5th Semester Plant Pathology by Laxman Aryal

pIntroduction and classification of plant pathology and plant diseases Lecture-1
The word plant pathology has been derived from two Greek words- pathos means
suffering and logos means discourse or to speak. Therefore plant pathology is defined as the
branch of agricultural, botanical and biological science which deals about the causes,
epidemiology, resulting losses and management of plant disease.The practical goal of plant
pathology is to save the produce which could be used for billions of the people of this
overpopulated globe.
Objectives of Plant Pathology

i. to study the living entities that cause diseases in plants;
ii. to study the non-living entities and the environmental conditions that cause disorders in plants;
iii. to study the mechanisms by which the disease causing agents produce diseases;
iv. to study the interactions between the disease causing agents and host plant in relation to
overall environment; and
v.to study the method of preventing or management the diseases and reducing the
losses/damages caused by diseases.
Scope of Plant Pathology

Plant pathology comprises with the basic knowledge and technologies of Botany, Plant
Anatomy, Plant Physiology, Mycology, Bacteriology, Virology, Nematology, Genetics,
Molecular Biology, Genetic Engineering, Biochemistry, Horticulture, Tissue Culture, Soil
Science, Forestry, Physics, Chemistry, Meteorology, Statistics and many other branches of
applied science.
Importance of the Plant Diseases

Globally, enormous losses of the crops are caused by the plant diseases. On average 1/3rd loss is
due to disease. Of the 36.5% average total loss, 14.1% are caused by disease, 10.2% by insects
and 10.2% by weeds. Important historical evidences of plant disease epidemics are
 Irish Famine due to late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans) (Ireland, 1845-46)
which caused the death of millions of people.
 Bengal famine due to brown spot of rice (Bipolaris sorokiniana) (India,1942- 43)
 Coffee rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix (Sri Lanka, Ceylon) in 1871-93 reduced the
export of coffee by 93%.
 In Europe , downy mildew of grape (Plasmopara viticola) closed many wine industries.
 In 1999 outbreak of new race of black rust Ug 99 caused detrimental in wheat cultivation.
 Citrus decline in pokhara valley has caused huge loss of citrus production,
 Estimated loss caused by fungal disease ranged from 5 to 71% in cereal, 10- 100% in
legumes, 23- 83% in vegetable and 21-100% in fruit. Likewise bacterial disease causes 5-
40% loss in cereals and 40-76% in veegetables. Loss from viral disease ranged 77-100%.
 Root knot is also a severe problem causing more than 50% yield reduction in some crops.
L. Aryal. 2013. Introduction to Plant Pathology. B. Sc. Ag. Fifth Semester. Page 1
Concept of Plant Disease
The normal physiological functions of plants are disturbed when they are affected by pathogenic
living organisms or by some environmental factors. When a plant is suffering, we call it
diseased, i.e. it is at „dis-ease‟.
 Disease is a condition that occurs in consequence of abnormal changes in the form,
physiology, integrity or behaviour of the plant.
 Disease is an alternation in one or more of the ordered sequential series of physiological
process culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as result of
the continuous irritation from the presence of some agent or factor.
 Disease is a malfunctioning process that is caused by caused by continuous irritation
(Horsfall and Diamond)
Physiological activities of a healthy plant

 Normal cell division, differentiation and development.
 Uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.
 Synthesis of food from sunlight by photosynthesis.
 Translocation of water and food to the sites of necessity through xylem andphloem.
 Metabolism of synthesized material
 Reproduction
A diseased plant fails to perform one or more of these functions. The effect of a disease
on functioning of an organ depends on which cells or tissues were first attacked by the
pathogen.
Irritation in plants/ host is caused by the following interrelated pathways.

 By utilizing the host cell content
 By causing the death of cells or by interfering with their metabolic activities through their
enzymes, toxins and growth regulators.
 By weaking of host tissues due to continuous loss of nutrients and by interfering with
translocation of food, minerals and water.
 By interfering with translocation of organic compounds.
Definition and terms

1. Parasite: An organism living upon or in another living organism (the host) and obtaining the
food from the invading host. All the parasite are not pathogens. Eg Rhizobium bacteria forming
root nodule in legumes.
2. Pathogen: An entity, usually a micro-organism that can cause the disease. All the pathogen
are parasite. Eg Phytophthora infestans causing late blight of potato.
3. Biotroph/ Obligate parasite: A plant pathogenic fungus that requires living host cells i.e. an
obligate parasite. Eg Powdery mildew, Rust
4. Hemibiotroph/ facultative saphrophyte: A plant pathogenic fungus that initially requires

living host cells but after killing the host cell grows on the dead and dying cells. Eg
Helminthosporium
5. Necrotroph/ Facultative parasite: A pathogenic fungus that kills the host and survives on the
dying and dead cells. Eg Fusarium, Phythium, Rhizoctonia
6. Pathogenicity: The relative capability of a pathogen to cause disease.
7. Pathogenesis: It is a process caused by an infectious agent (pathogen) when it comes in

contact with a susceptible host.
8. Virulence: The degree of infectivity of a given pathogen.
9. Infection: The initiation and establishment of a parasite within a host plant.
10. Primary infection: The first infection of a plant by the over wintering or over summering of
the pathogen.
11. Inoculum: That portion of pathogen which is transferred to plant and cause disease.
12. Invasion: The penetration and spread of a pathogen in the host.
13. Colonization: The growth of a pathogen, particularly a fungus, in the host after infection is
called colonization.
14. Inoculum potential: The growth or threshold of fungus available for colonization at
substratum (host).
15. Symptoms: The external and internal reaction or alterations of a plant as a result of disease.
16. Incubation period: The period of time between penetration of a pathogen to the host and the
first appearance of symptoms on the plant.
17. Disease cycle: The chain of events involved in disease development.
18. Disease syndrome: The set of varying symptoms characterizing a disease are collectively
called a syndrome.
19. Single cycle disease (Monocyclic): This type of disease is referred to those caused by the
pathogen (fungi) that can complete only one life cycle in one crop season of the host plant. e.g.
downy mildew of rapeseed, club root of crucifers, sclerotinia blight of brinjal etc.
20. Multiple cycle disease (Polycyclic): Some pathogens specially a fungus, can complete a
number of life cycles within one crop season of the host plant and the disease caused by such
pathogens is called multiple cycle disease e.g. wheat rust, rice blast, late blight of potato etc.
21. Alternate host: Plants not related to the main host of parasitic fungus, where it produces its
different stages to complete one cycle (heteroecious).
22. Collateral host: The wild host of same families of a pathogen is called as collateral host.
23. Inoculation: It is procees of landing the pathogenic spore in the host surface naturally or
transferring the pathogenic propagule in healthy part artificially.
24. Isolation: It is the process of taking out/ separating the pathogenic part from the diseased
sample for the diagnosis of the disease.
25. Epidemiology: The study of the interrelationships between a given pathogen, the
environment, the groups of population of the relevant hosts.
26. Etiology: the study of cause, that phase of plant pathology dealing with the causal agent and
its relations with the susceptible plant.
27. Primary inoculum: Inoculum that incites the primary infection of the disease. Eg. Sclerotia,
dormant mycelium
28. Secondary inoculum: Inoculum that incites the secondary infection of the disease. Eg.
Airborne conidia, sporangia.
29. Predisposition: The effect of one or more environmental factors which makes a plant
vulnerable to attack by a pathogen.
30. Physiologic race: One or a group of microorganisms similar in morphology but dissimilar in
certain cultural, physiological or pathological characters.
31. Biotype: The smallest morphological unit within a species, the members of which are usually
genetically identical.
32. Symbiosis: A mutually beneficial association of two or more different kinds of organisms.
33. Mutualism: Symbiosis of two organisms that are mutually helpful or that mutually support
one another.
34. Antagonism: The counteraction between organisms or groups of organisms.
35. Mutation: An abrupt appearance of a new characteristic in an individual as a result of an
accidental change in genes present in chromosomes.
36. Disease: Any deviation in the general health, or physiology or function of plant or plant
parts, is recognized as a disease.
37. High sugar pathogens: As young leaves contain high sugar content, they are more favoured
and attacked by high sugar pathogens like Rust, Powdery mildew, Botrytis.
38. Low sugar pathogens: As older leaves contain low sugar, they are more attacked by the low
sugar pathogens like Colletotrichum, Septoria, Helminthosporium.
37. Crop Damage: It is defined as any reduction in the quality or quantity of yield or loss of
revenue resulting from crop injury.
38. Deficiency: Abnormality or disease caused by the lack or subnormal level of availability of
one or more essential nutrient elements.
39. Rhizomorph : Aggregation of hyphae into rope like strands that can cause infection.
History of plant pathology:
 Greek philosopher Theophrastus (300 B.C) recorded some observations on the plant
diseases in his book enquiry into plants.
 PIER ANTONIO MICHELLI (Italian) botanist in 1729 published a book “Nova
Plantarum Genera was also founder and father of Mycology.
 BENEDICT PREVOST proved that diseases are caused by micro-organisms and in
1807, he published his findings in the paper “memoir on the immediate cause of bunt or
smut of wheatand of several other diseases of plants and on preventives of bunt”
 CHRISTIAN HENDRICK PERSOON published Mycologica Europica in 1822 and
gave the name to rust pathogen of wheat as Puccinia graminis.
 Person and fries first time introduced binomial system of nomenclature to classify
the fungal organisms.
 ANTON De BARY german botanist In 1863, he studied the epidemics of late blight
and renamed the casual organism as Phytophthora infestans. He was the father and
founder of modern Mycology.
 Robert Koch (1881) developed plate method of isolation of bacteria.
 Millardet - Discovered Bordeaux mixture for thecontrol of downy mildew of grapevine
 BEIJERINCK (Dutch) Founder of virology. He proved that the virus inciting tobacco
mosaic is not a living microorganism.
 Iwanowski (1888) demostrated filtrable nature of viruses.
 W.H.STANLEY In 1935, he proved that viruses can be crystallised.
 J.F.DASTUR: First Indian plant pathologist who was credited for his detailed studies on
fungiand plant diseases
Causes, classification and general symptoms of plant diseases Lecture 2
Disease is a response to specific causal agents (biotic or abotic), inherent defects of the
organism, or combinations of these factors". Diseases are recognized by the resulting symptoms
expressed by the host, and signs (actual manifestations) of the causal agent. Taken together,
symptoms expressed by the host and signs of the causal agent are called the disease syndrome.
Fig. 1.The biotic and abiotic disease tables.
Causes of Plant Diseases
Plant diseases are caused by pathogens. Hence a disease is the result of manifestation of reaction
between plant and disease causing factor. In strict sense, the causes of plant diseases are grouped
under following categories:
1.Animate or biotic causes: Pathogens of living nature are categorized into the following
groups.
(i) Fungi: Fungi are organisms that are classified in the Kingdom “Fungi”. They are
cosmopolitan in distribution. They lack chlorophyll and conductive tissue and cannot
manufacture their own food. They must obtain it from another source as either a saprophyte or
parasite. Most fungi encountered are saprophytic (feed on decaying organic matter). A fungus
“body” is a branched filamentous structure known as mycelium. Most fungi reproduce by
spores, reproductive structures that unlike seeds contain little stored food. Fungi damage plants
by killing cells and/or causing plant stress. Fungi are spread by wind, water, soil, animals,
equipment, and in plant material. They enter plants through natural openings such as stomata
and lenticels and through wounds from pruning, hail, and other mechanical damage. Fungi cause
a variety of symptoms including leaf spots, leaf curling, galls, rots, wilts, cankers, and stem and
root rots.
(ii) Bacteria: They are prokaryotic, single-celled microorganisms. Most of the bacteria are rod
shaped except Streptomyces and Corynebacterium. They contain no nucleus and reproduce by
dividing in two equal parts (fission). As a result, they multiply and mutate rapidly. Bacteria
function as either parasites or saprophytes. Bacteria can infect all plant parts. Unlike fungi,
bacterial must find a natural opening for entry. Bacterial cells can move from one plant to
another in water, soil, and plant material, just as fungi do. However, bacterial pathogens are
more dependent upon water. Conditions must be very wet and/or humid for them to cause
significant and widespread damage. Bacteria cause symptoms such as leaf blights and spots,
galls, cankers, wilts and stem rots.
(iii) Nematodes: They are thread like unsegmented worms with elongated and cylindrical
shapes. They may be free living or parasitic on plants animals. Plant parasitic nematodes are soil
inhabitans. Feed on either dead organic matter as (saphrophyte) or other nematode and other
samller animals as (predaceous) and on plants as (parasite). All most all the plant parasitic
nematodes are obligate parasite. Reproduction is sexual and parthenocarpic. Life cycle is
completed in 3-4 weeks. Eg Meloidogyne sp cause root knot of vegetables, wilting, stuting,
Pratylenchus sp necrotic lesion on roots.
(iv) Algae and protozoa: Algae are multicellular organism. Mostly possess chlorophyll or other
pigment and are autotrophs. Algae (Cephaleuros mycoides / virescens) causes red rust and attack
litchi , mango, guava, papaya, tea, citrus coffee etc causing leaf and fruit spots. They spread via
sporangia which are wind borne and produce zoospores. They enter into plant cell through
natural openings and grow as a chain of algal cells.
Protozoa (Plasmidiophora brassicae) which are fungus like produce motile spores (asexual)
called zoospores and cause club root of crucifers.
(v) Mycoplasma like organism (phytoplasma)
Small non motile, non spore forming, unicellular and filterable organism. Phytoplasmas are
classified as bacteria; however, they lack a cell wall and can take on a variety of shapes. They
are obligate parasites, meaning they can only survive within their host. Highly resistant to
penicillin but are sensitive to tetracycline.Transmitted mostly by leaf hopper. Phytoplasmas live
in the phloem of host plants and are vectored by certain phloem feeding-insects, such as
leafhoppers. This pathogen causes distortion, yellowing, wilting, and “witches’ brooms” (a
proliferation of growth). Immature leaf veins may appear clear (called “vein-clearing), little leaf
of brinjal.
(vi) Rickettsia like organism (RLOs):

