Maffei Angolul
Maffei Angolul
Maffei Angolul
Translator’s Introduction
So
far
as
I
have
been
able
to
discover,
this
is
the
first
complete1
translation
of
Maffei’s
famous
discourse
on
vocal
pedagogy,
the
passaggio
technique
and
the
variously
termed
cantare
con
la
gorga
technique
of
throat
articulation.
This
translation
was
prepared
from
the
1562
text
as
reprinted
by
Nabu
Public
Domain
Reprints
and
as
supplemented
by
the
Italian
texts
of
Nanie
Bridgman
and
Mauro
Uberti,
as
cited
in
the
bibliography.
My
experience
in
translating
some
dozen
of
the
primary
sources
in
the
subject
from
the
sixteenth
and
early
seventeenth
century—Italian,
Latin,
German
and
Spanish—has
led
to
the
conclusion
that
Maffei’s
treatise
is
really
quite
exceptional
in
two
ways.
First,
despite
some
difficulties
characteristic
of
all
prose
composition
of
the
time,
Maffei’s
writing
is
admirably
clear
for
the
most
part.
Second,
Maffei’s
somewhat
wryly
humored
remarks
about
the
uniqueness
of
both
his
capability
and
his
contribution
are,
in
fact,
just.
The
work
is
an
amazing
advance
over
the
usual
discussion
of
vocal
pedagogy,
which
seldom
rises
much
above
what
we
would
today
call
music
fundamentals.
In
preparing
this
translation
I
have
tried
steadfastly
to
remain
faithful
to
my
training
in
classics
of
several
decades
ago.
That
training
maintained
that
a
good
translator
will
attempt
to
remain
close
enough
to
the
original,
even
at
the
expense
of
some
degree
of
stylistic
smoothness,
so
as
to
enable
a
reader
who
possesses
skill
in
the
language
to
find
the
parallel
spot
in
the
original
and
critique
your
translation.
It
was
presented
to
us
as
a
case
of
intellectual
honesty,
and
I
have
since
often
been
amazed—and
appalled—at
the
liberties
I
have
found
in
some
published
translations,
liberties
beyond
the
desire
for
more
elegant
English
and
even
beyond
loose
paraphrase.
Having
translated
a
modest
number
of
Greek
dramas
for
my
own
classroom
use,
I
can
state
absolutely
that
it
is
possible
to
remain
satisfyingly
faithful
to
the
original
while
producing
an
intelligible
translation,
and
also
that
the
thoughts
of
an
Aeschylus
or
a
Sophocles
are
far
better
and
more
important
than
anything
I
could
devise
in
their
place.
I
hope
and
believe
that
I
have
achieved
this
objective
to
a
degree
commensurate
with
that
responsible
objective.
This
is
not
to
say
that
there
have
been
no
moments
of
anguish
in
dealing
with
this
or
any
other
text.
Languages
really
do
not
translate
precisely
into
each
other
in
many
important
ways.
In
the
first
place
some
words
are
so
imbued
with
semantic
and
cultural
complexity
that
there
is
no
single,
or
perhaps
even
no
single
cluster
of
terms
that
will
serve.
Notes
or
parenthetical
statements
must
provide
some
further
explanation,
as
disruptive
and
intrusive
as
they
are.
Further,
when
dealing
with
prose
of
this
time,
the
translator
must
deal
with
a
stage
of
both
writing
and
even
punctuation
far
removed
from
modern
concepts.
In
the
case
of
Maffei,
his
emphatic
rather
than
syntactic
punctuation
was
a
cause
of
constant
perplexity
and
frustration.
In
the
matter
of
the
syntactic
structure
of
his
prose,
his
clarity
far
surpasses
that
of
Caccini,
who
wrote
some
forty
years
later.
Maffei
also
suffers
to
a
lesser
than
usual
1
degree
in
the
assumption
of
the
reader’s
understanding.
His
explanations
are
usually
careful
and
clear,
though
often
depend
upon
philosophical
and
physiological
traditions
that
are
now
largely
unfamiliar.
The
philosophical,
psychological
and
physiological
antecedents
of
Maffei
can
be
identified
with
varying
degrees
of
certainty.
By
his
own
statements,
which
even
display
a
touch
of
wry
humor,
Maffei
makes
clear
his
reverence
for
Aristotle,
“the
true
scribe
of
Nature.”
It
is
clearly
to
him
that
Maffei
owes
his
psychology
and
in
some
part
his
physiology.
The
other
emphasis
on
his
physiological
and
medical
positions
comes
from
Galen,
though
the
influence
is
less
identifiable
in
specifics.
This
is
both
because
Maffei
refers
to
them
less
specifically
and
so
less
identifiably,
and
because
even
in
these
areas
he
sometimes
prefers
Aristotle’s
positions.
Further,
however
large
the
surviving
Aristotelian
corpus—even
including
the
pseudepigrapha—it
is
mountainously
dwarfed
by
the
surviving
works
of
Galen,
which
amounts
to
about
ten
percent
of
the
entire
surviving
literature
in
Greek
prior
to
AD
350,
according
to
the
editors
of
the
Loeb
edition
of
his
Method
of
Medicine.
Kühn’s
edition
of
Galen’s
Opera
Omnia,
even
though
itself
incomplete,
amounts
to
twenty-‐one
volumes!
It
is
thus
incomparably
easier
to
identify
even
the
smallest
details
in
the
minutely
studied
works
of
Aristotle
than
in
the
far
less
well
known
works
of
Galen,
at
least
less
well
known
today.
For
this
reason
a
clear
identification
of
Maffei’s
anatomical
description
of
the
larynx
and
vocal
cords
is
practically
impossible
in
anything
less
than
a
multi-‐year
dissertation
project
and
would,
in
fact,
not
make
a
major
contribution
to
the
reader’s
understanding.
It
is
clear,
however,
that
Galen
was
an
influence,
even
if
judging
alone
from
the
references
to
the
influences
of
bodily
humors
in
his
concluding
section
of
remedies,
for
the
effects
of
these
humors
was
a
central
concept
in
Galen’s
understanding
of
the
body,
its
diseases
and
treatments.
From
his
reference
to
other
physicians,
Maffei
seems
to
have
been
quite
learned
in
the
received
medical
literature
of
his
day.
Perplexities
remain,
and
perhaps
the
appearance
of
this
translation
will
someday
stimulate
the
learned
dissertation
that
solves
them
definitively
No
one
who
has
read
at
all
in
the
original
languages
on
musical
subjects
at
this
period
could
do
other
than
recognize
an
individual
of
great
perspective
and
self-‐reflection
in
Maffei’s
comment
toward
the
end
about
why
he
is
the
first
to
write
on
the
subject.
Neither
the
ancients
nor
the
moderns
should
be
reproved
for
this
omission,
he
says—the
former
because
it
was
a
great
enough
contribution
to
create
music
in
the
first
place,
and
the
latter
because
the
subject
is
very
difficult
and
requiring
an
unusual
variety
of
diverse
intellectual
backgrounds.
At
a
time
when
writers
on
the
subject
of
music
were
with
great
difficulty
groping
their
way
toward
discovering
a
conceptual
framework
and
an
intelligible
terminology
in
which
to
express
their
thoughts,
Maffei
emerges
with
striking
suddenness—to
use
an
image
from
his
beloved
classical
culture—as
an
Athene
from
the
head
of
Zeus.
Book One
[5] The sweet harmony of the most agreeable song, which one hears in the house of your most
Illustrious Lordship,2 in the hours set aside for such exercise, perhaps induced you on a previous
2
occasion to ask me about the voice, and about the way that one could purse so as to be able to learn
how to passaggiare con la gorga3 without a teacher. But, when I was looking at both questions—the
response not less difficult to express than long to recount—I came to the opinion of demonstrating to
Your Lordship in this letter, rather than by word of mouth, what I think about it. I am certain that to the
degree my discourse bores the one who doesn’t understand [6], to the same degree will it bring you
delight, which I look forward to, if by means of the good intention that aims at being superior to others,
not by any other means than by knowledge, and if further, because I do not think it could need anything
in regard to philosophy or medicine which could be more beautiful and necessary to know than this.
Since every man speaks and God willed that he know how without scattering the words to the
wind, so that when one understands that the voice is born from the imagination (imagginativa)4 as from
its operative principle, one ought very well to consider to what purpose one speaks before issuing forth
words. But leaving this to the moral philosopher, I say that Plato, Democritus, Anaximander and the
Stoics defined the voice variously. But, because the true scribe of nature, Aristotle, in this just as in all
other things. touched the ultimate mark, for this I deliberated (having put on one side the atoms and the
thoughts of those others) so as to grasp his learned and true definition. So then (he says in his book De
Anima), the voice is a sound given rise [7] from the soul by the repercussion of the air in the trachea
toward the end of signifying something. But, since I want to clarify this definition perfectly, it is
necessary to indicate many creative forces of nature so as to know the best possible and, primarily, how
many things are required for producing the voice, and to what power of the Anima5 the voice is referred
Because I want to speak with brevity and clear language, I take what Galen has left written in his
little book on dissection of the organs of the voice, namely that in all the activities in this life it is the
power in which these three things concur:6 the master, the instrument, and the material. So as to
speak with an example: in the desire to make a copper vase, the creator is necessary for it, the one who
3
is the craftsman. There is an instrument necessary, which is the anvil and the hammer; and there is
necessary the material because neither the master, nor the instrument may cause any effect if there
were no copper. Now in applying this to the voice, as the root of our reasoning, I say that the creators
are the powers [8] of our Anima, and the instrument is the trachea or, to speak more clearly, the vocal
cords, and the material is the air, which I say among us is called spirit or breath.
