommendations
A few recommendations will be stated here which, it is hoped,
will point the way to a preventive program. Inasmuch as theft is
generally the stepping stone to further crime, our efforts should be
concentrated upon this particular aspect of criminality. The following
recommendations are suggested:
1. A careful investigation of all cases where a pupil has dropped
out of school in order to work.
2. Careful supervision of rural schools, with frequent studies,
both social and psychological, of the families of pupils and
home conditions.
3. Frequent physical examinations in both- rural and public
schools; not the cursory type generally made but special atten-
tion given to the endocrine system.
4. The teaching of a useful trade in every public school.
5. Periodic investigation of pool-room clientele, with a view to
discovering unhealthy circumstances of any sort which are
responsible for excessive patronage.
6. The power to be given the court of turning over all cases of
crime and delinquency to a psychological and psychiatrical
clinic before pronouncing sentence.
7. The dissemination of birth control information among the
laboring classes.
8. The establishment of a psychiatrical clinic, state owned, and
made as available to the people as the present medical clinics.
9. Mental hygiene propaganda; the purpose of which would be
to acquaint the general populace with the aims and methods of
this science.
10. Careful and sympathetic conferences with the men while in the
penitentiary, aiding them in reaching an understanding of
themselves In other words, an attempt to understand the
prisoner while he is accessible rather than permitting him to
fester for the duration of his confinement.
11. A job-placement bureau in the penitentiary to place the paroled
or released prisoner in case no such provision has been pre-
viously made by outside agencies.