They are smaller than MLO‟s, gram negative. They contain well defined cell wall and found
both in xylem and phloem of the host plant. Transmitted by leaf hopper. Shape vary to spherical,
rod- shaped, and polymorphic and apper coryne form. Eg Pierces disease, ratton stunting, citrus
greening, phony disease of peach etc.
(vii) Parasitic higher plant:

More than 2500 species of higher plants are known to live parasitically on other plants. Parasitic
plants produce flowers and reproduce by seeds like other plants. The main difference is they
cannot produce their own chlorophyll or produce only a small amount of chlorophyll. Parasitic
plants are spread in various ways including animals, wind, and forcible ejection of their seeds.
Plants damaged by parasitic plants appear wilted, stunted, distorted and chlorotic. Some plants,
particularly conifers, develop witches‟ broom symptoms.
(viii) Insects:
Insects are known to damage the crop in different ways. They act as an agent of dissemination
and inoculation of fungi, bacteria and virus. Wound made by insects will soon open way to
invade by microorganism. Aphids, leaf hopper, scale insects, thrips are common insects
responsible for spread of various viral diseases.
2. Mesobiotic cause: These disease incitants are neither living nor non-living.
(i) Virus: Viruses are strictly intracellur, ultra- microscopic, obligate parasite. They possess only
one type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA both never both. Most of the virus contain RNA,
except cauliflower mosaic virus, dahlia mosaic virus, potato leaf roll virus and bean golden
yellow virus which possess DNA. They depend on living cells for most of the enzymes for their
replication, cannot be cultured in artificial media. Virus can be transmitted themselves and
require mechanical, insects, seeds, propagation, grafting, fodder or their combination for entry in
the host. They cannot enter directly like fungi and nematode and require injury or wound made
by insect vector or means. Eg.mosaic, yellowing, etiolation, vein- clearing, vein- banding, leaf
distortion.
(ii) Viroids: Smallest particle than virus and composed of stable but free RNA. They do not
have outer protein coat and transmitted mechanically. They seem closely associated with the
nuclei, particularly chromosome of the cells. Depend entirely on the host cell for replication. Eg
potato spindle virus, coconut cadang- cadang, chlorotic mottle.
3. Inanimate / Abiotic factors: In true sense these factors cause damages (any reduction in the
quality or quantity of yield or loss of revenue) to the plants rather than causing disease. The
causes are:
1. Soil conditions:
a. Soil moisture: Moisture is indispensable for the germination of fungal spores and penetration
of thehost by the germ tube. It is also indispensable for the activation of bacterial, fungal, and
nematode pathogensbefore they can infect the plant. It also helps for the spread and long distance
dissemination of the pathogen propagules. Moisture increases the succulence of host plants and
thus their susceptibility to certain pathogens, which affects the extent and severity of disease.
Late blight of potato, apple scab, downy mildew of grapes, and fire blight are found or are severe
only in areas with high rainfall or high relative humidity during the growing season.exessive soil
moisture in the nursery bed can cause damping off in the seedling.
b. Soil structure: Compact soil structure will not allow for the propoer growth and development
of plant. Plant grown in such soil condition encounter with drought condition and also with
prolong water logged condition which induce plant to become weak and different wilting,
yellowing symptoms are noticed.
c. Lack of oxygen: Good soil aeration favours normal development and poor aeration is
unfavourable. Limited supply of oxygen combined with poor ventilation leads to different post
harvect of disease in storage eg. Black heart of potato.
d. Nutrient - element deficiences: Nutrition affects the rate of growth and the state of readiness of
plants to defend themselves against pathogenic attack.
Nitrogen abundance results in the production of young, succulent growth, a prolonged
vegetative period and delayed maturity of the plant. These effects make the plant more
susceptible to pathogens eg attack of pear by fire blight (Erwinia amylovora) and wheat by rust
(Puccinia gramis)
Phosphorus: Phosphorus seems to increase resistance either by improving the balance of