But, because I believe that Your Lordship has in your mind (animo) the thought of asking me
how many are the powers of the Anima and which one of those produces the voice, for this reason, so
as to speak of it only so much as relates to such reasoning, I say to you that for now the powers of the
Anima are two—leaving aside as many divisions as are made by the doctors and the philosophers—and
they are the natural and the perceptible (sensitiva),7 (such as in the book on causes Galen says of the
accidents). I understand by the natural the one that performs its duty without our involvement and
choice, such as the power than draws nutriment, the power that retains it, the power that digests it, and
even that which sends forth excrement. Those powers that can operate without our action, sleep
demonstrates to us, in which they operate on their own. Now, for the perceptible, I understand seeing,
tasting, hearing, feeling [9], imagining, remembering; it is not necessary to speak of others such, just as
it is not necessary also to speak of the intellective soul, since it isn’t relevant to this purpose of the voice.
Now of these aforementioned powers, the greater part is voluntary; that is, whether it is in our
will to act or not. Since I want to reduce the voice to its powers, it will suffice for now to say what the
effect of the imaginative may be, as of the voluntary power, which may be obvious to us in our own
selves, since we speak with imagination of being understood, and at the time that we want. But,
because the repercussion of the air is required, as we have seen in the definition, in order for this to
produce the voice, there is also necessary the motive power of the chest, from which the air moves.
Whence, because first what has to be said is imagined and then the chest moves to produce the voice,
thus it can be truly concluded that the imaginative power first and thereafter the motive power of the
4
chest are the principle causes of the voice. Further, that the motive power alone is not able [10] to
produce the voice, a cough demonstrates to us, which being produced without the imagination of a
significance, although the motion of the chest contributes to it, it cannot be called voice either by
doctors or philosophers. This suffices for now, because in the following discussion of such beautiful
It follows now that I should say for what reason a voice was given to some animals but not to all
and in what way it was formed. Because I want to demonstrate this thoroughly, it is necessary to say
what Aristotle in his second book of De Anima and Galen in his volumes on the use of the parts of the
human body said, namely, that all animals that walk and have blood also have lungs and are quite warm.
Because Nature having given lungs on account of the heart, it follows thence that where the former is
the latter is found. The heart being the source and vessel of heat, it was necessary that there would be
two things provided for it: namely, some cooling (rifriggerio)8 so that it would not be inflamed by the
excessive heat, and some [11] means of being able to vent and send forth the superfluity and vapors
that are generated in it by the constant ardor of the blood. Whence were made two contrary
movements, which I call inspiration and expiration, that is (to speak more clearly) the expansion and
contraction of the chest, both very useful [movements], since by the dilation of the chest the air that
cools is drawn and moderates the excessive heat of the heart, and by the contraction all the vapor is
expelled and all the excrescences that are found there. I leave off speaking of the several opinions of
Asclepiades, Prassagora, Diocles, Ephilistion, Erasistratos9 and many others on the reason for which
respiration has been bestowed on us, just as I decline also to say in what way it nourishes the spirits of
the brain (as a subject that I do not say I don’t know well), but on this occasion perhaps is excessive.
Up to this point, then, we have seen how necessary respiration is to animals. But, it could be
said to me,“ if the heart maintains these movements for the preservation of life, for what reason [12]
were the lungs put around it?” To this I answer that the lungs are the servant of the heart. In order to
5
understand what constitutes [the lungs’] service to it, one ought to know, Your Lordship, that if the
heart had to draw the air, which arrived to it immediately without delay and without the means of the
lungs, many things and no small harms would follow in consequence from this. Now first, since
respiration is necessary to the voice (as you have understood, Your Lordship, and will learn better
hereafter), rational discourse10 would not be able to continue for long, because of the great necessity for
cooling that our heart would have. It would need to respire very frequently and this movement being
used so frequently, the voice would fail, because now, as seems clear, when one speaks one does not
respire. This would be very harmful for good life since the human being would not be able to express his
needs. 11
Further, submerging ourselves under the water would be prohibited to us because of the risk of
suffocating, and finally, if we found ourselves in a place where there was smoke or dust, not being able
to hold our breath, we would be constrained to die. If sometimes, as happens frequently, [13] one
should need to pass through a place where the air was corrupted by some poisonous animal or infected
by some other evil quality, it would be necessary perforce to draw [the breath], since death could easily
result from [holding] it. So, for this Mother Nature, governed by the highest God, in order that we might
participate in any comfort whatever, placed the lungs around the heart, in which the air is retained and
prepared before it enters and in which still are preserved those airy spirits that deliver the said cooling.
Whence the lungs are just like a servant from which the heart draws its need, and it follows from this
that it is not necessary to respire so very frequently, and being able to restrain it for some length, all the
So, in order that one might be able conveniently to draw breath and produce a voice, the vocal
cords were joined to the lungs, whereby the operations of the lungs are two. Of these the one is
breathing and is necessary for the preservation of life, and the other is the voice and is useful only for
6
living more comfortably, for animals with voice signify their will, but for this reason [14] they would not
Now, if Your Lordship should say to me, then, that “you have told me so much about the heart,
the lungs, the vocal cords and the breath, tell me a little as to how the voice is produced.” I would
respond to you that for producing the voice the repercussion of the air is required, just as in the
definition it was stated. In order that this might be done, it was necessary at the top of the vocal cords
to make many cartilages, many tendons,12 and many muscles, so that the cartilages now closed and now
opened by the tendons and muscles make the two effects already mentioned, namely, they draw the air
into the heart and form the voice. So that I and Your Lordship may be satisfied, remain content to hear
how.
The top of the vocal cords is composed of three cartilages, of which the largest appears to us in
the manner of a shield; it is that knot that is seen in the throat of every man. This has been made so
hard for the defense of that place and is like a shield, so one calls it scudiform. In the interior of this
there is contained another one, made for a greater defense, if perhaps the first is not enough, and this is
without a name. Within this, [15] namely in the middle of that place, there is another of them called
cimbalare,13 made in the likeness of the mouthpipe (lingua) of a bagpipe14, and in this is made the
repercussion of the air and the voice. It is not in the head, as Homer once said in that verse “He sent
forth as great a cry as his head contained,” because movement was necessary in order to be able to
tighten or relax the said cartilages according as necessity might be.
Nature disposed15 so that a branch is produced from those tendons that descend evenly (or as a
pair)16 from the head17 to the stomach, which branch accompanied by its muscles provide them [the
vocal cords] with the said movement. Such tendons come to be called “reverted” because they return
from the stomach to the cartilages. It is their movement so voluntary that the brain makes use of in that
same manner that the horseman makes use of the horse’s bridle. But, because this subject is so difficult
7
and obscure, I don’t want to regret for this purpose to discuss it with [only] one when there are many
suitable examples.
Just as in the bagpipe three things are seen, namely the bag full of air, and the arm [16] that
presses the bag, and the reed (canna) of the bagpipe, adding to it for a fourth, the mouthpipe (lingua) of
the bagpipe, which is held in the mouth, with the fingers of the hand for the purpose of now closing now
opening the holes, according as the sound requires.18 Thus also in the voice these similar things are
recognized for the reason that the concavity of the chest and the lungs, where the air is enclosed, is
similar to the bag. The muscles that move the chest are similar to the arm, and the vocal cords (canna)
of the lungs can without doubt justly be compared to the bagpipe.19 The cartilages called cimbalare—
truly one can say that they are the mouthpipe—and tendons and muscles, whose duty is now to close
Now, applying this example more strictly, I say that just as the sound reverberates in the large
cavity of the bagpipe by means of the air, which is sent from the bag to the mouthpipe (lingua) [sic],20
reverberates and is moderated by the fingers, which stand above the holes according to which sound
pleases [i.e., which sound it pleases one to produce]. Thus, the voice resounds in the palate by means of
the air that pushes from the chest as far as the throat, and it reverberates and is refracted by the fistular
cimbalare [17] and by the tendons and muscles dilating and constricting according as he wants who
Next Your Lordship will say to me, “are not the tongue, teeth and lips necessary for the voice?” I
answer that the voice is quite different from the rational articulations [of speech] because the voice
expresses only the vowels, that is o, i, u, e, a and to do this no more is required than the things
mentioned above. But, rational discourse, to which pertains—by joining the vowels with the
consonants—the formation into syllables, let us suppose, tu, ba, se, non, and as with syllables similarly
with words, requires other circumstances. Whence one sees clearly the reason why this effect cannot
8
be produced without the aid of the tongue, teeth and palate. It follows from this that such members are
Should someone say to me, “since the material of the voice is the air, what does it mean that
the voice is not always produced when the air issues forth with the breath?” To him I would say that the
material of the voice, generally speaking, so to speak as Galen does, is the expiration, but more properly
speaking it is the very plentiful expiration if [18] sent forth with great power. Since the thing that is
required for the production of the voice is the repercussion of the air, it is necessary that it issue forth
with vehemence, which is not produced when one exhales naturally. But on this occasion there would
never be time to return to the definition of Aristotle after having treated as much as was necessary for
that discussion.