nutrients in the plant or by accelerating the maturity of the crop and allowing it to escape
infection by pathogens that prefer younger tissues.
Potassium has also been shown to reduce the severity of numerous diseases, including stem rust
of wheat, early blight of tomato, and gray leaf spot and stalk rot of corn, although high amounts
of potassium seem to increase the severity of rice blast.
Boron: Defiency results dry rot of sugar beet, internal cork of apples, internal browing of
couliflower.
Zinc: Deficiency results mottling, little leaf, rosette of citrus, yellow streak of corn. Khaira
disease in rice is caused by Zn Deficiency.
Molybdenum: Deficiency results whiptail of cauliflower.
e. Soil ph: The pH of the soil is important in the occurrence and severity of plant diseases caused
by certain soilborne pathogens. For example, the clubroot of crucifers caused by
Plasmodiophora brassicae is most prevalent and severe at about pH 5.7, and is completly at pH
7.8.
2. Meteorological condition:
a. Temperature: Excessive heat kills plant tissues, especially of succulent part. Low temperature
may cause frost of pigeon pea whereas extreme temperature may cause sun scald of
tomato.Temperature affects the number of spores formed in a unit area and the number of spores
released in a given time period.
b. Light: Light has no direct effect on the disease development but the intensity and duration of
light may increase or decrease the intensity of disease. In nature, however, the effect of light is
limited to the production of more or less etiolated plants as a result of reduced light intensity.
Lightt decreases their susceptibility to obligate parasites, eg wheat rust (Puccinia.)
c. Wind: Most plant diseases that spread rapidly and are likely to assume large epidemic
proportions are caused by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses that are spread either
directly by the wind or indirectly by insect vectors that can themselves are carried over long
distances by the wind. Wind-blown rain helps release spores and bacteria from infected tissue
and then carries them through the air and deposits them on wet surfaces of plants, which, if
susceptible, can be infected immediately.
d. Atmospheric humidity: It has direct effect on the rate of transpiration by plants. Combination
of heat, wind, and low relative humidity can cause extensive injury or death of plants. Certain
varieties of sorghum often yield well when corn is ruined by hot, dry weather which is exception.
3. Agricultural practices: Close and deep planting of row crops and vine and tree crops may
result root cut off or injured, resulting in subnormal development or death of the plant. Common
types of injuries are caused by fungicides, insecticides and herbicides because of improper
concerntration level when applied to cure the plant disease, insects and weeds. Similarly
inadequate and untimely watering can cause injury to the plants. The deep cultivation may cause
injury to the roots of plants.
4. Industrial contaminants: the gasses released by factories, smelting, refineries plants,

automobiles, men related avtivities and dust and natural product such as ozone also cause plant
disease. Smog causes extensive injury to sensitive kinds of plants near certain large cities. The
air in industrial areas or near brick kilns is likely to contain atmospheric impurities such as
sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, coal gas and chlorine. So2 that are released by brick kilns
cause black tip of mango when mango orchard are near to 1.5 km. Ozone concerntration if
exceeds 0.035 ppm for 4 hrs may cause water socked spots on leaves.
Classification of plant disease:
To facilate the study of plant disease they need to be grouped into some orderly fashion. Plant
diseases can be grouped into various ways in following groups:
1. On the basis of causes of plant disease:
a. Non-infectious/ non-parasitic/ physiological diseases/ abotic :
The factors included in inanimate or abiotic causes can incite such diseases in plants under a set
of suitable environmental conditions. This is the disease without the involvement of
microorganisms. eg Black tip of mango caused by So2 , tip burn of paddy caused by deficiency of
oxygen in submerged condition.
b. Infectious/ parasite/ biotic :

This disease is caused by microorganisms like fungi, bacteria, virus and nematode under a set of
suitable environments. These are infectious, sometime contagious and are transmitted from
diseased to healty plants in the field through various agencies. Disease caused by biotic factors
can cause epidemic in short period of time due to its high reproduction rate.
2. On the basis of mode of spread and severity:

a. Endemic disease: Disease is more or less constantly present from year to year in a moderate to
severe form in a country or part of the earth. Eg.Wart disease of potato, Onion smut – Urocystis
cepulae
b. Epidemic or Epiphytotic disease: Epidemic greek word "among the people". When a disease
break viruntly covering a huge population and occurs widely and periodically depending upon
environment. The environment plays a vital role fr the outbreak of epidemic diseases. Eg Late
blight of potato.
c. Sporadic: Disease occurs at very irregular intervals and locations and in relatively few
instances. These disease are not very important and do not cause significant yield loss even in
favourable environmental conditions. Eg.Black rust of wheat, Angular leaf spot of cucumber –
Pseudomonas lachrymans.
d. Pandamic: When the disease are occuring in epidemic proportions over a very extensive
region and causing devastating damage in short period of time. Eg Late blight of potato.
3. On the basis of source of inoculum:

a. Seed- borne diseases. Eg- Rice blast, Brown spot
b. Soil- borne diseases. Eg- Damping off of seedling
c. Air- borne disease. Eg- wheat rust
4. On the basis of mode of action:

a. Local system: Effect of disease is confined to part of plant which is attacked by the pathogen.
Eg.leaf spot, blight
b. Systemic system: When the pathogen or the effects of pathogen moves in along with the
system of plant thus effecting the system of plant thus effecting the system of plant or
appearance of symptoms in a distance place of pathogen attack. Eg.Fungal and bacterial wilt.
5. On the basis of plants part infected:
a. Foliar diseases . Eg- Rice blast
b. Fruit diseases. Eg- Mango anthracnose
c. Root diseases. Eg- Root rot of jute
6. On the basis of plant specie

a. Rice disease
b. wheat disease
c. Maize disease
d. Soybean disease
e. Vegetables disease
General symptoms:
Symptoms are the plant's expression of being diseased. Symptom is the phenotypic and or
physiological manifestation of a successful invasion of a host by a pathogen. Symptoms are not
always true diagnosis for disease study. Examples of symptoms include: blights, cankers, galls,
rots, necrosis, and spots. Symptoms are expressed either locally or systemically, and
theyfrequently reflect the structural, functional, or physiological systems disturbed.
Signs are the physical evidence of the pathogen (primary or secondary, vegetative and/or
reproductive structures). Examination of these signs helps in identifying the pathogen and
diagnosing the disease. Some examples include: mildew, mycelium, ooze, pycnidia, and
rhizomorphs.
 Symptoms due to visible pathogens:

1. Mildew : A plant disease in which the pathogen is seen as a growth on the surface of the host;
Downy mildew- The superficial growth is cottony or downy growth like a day old chiken
feather. It is a chlorosis disease. E.g. downy mildew of grape- Plasmopara viticola
Powdery mildew- Enormous numbers of spores are formed on superficial growth of the fungus
giving the host surface a dusty or powdery appearance. It is a necrosis disease. E.g. powdery
mildew of pea- Erysiphe polygoni
2. Rust- They appear as relatively small pustulesof spores, usually breaking through the host
epidermis. The pustules may be yellow, brown, or black in color. Eg.Black rust of wheat-
Puccinia tritici repenties.
3.Smuts- A disease characterized by masses of dark, sooty or charcoal like powder and also
sometime oderous spores caused by smut fungi (Ustilaginales). Eg loose smut of wheat- Ustilago
tritici
4. White blisters- They are found mainly on crucifers as white blisters- like pustules, which
break open the epidermis ans expose powdery masses of spores. Eg. White blisters of mustard-
Albugo candida.
5. Sclerotia- A compact mass of hyphae with or without host tissue, usually with a darkned rind,
and capable of surviving under unfavourable environment conditions. Eg Sheath blight of rice.
6. Scab- A roughened, crust like diseased area on the surface of a plant organ. Eg- powdery scab
of potato- Spongospora subterranean.
7. Exudate: Appear as masses of bacterial ooze in the form of droplets on infected parts of the
plants. Eg. Bacterial wilt of crops.
 Symptoms due to some effect or change in the host plants:

Hypertrophy: A plant overgrowth due to increased cell enlargement.
Hyperplasia: A plant overgrowth due to increased cell division. Some of the examples are as.
1. Galls: These malformations are more or less globose, elongated, or irregular in shape. They
may be fleshy or woody. Smaller galls are called warts and larger galls are called knot. E.g. stem
gall of coriander- Protomyces macrospores.
2. Leaf curl: Leaves are twisted curled distorted due to over growth of tissues in localized areas
of the leaves. E.g. peach leaf curl- Taphrina deformans
3. Witches‟ broom: Numerous slender branches arise from a limited region in rather close cluster
apperaring like a broom. E.g Witches‟ broom- Mycoplasma
 Symptoms due to Atrophy or hypoplasia or dwarfing- Inhibition of growth resulting

in stunting or dwarfing of the plant. Eg Rice dwarfing
 Symptoms due to necrosis: It indicates the death of cells, tissues and organs resulting
from infection by pathogen. Necrotic symptoms include spots, blights, burn, canker,
streaks, stripes, damping-off, rot etc.
1. Spots: Circular or irregular lesions on above ground tissue consisting of dead and collapsed
cells. E.g leaf spot of chilly: Cercospora capsici.
2. Anthracnose: Necrotic and sunken tumor like scattered lesions on the leaves, flowers, fruits
and stems. E.g. anthracnose of bean: Colletotrichum lindemuthianum.
3. Canker: A localized necrotic, often sunken , lesion on a stem, branch, or twig of a plant.e.g.
citrus canker- Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri.
4. Blight: Rapid burning of leaves, branches, twigs or floral organs resulting into their death. E.g.
leaf blight of potato- Phytophthora infestans
5.Damping off: The stems of the seedling near the soil surface become constricted, weak, and
unable to bear the load of the upper part and they topple down. E.g damping off of seedlings-
Phythium spp
6.Rots: The softening, discoloration, and disintegration of succulent plant tissue as the result of
fungal or bacterial infection. E.g root rot- Rhizoctonia solani.
7. Shot-hole: A perforated appearance of a leaf as the dead areas of local lesions drop out
leaving a shot-hole.
 Symptoms caused by plant virus:
1.Stunting: The multiplication of cells may be reduced or checked by the viral activity on host
system.
2.Local lesions: formation of small, usually necrotic lesions at the point of entry of viruses.
3. Mosaic- alternate patches of green and yellow color of leaves.
4.Ring spot- Distinct chlorotic or necrotic rings on the leaves or fruits.
5. Rosette- Short branching habit of plant growth.
6.Enation: Tissue malformation or overgrowth.
7. Stem pitting: Below the bark pits on the stem develop on citrus due to tristeza virus.
8. Phyllody: Metamorphosis of sepals, petals , stamens or carpels into leaf- like structures.
Defination, Importance and General morphological characters of fingi Lecture-3

The term fungus (plural fungi) includes eukaryotic, spore-bearing, achlorophyllus, organisms
that generally reproduce sexually and asexually, and usually filamentous, branched somatic
structures are typically surrounded by cell walls containing chitin or cellulose, or both of these
substances, together with many other complex organic molecules. Mycelium unicellular or
multicellular. Single strand of mycelium is a called hypha which is about 2 to 10 µm in diameter
in some more than 100µm. There are 50,000 to 1,00,000 known species of fungi all over the
world and about 10,000 species can cause economically important diseases in plants.
Importance of fungi:
Beneficial effects
1. Fungi are important for decomposition of plant debris with the help of cellulose.
2. They are used as biological control agents. Eg trichoderma sp
3. They have important role in Organic acid production-Aspergillus flavous- Fumaric acid,
Growth hormone production- Gibberlla fujukori, GA3-gibberllin, IBA, IAA
4. Many varieties of mushroom are used for nutritional and delicious food value.
5. They are used for the study of genetic research.
6. Fungi are used for many industrial processes involving fermentation.eg bread, wines,
beers, cheeses
7. They are used as medicine eg. Penicillin from Penicillum digitatum and P. crysogenus.
Streptomycine from Streptomyces glisus.
8. Fungi such as Mucor, Chaetonium, Fusarium, Aspergillus improve the soil structure by
the formation of soil aggregates.
9. Entomogenous fungi helps in controlling insect pests. Eg Breveria bassisiana,
Metarrhizum anisopleae
Harmful effects:
Major group of fungi cause plant pathogenic diseases which cause serious loss to plant.
1. Many saprophyte fungi are response ble for destruction of food, fabrics, lether, and other
goods manufactured for raw material .
2. Many fungal group of mushroom are poisonous and cause serious health hazard. eg
Coprinus comatus
3. Oranges are destroyed by Penicillium digitatum
4. Members of mucorales, yeasts, moniliales are responsible for food spoilage.
Typical structure of fungi:-

1. Cell membrane:-Triploblastic structure comprises cell membrane, plasma membrane and
plasma lemma in which living protoplast is enclosed. It measures aprox. 25-70A.
2. Nucleus: - Fungal nucleolus is similar to that of other eukaryon. Nucleus envelop consists
of two typical unit membranes. Nucleus possesses central dense area known as nucleolus
which contains nucleic acid.
3. Endoplasmic reticulum(ER):- It forms exclusive network throughout the cytoplasm.
Outermost layer of nucleus and in multinucleate hyphae the nuclei may interconnected by
ER.
4. Mitochondria: - Shape from small spherical to one micrometer diameter. It contains
ribosomes which are smaller than the cytoplasm ribosome.
5. Ribosome: - Proteinaceous body with high RNA content and are concerned with protein
synthesis.
6. Vacuole: - It maintains turgidity and shape of cell besides osmotic pressures. It stores
reserves food materials.
7. Glycogen: - Chief storage products are glycogen and lipids.
General characteristics of fungi
1. Fungi are thallophytic plants which are not differentiated into roots, stems and leaves and
have no vascular system.
2. The fungi thallus consists of microscopic threads or filaments that branch in all
directions. The single filament is known as hypha, having cross wall at regular intervals
known as septa.
3. The mass of hypha is called mycelium. The mycelium of parasitic fungi grows on the
surface of the host either spreading between the cells (intercellular) or penetrating into
the cells (intracellular).
4. Fungi lack chlorophyll so they cannot synthesize their food like other plants and algae.
5. The body of the fungus is usually filamentous or thread like, which is usually branched
and surrounded by cell wall.
6. The cell wall contains cellulose, chitin or both
7. The fungus cells are provided with well developed nuclei
8. Fungi are usually reproduced by division of cells and by well defined asexual or sexual
spores.
9. In fungi the food is stored in the form of glycogen or oil globules.
10. Most fungi grow at 20 to 30oC. They may be facultative parasite, facultative saphrophyte
and obligate parasite.
Asexual and sexual reproduction and types of fruting bodies Lecture-4
Reproduction in fungi: Fungi reproduce by two processes viz., (A) Asexual and (B) Sexual
reproduction.
Vegetative reproduction or asexual reproduction
1. Fragmentation – The septate hyphae breakup into their component cells, each fragment
growing into new individuals. They are called oidia or arthrospores. If the cells are
enveloped in a thick wall before they separate, then they are known as chlamydospores.
2. Fission – Simply splitting of a cell into two daughter cells by constriction and formation of a
cell wall. Eg. Yeast
3. Budding – A bud is formed as a small outgrowth from the mother cells, which grows and
are separated, eventually forming a new individual. It is called as blastospore. Eg. Yeast
4. Gemmae:- Resembles chlamydospore but are not thickened wall. They are single or in chain
and are generally born in terminally. Chain separate after maturity and Gemmae break free
from mycelium and disperse in water. They are produced by Saprolegnials and in some
Mucor species.
5. Sclerotia-These are resistant structure which are rounded mass of hyphae with or without
addition of host tissue or soil. Remain dormant for long period of time and germinate when
the environmental condition become favorable. Eg; Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Sclerotium etc.
6. Chlamydospore - Asecxual spore or thick wall conidium that function is resting spore. In
unfavourable condition; old culture form chlamydospore. Eg; Protomyces macrosporus,
Fusarium sps.
7. Production of spores:
a. Exogenous: The spores (reproductive units) borne at the tip or outside the vegetative structure
called conidia (sing. conidium i.e. dust). The spores may be hyaline to green , yellow,
orange, red, brown and black.. Some other types of conidia bearing structures are phialids
(small bottle type), synnema, coremia, acervulus (heap), sporodochia, pycnidia and sori
(sing. sorus) or pustule.
b. Endogenous: The spores sporangia are borne at the tip of sporangiospores. Sporangiospores
are of two types viz. (i) plasmospores or zoospores or swarm spores which are motile due
to having flagella and (ii) aplanospores which are non-motile due to lacking flagella.
Sexual reproduction
Three distinct phases of sexual reproduction are:
 Plasmogamy: Union of two protoplasts which brings the haploid nuclei close
together within the same cell. Each pair of nuclei is called dikaryon and such stage is
the first step in sexual reproduction.
 Karyogamy : Fusion of the two haploid resulting into one diploid zygote nucleus. In
lower fungi plasmogamy is followed by karyogamy immediately and in higher fungi
such fusion of nuclei takes place in specialcells developed on the dikaryon
(binucleate mycelium).
 Meiosis: Reduction division resulting into four haploid nuclei. As a result of
karyogamy, the diploid protoplast of the ascus or the basidium undergoes meiosis
and haploid cells are formed which are known as ascospores and basidiospores
respectively.
These Plasmogamy occurs by the following five general methods

1. Planogametic copulation: Fusion of two naked gametes one or both of which are motile.
They may be morphologically similar but physiologically different. There may be
isoplanogametic copulation or anisoplanogametic copulation. Eg; Allomyces spp.
2. Gametangial contact: Two gametangia of opposite sex come in contact and either dissolving
the wall or by production of fertilization tube at the point of contact the nuclei are transferred
from one cell to other cell (from antheridium to oogonium). Eg; Pythium. Phytophthora
3.Gametangial copulation: Fusion of the entire content of two contacting gamentangia takes
place by
 Content of two gametangia pass to other through a pore.
 Direct fusion of two gametnagial cells into an own dissolution of contacting wall.
4.Spermatization: Some fungi bear numerous, minute, uninucleate, spore-like male structures
called spermatia, which are carried to female gamentagia special recessive hyphae to which they
become attached ie; Trichogyne. A pore develops and content of spermatia pass into the
receptive structure trichogyne. Eg; Puccinia, Rust (Basidiomycotina)
5.Somatogamy:The two somatic hyphae come closer and exchange of nuclei etc takes place .
Here the somatic cell taking the sexual fuction. Eg; Peronosporaceae
Types of fruiting bodies:

Fungus produce different types of complex fungal structure containing spores throught out their
life cycle for the development of disease, these complex structures are called fruiting bodies.
Fruting structures are of two types:
Axexual fruiting structure:
1.Pycnidium: It is spherical to oval- shaped more or less closed or with an
opening, hollow fruiting body lined with conidiophores bearing conidia at
their tip. Eg.Phoma sp.
2. Acervulus: Boat or saucer shaped structure on or in the surface of the

host in which conidiophores develops from the underlying bed like mass
of the somatic hypae bearing conidia. Eg. Colletotrichum sp
3.Synnema: A group of conidiophores cemented together and forming an

elongated structure bearing conidia at their tips or along the length of the conidiophores.
Eg.Graphium sp, Arthrobotryum sps
4.Sporodochium: A cushion shaped stroma covered with conidiophores

bearing conidia at their tips. Eg Epicoccum sp.
Sexual fruiting bodies:

1. Cleistothecia:- It is a completely closed ascocarp, in which ascus bears
8 ascospores, brusts at favorable temperature or climatic condition. Eg;-
Erysiphe sps
2. Perithecia:- It is more or less closed ascocarp with an opening called

ostiole at maturity in which asci and ascospores are produced . Eg
Venturia inaequalis
3. Apothecia:-It is an open ascocarp lined with asci producing ascospores.