[Aristotle’s definition] was like this: the voice is a sound caused by the anima [sic]21 by means of
the repercussion of the air, made in the throat with the intention of signifying something; where one
places the sound in the position of genus, since every voice is a sound but not every sound is a voice,
just as the sound of bells shows us, and all the rest follows. [The voice] is assigned to a different
classification [than the rest of sound] because it is spoken; [because being] caused by the anima, the
voice is made different from those sounds not caused by the anima, and it exists by the intention of the
anima, as I said principally the imaginative, and next the motion of the chest.22 It being said that it is
caused by the repercussion of the air in the throat, the voice is made different from other sounds,
which, [19] to whatever degree they are caused by the repercussion of the air, nonetheless they are not
made in the throat. Speaking in regard to the ultimate purpose, with the intention of signifying
something, it is produced differently by those repercussions that are made in the throat without
“That reminds me,” Your Lordship will say, “to ask you on what animals has voice been
bestowed?” I will answer you briefly that voice is bestowed only on animals that have a throat and
9
lungs. Whence flies, crickets, cicadas, butterflies and all other insects, by not having throats are
deprived of voice. That noise or murmur that they make when they fly is not voice but a sound made by
wings that beat the air. By the same reason the fish, which do not have lungs, are deprived of voice.
Not only do they not have voice, but they do not even respirate, and in this may Pliny excuse me. I do
not speak now of dolphins, whales, or cane,23 and of many other fish that have lungs and breathe, even
In order that Your Lordship may remain [20] completely satisfied with this answer, you ought to
know that the voice and sound and rational speech are three very different things, as Aristotle says in
his books on the generation of animals.24 Now here is the difference: voice is differentiated from sound
because in producing the voice the throat is required, which for producing sound is not necessary. It is
also different from rational speech because in producing the voice the throat suffices, but in rational
speech not only is the throat necessary but also the lips, the tongue, the teeth and the palate without
any defect, because otherwise they would not be able to express words. Whence if any animals have
voice and not rational speech, it is not for any other reason except because they do not have those
organs, or if by chance they do have them, they are not suited for this, so that rational speech was only
bestowed on humans. Since all the said members with all suitabilities were bestowed on him [the
human].
Now, if your Lordship were to demand of me whether any of the animals may be found (I do not
mean the human for whom rational speech is characteristic) that may be a participant in this, I would
respond that which Aristotle says of it. This is that [21] all those who have four feet have been denied
rational speech, and only to some of the birds was it bestowed by nature, to those, I say, who have a
moderately large and slender tongue, as is seen in the one called parrot and as even the magpies show.
But the musicians would say to me, then, that one sees in the voice so much diversity, since
there are large and small, harsh and sweet, high and low that are produced by nature, and are even
10
formed by cultivation, what could be the cause of this diversity? For which reason, wishing no less to
render the cause to them than to Your Lordship, I will tell briefly as much as one sees written about it by
There are, then, thanks to Galen in his three books on medical art, three differences of the
voice. These are large and small, harsh and gentle, low and high. Aristotle wrote of it similarly in his
books on the generation of the animals, although another is added; this is the rigid and the flexible,
meaning by the former the ungentle (I am constrained to call it that for lack of a proper word) [22] and
the gentle by the latter. Even though one could reduce this fourth difference to the second nature [i.e.,
Galen’s harsh and gentle], nonetheless I will speak of it at some length. These are, then, the natural
species of the voice, and if any other of them were found—such as hoarse, delicate, gross and others—
they can readily be reduced to some of these four. Nor do I want to discuss the voice called “negra”
Now beginning with the small and large,25 it is necessary for me to return to what has been said
in the beginning of this discourse, that is, that three things contribute to producing the voice, just as in
every other human activity, these are the material, the master, and the instrument, meaning by the
master the power of the anima, this is the imaginative and the movement of the chest, by the material
the air, and by the instrument the vocal cords of the lungs. Whence, when the instrument is large in size
and the air is great, and likewise the powers of the anima are vigorous, thus consequently the voice
happens to be produced large.26 Since a great respiration makes large repercussion [23] in the vocal
cords, from which, then, is born the largeness of the voice, just as one clearly sees in the large trumpet,
for which much breath and power is necessary. If the rule is true that one opposite is known by the
other, it is possible from this for the cause of the little voice to be born from this [the size of the vocal
organs], since where the vocal cords are found narrow and little and the air little and little also the
power, it is necessary for the voice to become little. This may be said for those to whom has been
11
granted either the one or the other. Should a man with a large voice want to imitate a little one, or
make a little one large, he could do it according to the increasing or decreasing of the things discussed in
its manner of production. But, because I must say many things on the subject of the low and high voice,
I say that although the low and high voice are different from the large and little, it is not because
of this that they cannot exist together [i.e., this is not a reason that they cannot exist together], because
it often happens that one and the same voice is large and low, large and high, low and little, high and
little. Not entering into the several opinions [24] of the ancients on this issue, but only on the pure truth
coming in company with my Aristotle, truly the scribe of Nature. I say that the low [grande misprint for
grave] voice is caused by the slow movement of the air in the vocal cords, just as the high voice is from
the speed, because it is already clear that, because of velocity, the latter [high voice] is sensed and
Since I want to discuss this slow and swift movement, I say that two causes contribute to this.
The first is the air, as a thing moved by the anima. The second is the aforesaid anima, as the motive
cause of the air, and they have these two causes between them, this proportion and correspondence,
that when the air moved advances and resists the motive power, the movement of the air produced is
slow, and consequently it must be that the voice produced is low28. But, when the contrary, the force of
the anima advances and overcomes the air in such a way as to push and move it quickly, the voice must
be produced high. From this can arise the cause why little boys and girls have little voices and high.
Since [25] the vocal cords being small, it is necessary for the air that is contained in them to be little,
whence being moved swiftly by the power of the mind anima makes a voice high and small.
When Your Lordship would say to me that if the said reason were true, it would then follow that
all the animals that are recently born would have a high voice, but one clearly sees, Aristotle says it as
well, that calves and cows have a low voice, not high.29 I would answer you the same, saying to you
12
what was written by the same philosopher, namely, that calves and cows have vocal cords that are
larger and bigger than any other animal’s. Whence the air that is contained in them must be great and
have still a quite weak power of the chest, which happens in calves because of their age, at which time
there is too little strength, and in cows because of the sex itself, weak and faint. Thus, resting on the
grounds of the same argument one concludes that because of the said causes the air moves slowly,
which makes the voice low in this and any other kind of similar animal.
[26] Now, if after contemplating it further, Your Lordship should ask me by what cause the said
animals change their voice from low to high when they have reached their full-‐grown age—a condition
contrary to all others—I would say to you that when they have advanced further in years they acquire
more strength, because of which the air, however much it may be, comes to be moved rapidly, from
which results, then, a high voice. This may be said about high and low, as far as is granted by nature.
Should someone want to change his own type, just as having a bass voice naturally and because
lacking the soprano [he] would imitate the voice called falsetto, it would be possible by making the
movement of the air faster, to produce it in its place. This method of changing the voice was granted
only to man, most especially when he in arguing wants to persuade and move and express his will. If
Your Lordship would like to know which of these voices is more perfect and more agreeable for a
cavalier, I would say to you the low one, since Aristotle tells me that the perfection of the voice, and of
any other thing whatever, consists in [27] prevailing and exceeding. Whence, since the low voice
exceeds and prevails and embraces all the others, it ought to be considered more perfect, more noble
Now, as to the reasoning on the harsh and gentle voice: so that Your Lordship may not be
annoyed, I will speak to you with brevity, that both of these are caused by the internal tissues of the
vocal cords. So, when the tissues are even and in their perfect and proper temperament, it makes the
13
voice gentle and even, but if by some humors that are caught up in them, or by the lack of them, it
would depart from its temperament, so the voice would become hoarse, harsh and uneven.