Eg. Agaricus bisporus
4.Ascostroma:-It is a cavity formed by hyphal arrangement within a stroma. Eg.Eupenicillium
sp., Talaromyces sp
5. Naked asci:- It is the structure that is formed outside any cavity and
bear ascus with ascospores.Rest of fungi that belongs to the ascomycotina.
Classification of Fungi with their diagnostic characters Lecture 5-15

A. Taxonomy and units of Classification:
Super kingdom - Eukaryonta
Kingdom - Protista (now Fungi)
Sub-kingdom - Mycota
Division - mycota (suffix)
Sub-division - mycotina (suffix)
Class - mycetes (suffix)
Sub-class - mycetidae (suffix)
Order - ales (suffix)
Family - aceae (suffix)
Genus -
Species -
According to Alexopoulus and Mims, 1979; Howksworth et al, 1995 fungi are now considered in
three different groups, the monophyletic kingdom Fungi, Stramenopila and four Protist Phyla.
But under fungi also they are not closely related and it is based largely on DNA sequence
analysis and ultrastructural features
 Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Eumycota (Plasmodium or pseudoplasmodium absent, assimilative phase filamentous)
Sub division: Mastigomycotina
1. Phylum : Chytridiomycota
Class : Chytridiomycetes
Genus : Synchytrium endobioticum – cause black wart of potato
Physoderma maydis- causes brown spot of maize
Olpidium brassicae- parasitic of cabbage roots
2. Sub division: Zygomycotina

Phylum: Zygomycota
Class I. Zygomycetes
Genus: Rhizopus, Mucor, Entomophthora
Class II: Trichomycetes (Obligate parasitic of arthropods, including insects, millipeds and
crustaceans)
Genus: Amoebidium, Paramoebidium
3. Sub division: Ascomycotina
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Ascomycetes
Order: Erysiphales
Genus: Erysiphe polygoni- cause powdery mildew of about 352 host species
E. cichoracearum- cause powdery mildew of cucurbits and other hosts
Uncinula necator- cause powdey mildew of grape
Podosphaera leucotricha- cause powdery mildew of apple
Sphaerotheca pannosa- cause powdery mildew of roses
Taphrina deformans- cause peach leaf curl
Venturia inaequalis- cause apple scab
Saccharomyces cerevisiae- used in both baking and wine making
S. pastorianus- common beer yeast
4. Sub division: Basidiomycotina

Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class I: Heterobasidiomycetes
Genus: Heterobasidium annosum( root rot pathogen)
Class II: Homobasidiomycetes ( mushroom, boletes, puffballs, stinkhorns, bird‟s nest
fungi,bracket or shelf fungi etc. )
Class III: Phragnobasidiomycetes
Genus: Tremella, Exidia, Auricularia
Class IV: Teliomycetes ( Production of thick walled teliospores)
Genus: Puccinia, Ustilaginoidea, Ustilago, Melampsora, Uromyces, Tilletia, Urocystis.
5. Sub division: Deuteromycotina

Phylum: Deuteromycota
Class: Deuteromycetes
Genus: Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Verticillium, Phoma, Macrophoma,
Botrytis, Aspergillas, Penicillium.
 Kingdom: Stramenopila
Division: Eumycota
Sub division: Mastigomycotina
1. Phylum: Oomycota
Class: Oomycetes
Genus: Saprolegnia, Achlya, Aphanomycetes- fish parasite
Aphanomyces- root parasite of pea, raddish, sugar beet
Pythium: cause damping- off and seed rot
Phytophthora- cause late blight of potato, citrus gummosis, root rot
Peronospora, Plasmopara, Bremia, Pseudoperonospora- cause downy mildew
Albugo candida- white rust of crucifers
2. Phylum: Hypochytridiomycota ( Parasitic on algae and fungi, saprophytic on plant insect
debris.
Class: Hyphochytridiomycetes
Genus: Rhizidiomyces apophysatus (parasitic on Vaucheria- algae)
3. Phylum: Labyrinthulomycota ( net slime molds)

Class: Labyrinthulomycetes
Genus: Labyrinthula (association with intertidal algae on black sea)
Aplanochytrium, Labrynthuloides, Thraustochytrium.
 Kingdom : Protists
Division: Myxomycota (Plasmodium or Pseudoplasmodium present)
Sub division: Myxomycotina
1. Phylum : Plasmodiophoromycota
Class: Plasmodiophoromycetes
Genus: Plasmodiophora brassicae- cause clubroot or finger and toe disease of
crucifers
Spongospora subterranean- cause powdery scab of potato
Polymyxa, Wormina etc.
2. Phylum: Dictyosteliomycota ( Dictoystelid cellular slime molds)
Class:
Genus: Dictyostelium, Polysphondylium, Acytostelium, Coenonia
3. Phylum: Acrasiomycota
Class: Acrasiomycetes
Genus: Guttulina, Acrasis, Guttulinopsis, Copromyxa, Copromyxella.
Diagnostic characters of some important classes and their classification.

A. Sub- division: Myxomycotina: (False and lower fungi)
Plasmodium or pseudoplasmodium present. Plasmodium saprobic and free living.
These group of fungi cause very important diseases like club root of cabbage incited
by Plasmodiophora brassicae and powdery scab of potato incited by Spongospora
subterranean. Zoospores anteriorly biflagellate and flagella is whiplash type and of
unequal size.
Class: Myxomycetes:
 Body naked, amorphous plasmodium
 Produce zoospore
 May grow on and may cover parts of low lying plants but do not infect plants.
 Eg. Fuligo, Mucilago- cause slime molds on low lying plants
Class: Plamodiophoromycetes:
 Endoparasite slime molds
 Obligate parasite
 Zoospore have two flagella
1. Plasmodiophora brassicae ( Woron)
Kingdom -Protista
Division- Myxomycota
Sub-division -Myxomycotina
Phylum: Plasmodiophoromycota
Class- Plasmodiophoromycetes
Order Plasmodiophorales
Family -Plasmodiophoraceae
Genus-Plasmodiophora
Species-brassicae
The genus is an obligate parasite and causes important diseases such as club-rot of brassicae.
Resting spore: hyaline, spherical upto 4 μ in diameter, germinate to produce single anteriorly
biflagellate primary zoospores.
Zoospores : a naked uninucleate protoplast, active, moving by irregular jerks and then comes in
contact with root hair and become amoeboid, penetrate the cell wall and form a thallus in the
host cell lumen.
Plasmodium: zygote and young plasmodia unite to form larger plasmodia found in cortical cells
and later in various root and stem tissue, always intracellular, number of nuclei increases as it
enlarges and occupies the entire lumen of an abnormally large host cell, in the late stage,
cleavage takes place around each nucleus in the plasmodium and develop into resting spores,
spores free from each other, held together by the host cell wall, until decomposed in the soil by
secondary organisms.
2. Spongospora subterranean
 Kingdom -Protista
Division- Myxomycota
Sub-division -Myxomycotina
Phylum: Plasmodiophpromycota
Class -Plasmodiophoromycetes
Order -Plasmodiophorales
Family -Plasmodiophoraceae
Genus -Spongospora
Species-subterranean
The genus has got limited host range of crop plants. It causes important disease like
powdery scab in potato and acts as a vector of potato-mop-top virus disease.
Resting spore: germinate by release of biflagellate zoospores, which penetrates root
hairs, thallus enlarge, become multinucleate and on germination form zoosporangia a
thick walled, round to oval body.
Zoospores: protoplasm of zoosporangium divides to form upto 50 secondary zoospores,
discharge through an opening common to zoosporangial wall and host cell wall,
biflagellate of unequal length, zoospores from zoosporangia may reinfect and produce
another zoosporangium, this stage is repeated as long as young roots are available and
conditions are favourable.
Plasmodium: amoeboid stage of fused secondary zoospores form intracellularly
plasmodium, invaded cells enlarge and divide into several infected cells, wart like
structure is formed by abnormal cell growth and cell division, plasmodium gives rise to
spore balls (19-85 μ) which consist of spongy mass with irregular internal channels, form
yellow brown dust in mature sori, spore balls contain many individual cells, each
constituting an individual uninucleate resting spore.
B. Mastigomycotina :- Lower fungi
1. Absence of plasmodium or pseudo-plasmodium but presence of filamentous assimilative
phase.
2. Mycelium is coenocytic and branched.
3. Cell wall is made up of glucose and cellulose.
4. Most members are aquatic and some are terrestrial and plant pathogenic.
5. Members are characterized by hetero knot-(2 types of flagella) type of zoospores bearing
flagella either or whiplash type or tinsel type or both.
6. Some fungi are dimorphic zoospores( two type of zoosproes)
a. one with epically attached flagella (pear shaped)
b. other with laterally attachment (kidney shaped)
7. In some members in stead of zoospores, conidia and or spprangia are produced.
8. Sexual reproduction by Oogonium (Female) and Antheridium (Male) results into
formation of one or more thick wall spore known as Oospros.
9. It includes three classes on the basis of flagellation of zoospores, they are
Chytridiomycetes, Hypochytridiomycetes, and Oomycetes.
Class: Oomycetes
 Coenocytic mycelium
 Have biflagellate zoospore with longer tinsel flagellum directed backward.
 Diploid thallus , with meiosis ccuring in the developing gametangia.
 Gametangial contact produces thick walled sexual oospore.
 Cell wall composed of glucans and small amount of hydroxyproline and cellulose.
 Eg. White rust of crucifers: Albugo candida, D.M. of grape
Class: Chytridiomycetes: (True fungi)

 Produce motile cells at some stage of their life cycle
 Have round or elongated mycelium that lacks coss walls
 Thallus is coenocytic with simple or well developed mycelium
 Eg. Wart of potato: Synchytrium endobioticum
1.Synchytrium endobioticum (deBary & Woron)

Kingdom -Straminopila
Division- Eumycota
Sub-division -Mastigomycotina
Phylum: Chytridiomycota
Class -Chytridiomycetes
Order -Chytridiales
Family- Synchytriaceae
Genus -Synchytrium
Species- endobioticum
S. endobioticum is an obligate, holocarpic, endobiotic parasite. It is long-cycled chytrid which
does not produce hyphae but a thallus comprised of sporangia. Two forms of sporangia exist, so-
called summer and winter sporangia (resting spores), which contain 200-300 motile zoospores.
The summer or swarm stage results from host infection by haploid zoospores in which a sorus of
one to nine sporangia form, and the winter or resting stage results from infection by conjugated
(diploid) biflagellated zoospores. Both sporangial types germinate to release pear-shaped (1.5-
2.2 µm diam.) zoospores. Motility is by means of posterior flagella. The resting (meio-)sporangia
are golden brown, ridged and spheroidal (ca 35-80 µm diam).If infection conditions are suitable,
i.e. soil temperature and water, the rapidly reproducing summer sporangia release their zoospores
thus setting up repeated infection cycles. At the same time, (meio-)sporangia (resting spores) are
formed and, while conditions no longer favour the summer stage, the resting spores will
overwinter in the infection zones of the potato. The resting spores induce hypertrophy of the
infected tissue resulting in the so-called warts. Resting spore survive in the soil for 3- 4 years and
germinate producing zoospores.
Pythium:
Division- Eumycota
Phylum: Oomycota
Class -Oomycetes
Order -Peronosporales
Family -Pythiaceae
Genus -Pythium
Pythium spp. are common as soil inhabitants with long survival rates. They generally parasites
on wide host range like tomato, tobacco, mustard chillies or cress seddlingand mainly causing
both pre and post-emergence damping-off; and also cause in root rots of young plants. The
fungus lives saprophytically in moist, humus soil and attack the seedling at the soil level,
thereafter it lives as a parasite.P.debaryanum cause damping off of chilli, tobacco and p.
aphanidermatum cause rhizome rot of ginger.
Mycelium are well developed, much branched or unbranched hyphae, occasionally bearing
appressoria and chlamydospores. The hypae which lie within the host tissues are both
intracellular and intercellular and do not produce haustoria. Asexual reproduction takes place by
means of zoospores which are produced in small, globular or oval sac like sporangia.
Germination of sporangia is either by germ tube or zoospores. Soap bubbles like vesicals is
formed before liberation of zoospores (100 or more) from sporangia. Two flagella of tinsel( long
and anterior) and whiplash ( short and posterior) gets attached on concave side of zoospores,
after swimming for a period it comes to rest on host surface, encyst, and germinate by germ
tubes.sexual reproduction is oogamous and occur at the end of growing seasons. The sex organs
are formed with in the dead tissues of the host. Mycelium produces antheridium and oogonium in
close proximity as oogonium develops at the end of a lateral hyphae and the antheridium on
branch arising from the stalk of the oogonium as both sex organ develop in the same thallus
majority of the group of fungus are homothallic. Nucleus is passed from antheridium to
oogonium, fuses to form zygote and oosphere develops thick walled oospores. Sporangia and
oospore germinate by producing germ tube above 18 ̊ C and by zoospores in temperature range
of 10- 18 C
̊ .
Phytophtora
Kingdom- Straminopila
Division -Eumycota
Phylum: Oomycota
Class -Oomycetes
Order- Peronosporales
Family- Pythiaceae
Genus -Phytophthora
Water house (1956) reported about 75 species of Phytophthora. Most of them live as parasites on
flowering plants and some are able to live as saprophytes. This roup of fungus cause late blight,
root rot gummosis. The mycelium in species of Phytophthora is profusely branched and not
septate when young but septate in old hypae. Axesual reproduction takes place by means of
sporangia borne at the tip of the sporangiophores. Sporangia are ovoid or lemon shaped, hyaline
and have an apiculate tip called papilla. Phytophthora infestans is heterothallic and therefore, sex
organs develop when two strains of opposite mating type (A1 and A2) of mycelia occur in a host
near together. Sexual reproduction is by means of oogonia and antheridia and the latter develop
before the former. Oogonium penetrates the antheridial cell from side to side and male nucleus
passes into the oogonium to bring about fertilizations. Fertilized egg secretes a heavy wall
around itself and becomes an oospore which is resting spore in the soil.
Pythium Phytophthora
1. Sporangia are produced or somatic 1. Sporangia are produced on special aerial

hyphae indistinguishable from the reproductive hyphae called
other hyphae. sporangiophores.
2 2.
Globose to oval sporangia either The papillate lemon shaped sporangia are
terminal or intercalary. always terminal in origin but are
3. subsequently shifted to the side.
The differentiation of zoospores take
place in vesicle. They are liberated by 3. Zoospore are differentiated in the
sudden brusting of vesicle wall. sporangium and liberated by brusting of the
special papillate. No vesicles are formed.
The germ tube enters the host tissue
4. 4
through the stomata or by puncturing The germ tube enters the host through the
of epidermal wall epidermal cells by infection peg that grows
5. 5. from appressorium.
Haustoria absent.
Haustoria present.
Albugo candida
Division- Eumycota
Phylum: Oomycota
Class- Oomycetes
Family -Albuginaceae
Genus-Albugo
Species -candida
Albugo with about 25 species are known to be parasitic on plants. Albugo candida parasitises
many annual crucifers and many other cruciferous weeds. It causes a disease commonlyknown as
white blisters or white rust. It is an obligateparasite.
The mycelium is aseptate, freely branched and provided with globular button like rarely knobbed
shaped haustoria. After growing vigorously at the expense of the host, branches fro the internal
mycelium collect beneath the epidermis and send haustoria into the parenchymatous tissues of
the host. Sporangiosphores which are cosely packed form a palaside like layer beneath the
epidermis, which bear sporangia at the tip in basipetal succession i.e odest at the tip and gounger
at the base. Sporangia extrude 4-12 zoospores in vesicle. Sporangiospore bearing sporangia at
the tip are pressureized by the gowth of mycelium to the epidermis and finally epidermis is
ruptured and white crustare seen. Primary infection of the disease is caused by over summmering
or over wintering oospores and the secondary spresd is caused by means of air borne conidia.
Genus Peronospora, Pseudoperonospora, Plasmopara, Sclerospora, Bremia, Basidiophora
Kingdom -Stramenopila
Division- Eumycota
Phylum: Oomycota
Class -Oomycetes
Family- Peronosporaceae
Genus: Peronospora, Psedoperonospora, Plasmopara, Sclerospora, Bremia,
Basidiophora
Most of the species are obligate parasite of vascular plants causing downy mildew. 75 species of
Peronospora have been reported. Some species like P. tabacina cause blue mold of tobacco,
spinach leaf mold caused by P. spinaciae. These genera are differentiated on the basis of
morphology of sporangiophore and Peronospora have determinate growth habit.
Pseudoperonosporasporangiophore are dichotomously branched at acute angle and taper to
gracefully curved pointed end. Basidiophora sporangiosphore are club shaped with swollen
head, sterigmata attached on its head bears sporangia. Sclerospora bear sporangiophore with
long, stout hypae and have many upright branches near the end. Plasmoparasporangiophore are
branched and their sub division occur typically at right angles and irregularly spaced.
Oospore Oosphere
Oospore is a thickwalled resting spore formed It is a large, naked, spherical, female gamete.
from a fertilized egg.
It is non motile It is also non motile
Usually formed in sub division mastigomycotina It is found in sub division mastigomycotina
It is asexual spore It is a female gamete.
3. Zygomycotina:-
1. Mycelium is coenocytic.
2. Cell wall is made up of Chitin, Chitosan, Poly-galactoamines ie galacton
3. Mostly saprophytes but some are parasite, mycopasasite (fungal pasasite), and
entemogeneus or entomopathogenic.
4. Some members causes diseases in human diseases eg- mucoromycosis.
5. Members are characterized by production of non-motile spores i.e. sporangium.
6. Sexual reproduction is by means of gametangial copulation results into formation of
zygospores.
Mucor
Kingdom- Fungi
Division- Eumycota
Sub- division- Zygomycotina
Phylum: Zygmycota
Class- Zygomycetes
Order- Mucorales
Family- Mucoraceae
Genus- Mucor
Species- mucedo
Mucor is saprophyte and appers in damp substratum. Mycelium is coenocytic. Axesual

reproduction takes place by means of multinucleate spores, chlamydospores, gemmae or conidia.
Sexual reproduction takes place when hypae from different mycelia come in contact hence they
are heterothallic. When progametangia adhere by their tips protoplasm in two gamets
intermingles forming a single fusion cell called zygote. Zygote develops a thick wall consisting
os several layers called zygospore.
Zoospore Zygospores
Zoospores are axesual spores Zygospore are sexual spores
They are usually resting spore They are usually sexual resting spores
Zoospores are endogenous spores produced in Zygospores are produced as a result of
sporangia gametangial copulation
Zoospores are usually naked and flagellated Zygospore are thick walled and not flagellated
Zoospores are vacuolated Zygospore are globulated
Species producing zoospores are usually Zygospores are usually terrestrial in habitat
aquatic or terrestrial in their habitat
Fungi producing zoospores belong to sub Fungi producing zygospores belong to sub
division mastigomycotina division zygomycotina
4. Ascomycotina (Higher fungi)