It remains for me to discuss what Aristotle said of the voice, that it is rigid or flexible, which
words or terms are Latin, although we may not have proper words in the Tuscan language, nevertheless
for greater clarity, by the flexible voice is intended, so to speak, a pliable voice, namely one which varies
sweetly in such a way that the ears remain satisfied. By the rigid ought to be understood the hard,
which in some way [28] cannot be pliable. Whence, the ears in hearing it are disturbed. Some would
reduce this kind of voice to the harsh and gentle, even though the one comes from the internal tissues
of the throat and the other from the throat’s own material and substance31—setting aside Galen, who
makes no discussion of it, perhaps because he [also] reduces it.32
I side with Aristotle who makes mention of this voice. Now then, I say that these voices are
born from the vocal cords’ own material, and I mean by the vocal cords all the aforementioned parts,
which contribute to produce the voice, since, if that will be soft it will make the voice flexible, pliable
and variable. But, if by chance it will be hard, it will make the voice rigid and hard, for the reason that
the instrument is hard. It cannot, as would be necessary, be pliable, just as when it is soft, easily being
pliable, it can form and fashion any sort of voice. Hence, it comes about that many there are who are
not able to sing any other voice than the bass. Many even imagine themselves capable of it who are
not, unless leaning toward one of the voices of the ensemble [29] they barely sing, and that with the
very greatest annoyance to the ears. On the contrary, there are found some of them who sing the bass,
tenor, and every other voice with great ease, and while blossoming and fading with the gorga,33 they
make passaggi now in the bass, now in the mezzo and now in the alto, most beautiful to hear.
“I would like,” perhaps you will say to me, “now that you have mentioned the passaggi, for you
to discuss some, putting aside your Aristotle, on the method of singing with the gorga (cantare con la
gorga).” I say to you, then, that the method of making the throat suitable and fit for singing passaggi
14
has never been written, neither by the ancients nor by the moderns.34 Nor are they for this reason
worthy of reproof, since the former as first inventors—I say quite the very greatest thing—in giving the
beginning to music and the latter because the subject has been no little difficult, they didn’t intend, or
to say it better, they weren’t able to express it because, in truth, the one who wants with his argument
in hand to give an account of this must not only be a musician but also a learned medical doctor and
philosopher. But, putting aside pretty words,35 [30] in which one delights to chatter and taking up
consideration of the passaggio voice (voce passaggiata) with all diligence, I say that such a voice is not
other than a sound caused by the delicate36 and controlled (ordinata) repercussion of the air in the
throat with the intention of pleasing the ear.37 Whence clearly one sees what kind the sound is, since
every passaggio voice is a sound, but not just any sound, it is a passaggio voice.
Further, since one also sees that the other constituent factors (particelle) stand in a different
situation,38 since, as it was said, the passaggio voice is delicate and controlled with the intention of
pleasing the ear, it produces a difference from the delicate voice that one hears in laughing and similarly
in coughing, which, however, is delicate but is not controlled, nor does it please the ear. It is made
differently also from those voices that are produced by order and diminution,39 carrying the syllable of
the words in the mouth, just as someone would do when he would say—I propose for example—
“amor,” “fortuna,” etc., in five notes, that is, ut, re, mi, fa, sol, applying to each note [31] one syllable,
because this voice, although it is delicate and controlled and pleasing to the ear, nonetheless in
producing it with the intention of signifying something, that is of introducing the sentiment of the
words, isn’t possible, nor ought it be called a passaggio voice, which one makes only for the
entertainment of the ear.40 Nor because I have included so many conditions in this definition, ought one
to say that such a voice is specifically distinct from those mentioned above, for the reason that it is
reduced to the flexible, since in consisting of the rising of the low to the high and descent of the high to
the low along with the delicate and controlled repercussion of the air, it cannot be produced unless
15
from a pliable and soft instrument. Whence it becomes clear to all that those who do not by nature
have a soft and pliable throat are not suitable for producing passaggi, so that to them these instructions
Now, with this said, what might this [passaggio] voice be and to [32] which of the aforesaid
voices may it be referred. I want to talk about the place where the passaggi are formed and that is the
same place in which the voice is formed, that is in the cartilages called the cimbalare, as we have seen,
which now tightening and now relaxing by the aforesaid tendons, in the order which Your Lordship will
understand better below. They strike against and repercuss the air so delicately that there results from
them entirely the desired singing. Now, I am going to present to Your Lordship the rules that ought to
Let the first rule, then, be that the one who wants to embrace this ability ought to flee from
affectation41 as from a mortal enemy, for the reason that to the degree that it [affectation] is a greater
offense in music than in other arts, so to that degree ought one to practice it with the less
pretentiousness. Nor do I need for this to adduce other argument than the very experience that I
witness every day, since many for knowing how to sing four little notes with a little [33] grace while they
sing, become so infatuated with themselves that the bystanders make jokes about them and, after
having sung, they go making passage by foot through the city no less than they had made passages by
the gorga, and go about so haughty and proud that rather [are they] shunned than respected by
everyone. Now, let him flee from this self-‐satisfaction without letting it be known that he makes or
The second rule is that the time when one ought to practice this should be in the morning four
or five hours after eating because the time during which the stomach is full, the vocal cords of the throat
cannot be so clean and clear as is required to send forth a clear and serene voice, which is necessary
16
The third rule is that the place where one ought to practice should be in a space in which the
solitary echo responds, just as are some shadowy valleys and cavernous rocks in which, because it
responds to the one producing the sound, [thus] singing with the one who sings, it will be possible [34]
easily to demonstrate whether the passaggi are good or not and do duty to a living voice.
The fourth is that one must not make any movement in other parts of the body,42 except for the
aforesaid cartilage cimbalare, because those appear ugly to us who while they sing gorga shake their
heads, or tremble with their lips and move the hands or feet. We have to persuade ourselves that when
we do similar things we probably appear ugly to others. Of these we see many who, either because of
little trouble taken in the beginning [of study] or because they haven’t realized the bad practice, are
unable in any way to stand still when they sing; so let them be given notice of it.
The fifth rule is that one ought to hold a mirror before the eyes, so that when looking into it one
may be advised of whatever ugly emphasis one may make when singing.
The sixth is to extend the tongue so that the tip comes and touches the root of the lower teeth.
The seventh is to hold the mouth open and precisely not more than one holds it when speaking
The eighth, one should very gradually push the breath with the voice and take great care that it
not issue through the nose or across the palate, both of which would be a very great error.
The ninth, one should want to associate with those who sing gorga with great facility because
the [sense of] hearing allows into the memory a certain image and conception which provides no small
help.
The tenth is that one ought to do this exercise, breathe very frequently without doing as some
do who, in one or two times, don’t get to the end of their goal. They give up suddenly and are aggrieved
with Nature that she has not given the sufficiency and disposition43 to them that is required for it.
Whence, they attribute to her what ought to be attributed to their own laziness, and, in my judgment,
17
make a great error. Therefore, I make most certain that a student warned by an echo in the voice and
advised by the mirror in regard to emphasis and aided by continuous practice, and equally by hearing
those who sing with facility, will acquire such a [36] disposition that he will be able easily to apply
But, because some notated examples are required for these my rules, by means of which one
may be able in making passaggi to acquire the disposition for gorga gradually, by this printing of the
notes below and reducing to one brief order as much as I have already said in the stated rules. I say that
the student after the time when he has digested his meal will be conducted to some resonant valley or
cave or other place and also after having a mirror before his eyes, and will have extended his tongue in
the said manner, and will have held his head firm and every other part of his body, he should want with
these notes very gradually to push his breath, carrying in his mouth the letter “o” for the reason that I
[37-‐39]
18
19
20
[40] These are the notes and are composed in such a way so as to give an easy introduction to
this endeavor. For this reason it is necessary for me to say that one ought not in any way progress from
one passaggio to another without having very well understood and prepared. It is probably necessary
for me to say also that if I have not placed a clef in these examples, I have done it so that they can be
begun on every solmization syllable, I mean ut, re, mi, fa. sol, la, both ascending and descending, as well
on a space as on a line and to all these things I add this other, that although this fifth and this octave, in
which all the passaggi are contained, may be thus varied, nonetheless they can be mixed up among each
other, taking up now the beginning or the middle of one passaggio with the end of another, and then
again the opposite. They present, then, first the notes directly, then next multiplied, without saying
when, in what place and on what syllable of the madrigal they ought to produce a passaggio, since up till
this point I record only the manner of [41] acquiring disposition and aptness of the throat. But, because
the student would feel little or no satisfaction, if after having acquired the disposition of the throat and
not know how to apply passaggi to madrigals or any other thing he should sing, therefore in writing here
below this madrigal, I will discuss a few more rules, such as are necessary for the purpose.
Music Example44
[58] Indeed, I know that this madrigal is old, but I wanted to pose it only as an example in order
that the good singer may observe [these precepts] in anything at all that appears before him to be sung.
These precepts and rules that are seen observed in this example, so that they may be understood more
clearly, here they are written out by me [as follows].
The first rule, then, is that passaggi are not to be made in other places than at cadences, by
means of which the harmony is coming to an end in conclusion. There [in that place] can one elaborate
with great pleasantness without disturbing the other members of the ensemble. But not in this case:
prior to a cadence one is prohibited from passing successively from one note to another with any
ornament or embellishment, as one sees observed in the madrigal printed above [i.e., the rule is
21
adhered to in the examples]. In those places, indeed, where it can be permitted and where it appears to
good effect.45
The second rule is that there may be made in the madrigal [59] no more than four or five
passaggi, so that the ear in savoring the sweetness seldom is made ever more desirous of hearing, which
would not happen if one sang continually making passaggi, so that pleasing passaggi would become
annoying when the ear became thoroughly satiated with them. This we have every day before our eyes,
since many are seen of those such as attend only to making passaggi without observing semitones or b-‐
flats or without even expressing what the words mean,46 being persuaded that in this way the ear is
soothed, whence, because they become tiresome they are condemned by everyone.