1. Mycelium is septed and septum is simple.
2. Spores are non motile.
3. Some fungi produce Chitin of cells which forms a false mycelium,i.e. pseudomycelium.
some other member do not produce mycelium and have unicellular mycelia (yeast).
4. Ascomycotina in general have two distinct phase i.e. sexual stage/ascus and asexual stage
/conidial stages
5. Fungi produce a sac like structure called ascus which contains usually a definite no of
spores i.e. 8.
6. Fruiting body is known as ascocarp which contain asci.
7. In hemiascomycetes, no fruiting body is produced both homothallic and heterothallic
species are known.
8. Phenomena of heterokaryosis is an important features of this fungi.
Taphrina:
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Eumycota
Sub division: Ascomycotina
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Ascomycetes
Order: Taphrinales
Family: Taphrinaceae
Genus: Taphrina
Taphrina species are true endoparasites, strictly confined to definite host. They have more or less
richly developed septate hyaline mycelium which grows intercellularly below the epidermis or in
the deep lying tissues of the host. Axexual reproduction takes place by means of sprout conidia
or blastospores. Asci arise by the transformation of ascogenous cell wich are first binucleate but
as the ascus matures the two nuclei fuse forming a large diploid nucleus. Asci are naked formed
on the host surface from subcuticular mycelium that brusts through the cuticle. Each ascus
contains eight ascospores which produce small round blastospores by budding. Taphrina sp
causes important diseases like T. deformans cause peach leaf curl, T.pruni cause pocket plum
disease of plum fruit, T. maculans cause leaf spot disease of turmeric.
Protomyces:
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Eumycota
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Ascomycetes
Order: Taphrinales
Family: Protomycetaceae
Genus: Protomyces
Mycelium of the genus Protomyces is filamentous and septate. It is intercellular and irregularly
branched. Galls develop on the host as the result of uncontrolled division and growth of host
cells. Intercalary hypal swellings develop into resting bodies are found plenty in the cells which
is called chlamydospore. After a period of dormancy they germinate forming vesicle which
develops into spore mother cells. After meiosis division compound ascus ( synacus) is formed. In
synacus ascospores are formed and at maturity they are released.
Erysiphe
Kingdom: fungi
Division: Eumycota
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Ascomycetes
Order: Erysiphales
Family: Erysiphaceae
Genus: Erysiphe
Genus Erysiphe consists of about 10 species and is characterized by superficial mycelium.

Erysiphe polygoni has several has a wide host range and attacks 357 host species belonging to
157 genera. Mycelium of this obligate parasite is superficial. It consists of hyaline, branched,
septate hypae which interlace to form a web like structure covering the host surface. Uninucleate
outgrowth arises from the hyphae called haustoria penetrate epidermal cells and swell their tips
to form globular to pyriform haustoria. Asexual reproduction takes place by means of conidia
produced on conidiophores. They reproduced sexually by producing ascospores in the asci borne
in ascocarp which is completely closed.
Some important diseases :
Erysiphe cichoracearum: powdery mildew of cucurbits; E. polygoni: P.M of legumes, beets
Claviceps:
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Eumycota
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Ascomycetes
Order: Hypocreales
Family: Clavicipitaceae
Genus: Claviceps
Claviceps purpurea cause ergot of rye and Claviceps microcephala cause ergot disease of pearl
millet. The hard sclerotium of the fungus yields an alkaloid known as ergotin, if inhaled cause
disease ergotism. This disease in human and animals result in convulsions or nervous break
down. Ascospores thread like and extend the length of the ascus. In some septate ascospores
break into fragments at the septa that are called part spores. Ascospores germinate by germ tube
or by producing conidia produce hard compact body called sclerotia which can survive in
unfavourable environmental condition. Fungus overwinters as sclerotia on or in the ground or
mixed with seeds. Sclerotia germinate to give 1 to 60 flesh coloured stalks and produces
ascospores (multicellur) in perithecia which are needle shaped.
4.Basidiomycotina :-
1. Mycelium is well developed and septed with dolipore septum.
2. It has 3 type of mycelium- (i) Primary (ii) Secondary and (iii) Tertary
3. Fungi produce spore known as basidiospores outside or specialized spore producing
structure called basidium.
4. Basidiospores are generally unicellular and haploid which are formed usually as a result
of plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis.
5. Each basidium has a definite number of basidiospores usually 4.
6. Dikaryotic mycelium is the major part of the life cycle in these fungi.
7. Presence of clamp connection. (Hyphal outgrowth connecting two cell by fusionat cell
division)
8. Fruting bodies are basidiocarp.
Puccinia
Kingdom: fungi
Division: Eumycota
Sub division: Basidiomycotina
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Basidiomycetes
Sub- class: Teliomycetes
Order: Uredinales
Family: Pucciniaceae
Genus: Puccinia
There are about 5,000 species of rust fungi and Puccinia includes 700 species and all are obligate
parasite. They cause rust disease of cereals, millets and other crops. Some species of puccinia are
autoecious and some are heterocious, macrocyclic which need more than one host to complete
their life cycle.Black rust, brown rust and yellow rust are caused by Puccinia graminis, P.
recondita and P. striiformis respectively. Rust are polymorphic, it means several forms of spores
exits in rust in different stage of life cycle.
Stage-0 pycniospore
Stage-1 aeciospore
Stage-2 urediospore
Stage-3 teliospore
Stage-4 basidiospore
There are two different phase in the life cycle of Puccinia spp. One of the phase is dikaryophase
which constitute the sporophyte generation on wheat and other is monokaryotic phase or
haplophase which pass on alternate host like barberry.These two generation occur regularly one
after another which is termed as alternation of generation in Puccinia spp.
Melampsora lini
Kingdom: Fungi Division: Eumycota Sub division: Basidiomycotina
Phylum: Basidiomycota Class: Basidiomycetes Order: Uredinales
Family: Melampsoraceae Genus: Melampsora
Melampsora lini is a classic species of the genus Melampsora causing flax/linseed rust.30-80%
yield loss has been estimated. It is macrocyclic and autoecious completing life cycle in single
host. Uredia occur on both surface of the leaves as well as on aerial part. Teliospore are sessile,
cylindrical and single celled.
Uromyces:
Phylum: Basidiomycota Class: Basidiomycetes Order: Uridinales
Family: Pucciniaceae Genus: Uromyces
Two important species of Uromyces occur on peas. Uromyces pisi is a heteroecious species and
its aecial stage occur on Euphorbia. The other Uromyces fabae which is autoecious inciting rust
on pea and lentil. U. ciceri cause rust of gram and U.appendiculatus causes rust on bean.
Puccinia Uromyces
 Teliospore bicelled  Teliospore single celled
 Only one germ pores on teliospore  One germ pores on teliospore
 Amphisporus are also formed in some  No amphispores are formed in any

species species
 The genus includes more than 3000  The genus includes about 600 species
species
 Species cause disease especially on  Species cause disease especially on
cereal crops leguminious crops
Ustilago
Phylum: Basidiomycota Class: Basidiomycetes Order: Ustilaginales
Family: Ustilaginaceae Genus: Ustilago
Ustilago includes 400 species and all are parasitic. Ustilago is an important genus and different
species are responsible for causing diseases of economic importance. Ustilago segetum var tritici
causes loose smut of wheat, U. segetum var hordei causes covered smut of barley, U. scitaminea
causes smut of sugarcane, U. maydis smut of maize. The mycelium of Ustilago has two distinct
phase, primary mycelia which is hyaline, slender, septate with single haploid (n) nucleus in each
cell and formed by germination of basidiospore. Next phase is secondary mycelia which is
formed by primary mycelia by the process of diplodisation.
Tilletia:
Phylum: Basidiomycota Class: Basidiomycetes Order: Ustilaginales
Family: Ustilaginaceae Genus: Tilletia
Tilletia differs from ustilago in the method of teliospore germination. Promycelium remains
aseptate and 4 basidiospores are formed on the promycelium. Tilletia caries and T. foeitida cause
common bunt of wheat. T. indica cause kernel bunt of wheat and T. controversa cause dwarf
bunt of wheat.
6.Sub division:- Deuteromycotina