The third rule is that one ought to make the passaggio on the last syllable of the word, so that
one also concludes the end of the word with the passaggio.
The fourth rule is that one should make a passaggio preferably on a word and syllable where the
letter [60] “o” may be carried in the mouth by the passaggio than on others [vowels]. So that this rule
may be better understood now, I will clarify. The vowels, as everyone knows, are five, of which some
such as “u” possess a frightful sound to the ear. Even beyond making a passaggio on it, it seems exactly
like the howl of a wolf. Whence, I cannot but marvel at those who [make a passagio] on the first syllable
of a madrigal that it [the vowel u] begins. With my dying breath, I swear, to make a passaggio! I cannot
but marvel at it. Thus so, because one ought not in making any passaggio on entering, and so also
because with this vowel the stridency and obscurity of the sound is increased. Something like it is “i”
when bearing a passaggio, it calls to mind a little animal that keeps whimpering because it has lost its
mother. Nevertheless, one can concede that for the soprano it constitutes an ugly fault to make a
passaggio on “i” than for the other voices. The other vowels that remain can be carried without
[harm].47 Nevertheless, on making a comparison among them, I say that “o” is the best, since with it the
voice is rendered more full, and with the others [61] as well as the breath not being so well unified
22
because the passaggi are formed similar to laughing.48 Nevertheless, not insisting so much on this rule, I
leave it up to the good judgment of the singer.
The fifth rule is that when there are found four or five in the ensemble, while they sing, one
ought to yield to the others, because if two or three all made a passaggio at the same time, they would
confuse the harmony. As much as is included in these rules, a manifest example is seen in the madrigal
printed above.
[62] I believe up to now I have accomplished as much as Your Lordship has commanded me.
Now, because not all musicians, after having obeyed these my instructions, will know how to make
passaggi by means of them, I want here below, for their and my satisfaction, to add some of those which
in singing may succeed with some grace, in which I will have this order. First I will put cadences and
then passaggi—I think the most beautiful—because if I wanted to put all those with which one can vary
a cadenza, I would fill up the book instead with passaggi for playing rather than for singing. Adding to it
Examples
[77] I know well,49 I am quite certain, that many envious people will judge this my new discovery
as not only being useless but even as built upon falsehood. Useless, they will say, because the making of
passaggi comes from Nature, false because while the passaggi are being made, many errors are
committed. Whence, in short, I answer that it is quite true that the disposition of the gorga
(dispositione della gorga) comes from Nature, but that it is quite impossible without these my rules for
one to learn the manner of making passaggi.50 Because, if Nature gives aptness, training offers the
means without which no good thing could be produced. On the contrary! I say further that Nature as
the most generous mother has given to all the means of being able to conquer this undertaking—I do
not speak now about some unfortunate stutterer and bastard of hers, who has not been worthy of this
gift.51 But, because they do not want to follow the rules and work hard as much as is necessary for it,
23
doing injury to themselves [i.e., by not working to acquire the ability], they think they are unworthy of
such a power.52 That this is the truth, I would like that the aforementioned envious ones prove [that it
cannot be acquired], because I am certain that if they took as much trouble as is necessary [78] for these
my rules, they would acquire that which by their laziness they condemn. Even if they were not
themselves so wretched that they did not come before the world for anything other than for speaking
ill.
Briefly I answer also that it is quite true that in making passaggi one makes some errors, but
because the passaggio, with its speed and sweetness, covers the defect it results that one detects in it
neither harshness nor falsity. Because of this I would not know what else to advise these envious
people, except to be silent and to learn, because in the end the true manner of singing as a gentleman
and satisfying the ear is singing by gorga. Of this opinion also is S. D. Gio. Domenico da Nola, S. D. Gio.
Ant. Filodo, S. Stefano Lanno, S. Rocco and finally S. Gio Tomasso Cimelli, who, moreover, would be able
another time to reform music when it was lost, they make profession of modesty, goodness, virtue and
all else that pertains to an angelic and divine spirit. Right now, anyone who doesn’t know it, learn it!
[79] In order to demonstrate how good is the spirit that I have for serving and helping even
stutterers in this most excellent undertaking, here I add the best and most certain remedies for
producing a good voice that I have been able to gather in my profession.53
A quite beneficial remedy for producing a good voice is to use elocution frequently, whence
Nero, whom music so delighted, did not disdain –as Suetonius Tranquillus relates—to use it in order to
A good remedy also is to hold a lead plate on the stomach, just as also the same Nero did with it.
Also good are the following pills, most especially when the voice is damaged by excessive moisture:
take four dried figs, removing from them the peel, then take a half dram of satureja calamintha55 and
likewise a small amount (scropolo) of gum Arabic and grind everything together in a mortar and make
24
pills, one of which will be held in the mouth continually night and day. Here is another—take a dram of
licorice and two of incense, and take also a small amount of saffron and crushing everything [80]
together mix them together in a syrup of wine or grape juice; it will be used very gradually. Cabbage
For all these, taking cassia56 is not an inferior remedy for a harsh voice. I mean eating it as small
shoots57 with a knife. Likewise an electuary of Mesoe58 is a much approved remedy. Also just as good a
remedy is a gargle made with a little sandarac, vinegar of squills59 and some honey. This may be said
briefly on the subject of those things that enter through the mouth when the defect of the voice comes
from moisture in the throat. When one might desire an external remedy, one will be able to use this
[following] fumigation without going into plasters, unguents and other applications60 because they are
things very irksome and harsh. Take incense of sandarac, stirace61 and satureja calamintha and when
placed on charcoal breathe in the smoke of it through the nose and mouth. When by chance because
the voice is bad because dry, which happens rarely, take violet-‐scented oil and with it mix as much sugar
so that both [81] become like honey, and this is swallowed little by little, most especially when one is
going to bed take a glass62 of it. Also for this purpose chicken broth is also good, and dried figs [when
the trouble concerns] excessive moisture. I have wanted briefly to call to the attention of anyone who
has need of remedy so as to show how extensive I am in the profession and everything else of mine. I
Glossary
Anima—it is probably best to understand Maffei’s use of the word as a kind of spiritual/intellectual
power superior to mind and the originator of moral purpose.
Cantare con la gorga—this is the technique of vocal articulation in the larynx as used in producing
passaggi.
25
Dispositione—as Maffei uses the term it refers to a physiological aptitude of the vocal organs that are
conducive to the technique of cantare con la gorga. Maffei argues that some do possess it by nature
but that it can also be both developed to some degree by those for whom it is not a natural gift as well
Gorga—the throat, but Maffei uses it more specifically to indicate the point of vocal articulation in the
larynx.
Imagginativa—this and its derivatives Maffei takes from Aristotle and may be somewhat oversimplified
as the power that enables mind to retain an image of a perception toward the formulation of a
purposeful action.
Passaggiare con la gorga—this refers to the process of throat articulation used in improvising passage
work or divisions and is the topic of Maffei’s discourse.
Passaggio—a melodic passage of smaller note values improvised within the time of a longer note value
Sensitiva—this refers to the power perception, the ability to be perceived. The common modern
English senses of “sensitive” and “sensible” are very false cognates.
Bibliography
Aristotle. Historia Animalium. Vol. 1. Translated by A. L. Peck. Cambridge: Harvard, 1965.
Aristotle. On the Soul, Parva Naturalia, On Breath. Translated by W. S. Hett. 1936. Reprint, Cambridge:
Aristotle. “De generatione animalium,” translated by Arthur Platt. In Works of Aristotle. Vol. 5. Edited
by J. A. Smith and W. D. Ross. 1912. Reprint, Oxford: Clarendon, 1958.
Bridgman, Nanie. Iovanni Camillo Maffei et sa letter sur le chant,” Revue de Musicologie 38.113 (1956):
3-‐34.
26
Galen. Method of Medicine. 3 vols. Edited and translated by Ian Johnston and G. H. R. Horsley.
Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Translated by Arthur John Brock. 1916. Reprint: Cambridge: Harvard
University, 1991.
MacClinton, Carol. Readings in the History of Music in Performance. Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University, 1982.
Peters, F. E. Greek Philosophical Terms: A Historical Lexicon. New York: New York University, 1967.
Siraisi, Nancy G. Medieval & Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice.
Suetonius. Translated by J. C. Rolfe. 2 vols. 1914. Reprint, Cambridge: Harvard University, 1979.
Uberti, Mauro and Mark Lindley. “Vocal Techniques in Italy in the Second Half of the 16th Century. Early
Uberti, Mauro. “Characters of vocal technique in Italy by the letter of the song Camillo Maffei to the
Treaty of Manuel Garcia,” English Translation by Google Translate, accessed August 21,
2014. http://www.maurouberti.it/gorizia/gorizia.html.
1
Carol
MacClintock,
Readings
in
the
History
of
Music
in
Performance
(Bloomington,
IN:
Indiana
University,
1982),
38-‐61
provides
a
very
nearly
complete
translation,
omitting
only
“a
long
philosophical
discussion
based
on
classical
writers
on
the
function
of
breathing
and
its
mechanics
.
.
.
.”
This
lacuna
amounts
to
eight
pages
of
the
original
text
and
places
the
remainder
of
Maffei’s
physiology
in
historical
context.
Given
the
circumstances
of
thirty
years
ago
and
the
space
constraints
of
an
anthology,
MacClintock’s
decision
was
reasonable,
but
times
change
and
interests
with
them.
There
is
today
much
more
interest
in
the
history
of
both
human
physiology
and
vocal
pedagogy.
In
order
to
understand
Maffei’s
full
accomplishment,
the
present
translator
has
included
a
translation
of
the
lacuna
on
the
grounds
that
it
better
enables
the
reader
to
evaluate
Maffei’s
accomplishment.
It
also
helps
to
expand
the
potential
significance
of
the
treatise
to
readers
beyond
vocal
pedagogy.
It
is
also
possible
to
say
that
this
translation
also
offers
several
additional
advantages
over
MacClintocks.
Without
slighting
the
accuracy
of
her
translation,
the
present
one
adheres
more
closely
to
the
Italian
original
with
less
concession
to
smoothly
idiomatic
English.
This
is
consistent
with
the
philosophy
of
translation
as
stated
in
the
opening
remarks.
Owing
also
to
the
nature
of
anthologization,
MacClintock’s
translation
offers
no
explanatory
notes
either
linguistic
or
subject
matter,
whereas
those
provided
here,
it
is
hoped,
will
greatly
enhance
the
reader’s
understanding.
MacClintock
notes
the
difficulty
in
dealing
with
Maffei’s
terminology,
a
problem
that
has
not
substantially
decreased
in
the
past
thirty-‐
some
years.
Nonetheless,
a
few
more
suggested
translations
have
been
proposed
here.
27
2
Maffei
of
course
addresses
the
Count
in
the
polite
Lei
form,
which
is
actually
the
third
person
feminine.
This
makes
all
verbs
and
pronouns
in
agreement
also
in
the
third
person.
Since
this
could
easily
cause
confusion
for
the
English
reader,
I
have
converted
them
to
the
second
person.
3
I
have
chosen
to
retain
some
terms
in
the
original
language
as
the
means
most
likely
to
prevent
misunderstanding
and
to
enable
the
readers
to
make
their
own
judgments.
A
suggested
English
translation
appears
in
the
Glossary.
4
No
English
term
seems
entirely
satisfactory
to
translate
this
term
and
its
derivatives.
The
concept
comes
from
Aristotle’s
De
Anima
(427b15-‐429a5,
see
also
further
discussion
below).
Maffei’s
imagginativa
and
English
“imagination”
are
the
standard
translation
of
Aristotle’s
term
phantasia.
In
Aristotle’s
psychology
the
phantasia
is
a
faculty
(dynamis
or
power)
that
enables
a
perception
to
persist
and
form
the
basis
of
purposeful
action.
It
is
distinct
from
both
perception
and
judgment
but
is
involved
with
both
in
the
formulation
of
such
action.
5
Maffei
derives
his
concept
of
the
soul
(psyche)
from
Aristotle’s
De
Anima,
Even
were
it
possible
to
give
an
outline
of
Aristotle’s
system
here,
it
is
unnecessary
for
the
present
purpose.
W.
S.
Hett’s
introduction
to
the
Loeb
text
(see
the
bibliography)
provides
a
brief
but
adequate
outline
along
with
reference
to
its
weaknesses.
For
the
readeer
of
Maffei
who
wishes
to
pursue
the
matter
further,
only
two
passages
are
of
substantional
importance.
The
first
has
already
received
attention
in
these
notes
in
connection
with
the
term
imagginativa
(phantasia).
The
second
is
the
formulation
of
voice
as
produced
by
a
creature
with
a
soul
(psyche)
involving
imagination
(phantasia)
so
that
voice
is
distinguished
by
its
purposeful
meaningfulness
as
opposed
to
mere
sound.
6
Maffei,
though
usually
clear
and
specific,
can
sometimes
be
quite
elliptical,
as
in
this
case.
What
he
is
saying
is
that
the
power
that
produces
voice
is
of
the
same
nature
as
the
power
that
produces
or
creates
all
the
activities
of
life,
which
power
is
in
each
case
composed
of
three
elements:
creative,
instrument
and
material.
7
This
term
in
Italian
is
clearly
cognate
with
the
older
significances
of
the
English
“sensible”
and
“sensitive,”
as
translated
here.
8
The
word
is
not
Italian
but
clearly
derived
from
Latin
refrigero,
“cool
down”
and
derivatives.
It
is
one
of
many
examples
of
the
influence
of
Latin
and
its
medical
terminology
on
the
doctor
Maffei.
This
passage
also
relates
to
Aristotle
(De
Anima
478a11-‐25),
though
Maffei
expands
upon
Aristotle
in
his
more
elaborate
description
of
the
process
and
the
physiological
arrangement
of
the
organs.
Aristotle
provides
another
somewhat
more
extensive
discussion
of
the
lungs
and
their
cooling
function
in
Historia
Animalium
495a19-‐196b10,
though
once
again
Maffei’s
treatment
is
more
elaborate
and
specific
as
to
both
the
process
and
the
physiological
arrangement.
This
points
to
the
conclusion
that
Maffei
probably
depends
on
Galen
or
a
Latin
medico.
The
Greek
medical
tradition
experienced
an
extremely
widespread
development
in
the
Roman
world.
Even
Galen,
who
was
Greek
and
wrote
in
Greek,
was
active
within
the
Roman
empire
and
was
at
one
time
personal
physician
to
the
emperor
Marcus
Aurelius.
9
These
names
are
Greek
but
given
in
Italian
forms,
which
I
restore
to
their
more
common
form,
when
known.
The
editors
of
Galen’s
Method
of
Medicine
identify
all
but
one.
Asclepiades
(of
Bithynia,
120-‐90
B.C.),
Diocles
(of
Carystus,
fourth
century
B.C.)
and
Erasistratus
(260-‐240
B.C.)
are
known
physicians
of
antiquity.
Prassagoras
is
probably
an
alternate
spelling
for
Praxagoras
(of
Cos,
325-‐275
B.C.);
likewise
Ephilistion
is
probably
Philistion
(of
Locri,
370-‐340
B.C.)
10
The
term
here
is
il
ragionare,
which
can
mean
either
the
mental
or
the
verbal
process.
The
latter
seems
indicated
by
Maffei’s
subsequent
discussion.
The
former
is
not
entirely
impossible,
if
Maffei
embraces
one
of
the
earlier
theories
that
the
heart
is
the
seat
of
reason,
just
as
in
Homeric
times
the
liver
was
consideedr
to
be,
hence
phrenology.
11
This
is
an
opportune
moment
to
explain
the
organization
of
the
text
presented
here.
Maffei’s
discourse
is
essentially
one
continuous
stream
with
only
rare
indications
of
paragraphs.
This
point
is
the
first
at
which
he
indicates
a
paragraph.
Those
few
apparent
paragraphs
indicated
in
the
original
text
seem
consistently
to
be
arbitrary
in
regard
to
the
organization
of
the
subject
matter.
In
this
particular
case,
and
probably
all,
it
seems
more
likely
that
the
short
previous
line
resulted
from
an
expediency
in
type-‐setting
than
from
Maffei’s
own
indication.
The
left
margin
is
not
indented.
Paragraphing
as
it
appears
in
this
edition
is
the
editor’s
own.
12
The
term
nervo
can
mean
sinew,
muscle
and
nerve.
The
only
clarity
here
is
that
Maffei
does
not
mean
muscles
because
he
distinguishes
muscles
as
moscoli.
Otherwise,
it
is
possible
that
he
intends
either
or
both
indiscriminately.
As
seen
below,
in
one
case
he
may
be
referring
specifically
to
nerves.
28
13
The
term
cimbalare
is
obscure.
It
seems
suspiciously
like
a
corruption
of
something
derived
from
Greek,
symballô,
“throw/strike/come
together,”
but
this
is
the
purest
speculation.
14
Maffei’s
understanding
of
the
lingua,
“tongue,”
is
confused.
As
he
very
clearly
subsequently
specifies,
the
lingua
is
the
mouthpipe,
which
the
player
holds
in
the
mouth.
A
much
closer
analogy
would
have
been
the
bagpipe’s
chanter,
a
slender
tube
with
an
enclosed
double
reed
and
finger
holes
from
which
the
air
and
sound
issue.
On
page
sixteen
Maffei
refers
specifically
to
(1)
the
lingua,
clearly
the
mouthpipe
because
he
says
it
is
held
in
the
mouth
and
(2)
the
reed
(canna),
but
he
says
that
the
lingua
is
fingered
to
produce
the
notes.
Maffei’s
description
must
necessarily
be
in
error
because
no
change
in
pitch
could
be
achieved
on
the
mouthpipe
as
the
air
enters
the
bag
but
only
by
the
chanter
when
it
issues
and
passes
across
the
reed.
15
This
is
somewhat
obscure.
The
Italian
is
“Fé
la
Natura.”
I
have
taken
Fé
to
be
an
irregular
form
of
the
past
absolute
of
fare
from
fece.
Maffei
occasionally
uses
such
abbreviated,
presumably
colloquial,
forms
of
common
and
frequently
used
verbs,
such
as
vò
for
voglio
and
ponno
for
possono
.
Neither
the
capitalization
of
Fé
nor
the
punctuation
give
any
clue
or
prevent
any
interpretation
because
both
are
quite
arbitrary
and
often
confusing
in
the
text.
16
This
is
even
more
obscure
than
the
previous
difficulty.
The
Italian
is
“che
da
quei
nervi
i
quali
dal
sesto
pare
discendono
allo
stomaco,”
with
the
pith
of
the
problem
being
“dal
sesto
pare.”
The
text
is
virtually
riddled
with
misprints,
which
could
be
part
of
the
problem,
as
MacClintock
has
translated
as
explained
in
the
following
note.
The
sense
of
sesto
as
“sixth”
seems
unlikely.
There
is
another
sense
of
the
word
that
refers
to
an
arch-‐like
structure,
which
might
possibly
be
a
medical
term
or
even
a
casual
description
related
to
the
site
of
the
vocal
chords,
some
structures
of
which
with
a
little
imagination
could
be
likened
to
an
arch.
No
sense
of
the
verb
parere
seems
possible.
I
have
taken
pare
in
an
adverbial
sense
derived
from
par,
“as
a
pair.”
Maffei
is
given
to
Latinisms,
and
the
use
of
–e
as
an
adverb-‐forming
suffix
is
common
in
Italian
as
in
Latin,
thus
the
suggested
translation
“evenly”
extended
from
“as
a
pair.”
His
additional
use
of
the
description
“reverted”
makes
a
connection
with
the
pair
of
right
and
left
recurrent
laryngeal
nerves
attractive,
but
he
also
alludes
to
their
motion,
which
seems
to
preclude
nerves.
The
whole
issue
could
also
be
and
probably
is
complicated
by
the
imperfect
anatomical
knowledge
of
the
time.
17
Carol
MacClintock,
Readings,
39
apparently
has
silently
but
very
plausibly
taken
“sesto”
as
a
misprint
for
“testa,”
“head.”
She
does
not,
however,
offer
a
solution
for
the
problematic
“pare.”
18
Maffei’s
description
is
clearly
in
error,
see
note
above.
19
This
analogy
is
bedeviled
by
Maffei’s
ignorance
of
the
bagpipe
and
his
own
characteristic
elliptical
style
and
also
by
the
fact
that
the
term
canna
serves
as
both
“reed”
and
“vocal
cords.”
The
sense
seems
to
be
“The
chest,
which
is
moved
by
its
muscles
along
with
the
vocal
cords
of
the
lungs
are
together
similar
to
the
bagpipe
whose
bag
is
moved
by
the
arm
and
the
bagpipe’s
reed.”
20
Maffei’s
imagery
now
fails
him
completely,
he
has
previously
clearly
described
the
lingua
as
the
mouthpipe
held
in
the
mouth
but
now
refers
to
it
as
the
part
from
which
the
air
issues
as
expressed
from
the
bag,
which
is
properly
the
chanter.
Either
he
is
completely
confused
or
he
is
carelessly
using
the
one
term
for
two
meanings.
21
At
this
point
Maffei
abandons
the
capitalization
of
anima.
22
This
reintroduction
of
the
physical
cause
seems
a
bit
odd.
I
believe
Maffei
does
so
as
a
means
of
reemphasizing
the
genus
vs.
species
comparison,
i.e,
voice
is
the
result
of
a
mental
activity
of
intention
and
only
secondarily,
like
other
human
sounds,
as
the
result
of
the
motion
of
the
chest.
23
This
passage
also
finds
its
source
in
Aristotle
(De
Anima
476b13),
where
the
philosopher
specifically
refers
to
the
breathing
of
whales
and
dolphins,
though
no
third
creature
is
mentioned.
Cane
is
obscure,
I
have
found
no
reference
to
any
kind
of
fish
by
this
or
any
related
spelling
in
Italian,
Latin
or
Greek.
Maffei
is
clearly
following
Aristotle
in
referring
to
the
order
of
cetaceans
in
the
other
examples,
but
there
is
no
immediately
obvious
candidate
among
them
and
it
is
not
necessarily
a
safe
conclusion
that
cane
must
also
be
of
the
same
order.
It
could
be
a
misprint
or
a
colloquialism.
24
I
find
no
such
discussion
in
the
De
Generatione
Animalium.
Rather,
at
786b4
of
that
work
Aristotle
says
that
he
discusses
the
issue
of
voice
and
sound
in
two
other
places,
(Platt
trans.
n.3,
De
Anima
2,8=419b4
ff.,
specifically
420b6-‐34
and
De
Sensu
440b27,
which
is
no
more
than
a
reference
to
the
passage
in
De
Anima).
25
This
commences
what
is
not
one
of
the
happier
point
in
Maffei’s
discourse,
beginning
from
the
fact
that
Aristotle’s
discussion
of
vocal
qualities
and
their
generation
is
a
famous
example
of
the
errors
resulting
from
his
29
deductive
method.
The
following
passage
is
further
complicated
by
Maffei’s
own
ambiguous
use
of
demonstratives
without
clear
referents.
Most
of
all,
the
discussion
includes
the
worst
and
most
confusing
misprint
in
the
entire
discourse,
which
concerns
the
misreading
of
grande
for
grave,
as
will
be
noted
in
the
translation.
26
It
is
important
for
understanding
Maffei’s
subsequent
discussion
to
grasp
at
this
point
that
he
is
talking
simply
of
the
size
of
the
vocal
organs
as
producing
a
large
(or
loud)
voice.
By
“large”
and
“little”
he
apparently
means
loud
and
soft,
but
I
have
preferred
to
keep
the
English
closer
to
the
original,
especially
because
he
uses
the
same
terms
in
relation
to
physical
size.
Next
he
identifies
high
and
low
pitch
with
air
speed
only,
resulting
in
confusion
for
the
modern
reader
with
modern
conceptions
of
vocal
and
sound
production.
27
The
feminine
demonstratives
questa
and
quella
must
refer
to
the
feminine
“voice”
and
not
to
the
masculine
movimento
(speed);
yet
in
the
next
section
the
contrast
is
between
slow
and
fast
speed,
movimento.
28
This
return
to
grave
confirms
that
the
earlier
misprint
should
also
have
been
grave.
29
Aristotle’s
[erroneous]
explanation
of
this
appears
in
De
Geratione
Animalium
786b8-‐787b19.
30
We
may,
perhaps,
assume
that
the
Count
was
possessed
of
a
fine
bass
voice!
31
The
physiological
distinction
that
Maffei
intends
is
not
immediately
clear,
between
the
internal
tissues
of
the
gola
and
the
material
and
substance
of
the
gola,
and
will
probably
remain
unclear
in
the
lack
of
the
texts
of
those
anonymous
authors
to
whom
he
refers.
32
Maffei
in
his
introduction
to
this
section
above
had
stated
that
Galen
recognized
three
types
of
vocal
quality
contrast:
large
vs.
small,
harsh
vs.
gentle,
low
vs.
high.
He
then
notes
that
Aristotle
adds
a
fourth
pair,
rigid
vs.
flexible,
though
he
notes
that
the
terminology
is
problematic.
This
fourth
pair
of
Aristotle’s,
Maffei
says,
might
be
reduced
(identified)
by
Galen
with
his
own
second
pair,
harsh
vs.
gentle.
Maffei,
who
has
often
noted
his
respect
and
preference
for
Aristotle,
says
that
despite
this
possible
reductionism,
he
sides
with
Aristotle
and
will
discuss
it
as
a
true
fourth
pair.
33
The
term
gorga
refers
to
the
throat,
also
gorgia,
but
Maffei
uses
it
most
commonly
to
refer
to
the
technique
of
throat
articulation
that
was
involved
in
producing
passaggi.
34
Maffei
is
quite
right,
he
is
the
first
to
attempt
to
describe
the
garganta
technique.
Some
earlier
authors
such
as
Coclico
(1552)
and
Finck
(1556)
had
mentioned
the
technique
of
improvised
ornamentation,
but
only
in
musical
terms,
not
in
terms
of
vocal
production.
Three
factors
make
Maffei’s
account
profoundly
important
for
the
history
of
vocal
pedagogy:
he
was
the
first
to
describe
the
production
of
the
garganta
technique,
his
description
is
the
best,
and,
most
important
of
all,
he
is
the
first
to
approach
vocal
pedagogy
from
a
thorough
physiological
foundation,
within
which
he
incorporates
the
garganta
technique.
To
be
sure,
his
description
may
leave
something
for
modern
readers
to
desire,
but
it
must
be
remembered
that
Maffei,
as
so
many
other
writers
at
this
time,
was
struggling
to
express
in
language
matters
of
performance
practice
that
had
seldom
or
never
been
described
before
and
for
which
there
was
no
fixed
terminology.
Third
and
finally,
it
does
not
require
extensive
comparison
with
other
authors’
attempts,
even
famous
and
laudable
ones,
to
conclude
that
Maffei’s
effort
is
excellent
and
outstanding
for
his
time.
35
Of
course
Maffei
is
specifically
indicating
himself.
He
was
by
profession
a
doctor,
by
avocation
a
fully
professional
quality
singer
and
could
as
justifiably
call
himself
a
philosopher
by
the
standards
of
the
time.
36
The
terms
Maffei
uses
are
minuta
and
ordinata
which
include
a
variety
of
meanings,
small,
delicate,
thin
for
the
former
and
ordered,
arranged,
regulated,
etc.
for
the
latter.
I
believe
that
the
translations
chosen
here
are
closely
in
conformance
to
his
intentions.
37
This
statement
along
with
other
subsequent
descriptions
would
seem
clearly
to
indicate
that
Maffei,
who
was
a
very
proficient
professional
musician
himself,
is
describing
what
we
would
call
articulations
produced
by
the
glottis.
38
This
is
a
perhaps
confusing
way
of
making
the
point
that
the
passaggio
voice
is
not
the
regular
type
of
voice
but
something
special.
Just
as
the
passaggio
voice
differs
from
the
regular
voice,
so
do
its
constituent
elements—
delicate
and
controlled—differ
from
what
he
has
so
far
discussed.
Just
as
a
voice
is
not
like
a
cough,
so
the
delicacy
of
sound
is
not
like
the
delicacy
heard
in
laughing,
which
is
delicate
but
not
controlled.
The
articulation
required
for
the
passaggio
voice
is
apparently
produced
by
the
glottis
but
is
of
a
more
delicate
and
controlled
type
than
that
found
in
laughing
or
coughing.
39
Maffei
appears
to
be
referring
to
a
type
of
improvised
diminution
that
does
not
utilize
the
gorga
technique
of
articulation.
30
40
This
is
a
very
interesting
in
connection
with
Caccini’s
condemnation
of
the
“old”
technique
of
ornamentation
(1602),
as
Maffei
advocates
here.
Caccini
claims
as
his
own
a
new
technique
that
specifically
emphasizes
communicating
the
meaning
of
the
words,
condemning
the
old
technique
for
being
devoid
of
such
potential.
Clearly
Maffei
did
not
see
it
this
way.
Both
Maffei’s
and
Caccini’s
styles
are
included
in
Bernhard’s
classification
of
vocal
styles
and
purposes
(ca.
1649).
41
Maffei
apparently
means
“pretentiousness”
or
perhaps
“melodramatically”
in
the
sense
of
exaggerated
emotion.
The
second
rule
of
the
second
set
of
rules
confirms
that
the
technique
of
singing
gorga
does
aim
at
communicating
the
meaning
of
the
words.
42
This
is
consistent
with
Maffei’s
implicit
aesthetic
in
which
the
singer
strives
to
communicate
the
meaning
of
the
words
but
without
undue
exaggeration
of
emotion.
43
The
term
dispositione
became
very
important
in
connection
with
vocal
physiology.
It
comes
to
be
used
fairly
broadly,
even
including
the
garganta
technique.
Here
Maffei
means
to
communicate
a
physiological
development
of
the
vocal
organs
such
as
to
enable
good
voice
production,
including
garganta.
Significantly,
the
implication
of
Maffei’s
entire
discourse
is
that
this
disposition
can
be
developed
or
improved
from
a
rudimentary
state,
at
least
to
some
degree,
contrary
to
others
who
said
that
it
was
entirely
a
matter
of
natural
endowment.
44
Both
of
the
far
more
extensive
musical
examples,
here
and
later,
are
omitted
on
the
grounds
of
economy,
but
more
importantly
because
they
are
very
commonly
and
easily
available
on
Mauro
Uberti’s
website
and
in
Nanie
Bridgman’s
article,
which
is
readily
available
to
most
readers
on
the
journal
database
JSTOR.
Both
are
listed
in
the
bibliography.
45
Unfortunately,
this
is
Maffei
at
nearly
his
least
intelligible,
exceeded
only
by
some
sections
of
his
addendum.
The
sense
is
more
than
usually
troubled
by
his
use
of
the
emphatic
punctuation
of
the
time,
which
imitates
the
pauses
of
human
speech
for
emphasis,
instead
of
modern
syntactic
punctuation.
Thus,
punctuation,
even
full
periods,
may
fall
within
the
constituent
elements
of
sentences
so
as
to
fragment
segments
of
one
complete
thought
from
each
other
and
connect
them
with
unrelated
elements
of
another
to
which
they
do
not
belong.
In
the
final
sentence,
I
take
his
use
of
quei
luoghi
to
refer
all
the
way
back
to
the
beginning
of
the
paragraph
and
those
places
where
passaggi
are
appropriate
as
opposed
to
his
use
of
questo
to
indicate
those
where
they
are
not.
It
is
the
normal
use
of
the
two
pronouns/demonstratives,
but
so
much
water
has
passed
by
the
time
quei
luoghi
appears
that
the
reader
is
easily
confused.
46
Compare
this
statement
with
the
first
rule
of
the
first
set
of
rules,
as
noted
above.
47
The
printed
word
sempolo
is
unknown
and
probably
a
misprint,
one
of
very
many.
Uberti
suggests
the
reasonable
correction
of
scempio.
48
Maffei
has
already
described
the
light
glottal
articulation.
49
From
this
point
on
the
text
is
clearly
a
later
addition
to
the
original
discourse.
This
seems
likely
both
because
it
is
an
answer
to
his
critics
and
also
for
linguistic
reasons.
The
conditional
in
-‐ebbe
now
replaces
the
earlier
form
in
–
ia,
the
spellings
of
certain
words
change,
the
alternate
spelling
of
some
words
with
a
prefixed
i-‐
appear
more
frequently,
and
most
of
all
the
syntax
is
considerably
more
confused
in
comparison
with
the
usually
clear
manner
of
the
bulk
of
the
discourse.
It
seems
as
though
it
might
have
been
written
some
years
later
than
the
earlier
part,
at
a
time
when
he
was
preparing
the
text
for
publication.
50
The
flow
of
the
argument
is
somewhat
confused
because
Maffei
is
mentally
presenting
to
himself
his
opponents’
arguments,
then
verbally
answering
them,
leaving
the
reader
to
infer
which
is
which.
The
difficulty
of
the
passage
is
also
increased
by
Maffei’s
use
of
a
rather
bitter
irony
or
even
sarcasm.
51
Here
Maffei,
quite
insensitively
by
today’s
standards,
admits
that
some
possess
defects
that
preclude
learning
the
technique.
Interestingly,
he
clearly
considers
stuttering
to
be
of
physiological
origin
not
psychological.
His
attitude
is
consisten
with
the
long
prevailing
attitude
that
a
physical
or
mental
defect
was
the
manifestation
of
a
moral
defect
or
inherited
sin.
Within
the
translator’s
oiving
memore,
in
some
place
left-‐handed
children
were
still
forced
to
write
with
the
right
hand
because
of
the
left
hand’s
“sinister”
associations.
52
“They”
here
refers
to
those
who
do
not
believe
in
Maffei’s
method
and
the
ability
to
acquire
the
technique
of
gorga.
Such
people,
Maffei
says,
are
simply
too
lazy
to
apply
themselves
adequately
to
the
study.
53
Much
of
the
terminology
here
is
of
the
medieval
pharmacopeia
and
is
sufficiently
obscure
that
even
the
Italian
professor
of
singing
Mauro
Uberti
is
sometimes
at
a
lost
for
modern
Italian
identifications.
I
leave
questionable
terms
in
their
Italian
but
convert
identifiable
ones
with
an
English
translation.
31
54
Suetonius
in
his
biography
of
Nero,
sections
20
and
21.
Though
Nero
did
study
elocution
or
rhetoric,
Suetonius’
does
not
specifically
mention
it
in
connection
with
the
emperor’s
musical
studies,
though
he
does
say
that
Nero
did
all
the
studies
that
professional
singers
used.
55
A
type
of
mint-‐scented
aromatic
plant
related
to
rosemary
and
thyme,
used
as
a
flavoring
for
food.
56
A
type
of
aromatic
tree
bark
used
as
a
spice.
57
Conjectural,
the
term
cannuolo
is
obscure,
though
it
is
clearly
a
diminutive
and
the
root
suggests
the
Latin
cannula,
a
small
reed.
58
Mesuè
was
a
famous
doctor
of
antiquity.
59
A
reasonable
conjecture
for
Squillitico.
The
squill
was
a
Mediterranean
plant
of
the
lily
family
from
which
an
extract
was
made
for
use
in
the
preparation
of
cough
remedies,
New
Shorter
Oxford
English
Dictionary.
60
Purely
conjectural
for
the
obscure
ontioni,
on
the
grounds
that
the
other
examples
are
all
applications.
61
Obscure,
no
conjecture.
62
Conjectural
for
cochiaro,
the
root
chiaro,
makes
“glass”
seem
plausible.
32