 Mycelium is well developed, septed and reproduction is by means of condia.
 Fungi lack Sexual reproduction and known as fungi imperfecti.
 Perfect stage in this fungus is found in Ascomycotina and Basidiomycotina groups.
Parasexual cycle is found in these group of fungi.
 Members are parasites on plants, annuals and aource human being also.
Colletotrichum:
Kingdom: Fungi Division- Eumycota Sub division- Deuteromycotina
Form- phylum: Deuteromycota Form- class: Deuteromycetes Form- sub- class: Colelomycetidae
Form- order: Melanconiales Form- family: Melanconiaceae Genus- Colletotrichum
Colletotrichum includes about 1000 species which cause anthracnose of economically important
plants.C.lindemuthianum- anthracnose of bean; C. orbiculare- anthracnose of cucurbits; C.
circinans- anthracnose of onion ; C. gloeosporiodes- anthracnose of mango which is anamorph
stage and Glomerella cingulata being the teleomorph or sexual stage; C. falcatum- red rot of
sugarcane. Mycelium of the fungus is internal, septate and branched being both intracellular and
intercellular. Acervulus an axesual fruting body is formed consisting hylane conidiophores on
the stromatic surface.diseae is soil as well as seed borne. Secondary infection is by the means of
air borne conidia.
Alternaria
Form-phylum:Deuteromycota Form-class:Deuteromycetes Form-order: Melanconiales
Form- family: Dematiaceae Genus: Alternaria
Alternaria grows mostly as saprophyte on plant debris and dying plant parts and also in the soil.
Several form of species are parasite on plants. Alternaria brassicicola which cause leaf spot in
crucifer such as mustard, cabbage, cauliflower; Alternaria tenuis cause leaf blight of wheat
sedling, A. triticina – alternaria leaf blight of wheat. Mycelium is intercellular first and latter
becomes intracellular. Disease is soil as well as seed borne.
Cercospora
Form-phylum: Deuteromycota Form-class: Deuteromycetes Form- order: Moniliales
Form- family: Dematiaceae Genus: Cercospora
The form- genus Cercospora includes about 3800 form species and majority of them are plant
pathogens which cause leaf spot disease of economically important plants. Sexual stage of
cercospora is Mycosphaerella. They produce toxin cercosporin which is photosensitizing agent
and kills cells only in the presence of light. C. personata mycelium is entirely internal and C.
arachidicola mycelium is external and internal and do not produce haustoria ; these pathogen
incites tikka disease of groundnut. C. capsici- cercospora leaf spot of chilly.
Fusarium:
Form- phylum: Deuteromycoya Form- class: Deuteromycetes Form- order: Melanconiales
Form – family: Tuberculariaceae Genus: Fusarium
Form- genus Fusarium includes a large number of species and Many forms within the species .
Some species are saprophytic, some are facultative parasites and some others are parasitic.
Almost all the species have a saprophytic stage and are soil inhabitants. Fusarium oxysporum
f.sp udum- wilt of pigeon pea; F.lycopersi- wilt of tomato; F.lini- wilt of flax; F. vasinfectum-
wilt of cotton. Hypae are septate, branched and both intracellular and intercellular. Three kinds
of asexual spores macroconidia, microconidia, and chlamydospores are formed. Wilting of the
plants occurs when the pathogen enters from the injured roots and colonize in the vascular region
causing xylem blocking with numerous macroconidia and plant show wilting symptoms due to
restricted uptake of nutrients and water.
Helminthosporium:
Form-phylum- Deuteromycota Form- class- Deuteromycetes Form-order- Moniliales
Form- family- Dematiaceae Form- genus: Helminthosporium
Helminthosporium cause brown spot, leaf blight disese in cereals. The pathogen grows both
intercellularly and intracellulary within the mesophyll tissue. Conidiophores arise as lateral
branches from the hypae, usually in tufts and emerge through stomata or wounds. The perfect
stage of the pathogen is Cochliobolus. Helminthosporium oryzae causing brown spot of rice
produce. Cochliobolin which is highly toxic to rice seedlings inhibiting root growth. H.
gramineum- stripe disease of barley; H. maydis- southern leaf blight of maize; H. turcicum-
northern leaf blight of maize.
Pyricularia:
Kingdom:Fungi Division- Eumycota Sub division- Deuteromycotina
Form-phylum- Deuteromycota Form- class- Hypomycetes Form- order- Moniliales
Form- family- Moniliaceae Form- genus- Pyricularia
Consists important form species. Pyricularia oryzae (anamorph stage) which cause rice blast is
economically important which cause 75% yield loss. The perfect stage is Magnaporthe grisea
which is not found in nature but in laboratory only. They produce simple gray conidiophores that
bears terminal, pear shaped mostly two septate conidia which have sympodial branching. P.
oryzae produce pyricularin which is stimulatory to plant in high dilution and phytotoxic in high
concerntration. P. curcumae- cause leaf blast of turmeric.
Sclerotium:
Form-phylum: Duteromycota Form- class- Hypomycetes Form order- Agonomycetales
Form- family- Agonomycetaceae Form- genus: Sclerotium
They cause damping off of seedlings, stem canker, crown blight, root, crown, bulb, and tuber rot;
and fruit rots. They are sterile and do not produce any spore, they produce more or less uniform
sized sclerotium which are similar to that of mustard seed, they can survive on soil in off-
season. Sclerotium rolfsi ,S. batiticola, S. cepivorum cause rot of bulb- onion and garlic.
Rhizoctonia:
Kingdom – Fungi Division- Eumycota Sub division- Deuteromycotina
Form-phylum- Deuteromycota Form- class- Hypomycetes Form- order- Agonomycetales
Form- family- Agonomycetaceae Form- genus- Rhizoctonia
Rhizoctonia species are mostly soil inhabitant. Disease symptoms caused are seed decay,
damping off, stem lesion and canker, root rot, above ground rot, leaf blight and storage rot. Two
species of Rhizoctinia , namely Rhizoctonia bataticola (sclerotial stage ) Macrophomina
phaseoli (pycnidila stage) and Rhizoctonia solani (Teleomorph Thanatephorus cucumeris) are
economically important causing damping- off, root rot, stem rot or stem canker by R. bataticola
and sheath blight of cereals by R. solani.
Sclerotinia
Form-phylum: Deuteromycota Form- class- Deuteromycetes Form- order- Agonomycetales
Form- family- Agonomycetaceae Form- genus- Sclerotinia
Sclerotinia spp. are mostly soil inhabitant and cause many important diseases in crop plants. All
the stage of the plant starting from seedlings, mature plants and harvest products are affected.
They cause cottony rot, white mold, soft rot, drop, crown rot, and blossom blight diseases.
Fungus is cottony while growing in the mycelia stage and latter the mycelium is hardened and
sclerotia are formed which survives in the soil for more than 3 years. When these resting
sclerotia get favourable environment they germinate and produce ascospores that attack
succulent parts of plants especially floral parts.
Sclerotinia Sclerotiorumand S. minor: white blight of mustard, brinjal, chilli; S. homeocarpa:
dollor spot disease of turf grasses.
Defination, general morphology of bacterial cell and their function Lecture-16
Bacteria
Bacteria (sing. bacterium) are simplest prokaryotic unicellular microorganisms whose genetic
material (DNA) is not bounded by a membrane therefore is not organized into a nucleus. Their
cell consists of cytoplasm containing DNA and small (70s) ribosome. Bacterial cell is
surrounded by a cell membrane and cell wall which is rigid in structure without chlorophyll.
Sometime having photosynthetic pigments. They are highly adaptable and can survive extremes
of temperatures, pH, oxygen tension, osmotic and atmospheric pressures, and hence found in
almost all natural conditions.
Parts of bacterial cells:
 The slime: External to the cell wall, there may be presence of thin layer of slime,
composed of polysaccharides or of polypeptides.
 Capsule: Under certain condition of growth, slime accumulates to form a thick
conspicious layer around cell wall called capsule which acts as protecting layer.
 Cell wall: It is composed of acetylglucosamine and acety muramic acid. Cell wall is the
layer outside the cell membrane.
 Cell membrane: It is a delicate fine membrane known as cytoplasmic membrane which
completly encloses the protoplast and lies close to the cell wall.
 Cytoplasm of bacterial cell is dense and contains granules of glycogen, proteins, and
fats but lacks mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum
 Nuclear or chromatin body: It is the area in which all the chromatin or genetic material
of the cell is concerntrated, However it lacks the nuclear and nucleoli
 Flagella: It is the organ for locomotion and helps for the movement of bacteria.
 Mesosome: Energy production (respiration), DNA replication, cell division,
photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation and endosporulation.
Fig: A typical ultrastructure of Bacterial cell
Locomotion of the bacteria:

 Monotrichous: A single flagellum is present at one end of the cell. eg
Xanthomonas
 Lophotrichous: Two or more flagella at one or both end of the cell. eg

Pseudomonas
 Amphitrichus: One flagellum at each end. eg Pseudomonas
 Peritrichus: Large number of flagella surrounding the cell.eg Erwinia,

Clostridium, Bacillus, Agrobacterium
 Atrichous: No flagella at either side. eg Clavibacter
Morphological characters or shape of bacteria:

Being unicellular organism, bacteria may form groups of cells as filaments. They are either
motile or non-motile and lack the definitely organized nucleus. Bacterial cell possess different
shapes-
1. Rod- shaped bacterium: Such bacteria are called bacilli and measures 1.5µ in diameter
and about 10 µ in length. Bacilli are three types; Single, diplobacilli and streptobacilli.
Most of the plant pathogenic bacteria are rod shaped, except Streptomyces which is
filamentous.
2. Spherical: These are called Cocci and measured about 0.5 to 1.25 µ in diameter. Lack
flagella and non motile. they are different types
 Coccus
 Diplococcus
 Streptococcus
 Tetracoccus
 Staphylococcus
3. Helical: They are two types

 Spirilla: Eg Sprillium undulum
 Vibrio: Eg. Vibrio comma
Reproduction in bacteria:
A) Asexual reproduction:
 Fission
 Budding
 Sporulation- some bacteria reproduce by spores which are of two kinds namely
conidia and endospore. Endospore are highly resistant, physiologically dormant,
single celled bodies formed usually singly inside a bacterial mother cell. They are
formed by gram positive aerobic Bacillus and anaerobic Clostridium.
B) Sexual reproduction:
Bacteria do not show sexual reproduction as found in other plants. However, similar
types of phenomena called as meromixis occur in some species involving transfer of
genetical material instead of syngamy or meiosis which determines variability in bacteria:
Variability among bacteria is resulted from the following processes:

(i) Conjugation: Conjugation is sexual reproduction and is carried out by plasmid genes. It
takes place only in cells with transmissible plasmids.
(ii) Transformation: The bacterial cell absorbs DNA exuded by compatible cells or freed by
dissolution of the cell-wall into the external medium.
(iii) Transduction: This process is a “phage-mediated genetic transfer”. The bacterial viruses
(bacteriophages or phage) can acquire DNA from one cell and transfer it to the other
cells attacked by them. If attacked cell is not destroyed due to infection by the phase,
it reproduces to form new races with different genetic character.
Taxonomy, classification and nomenclature of bacteria: Taxonomy is the art of biological
classification which includes identification as well as description of the basic taxonomic units
(species) as completely as possible; it also determines the correct way of arrangement
(cataloguing) of these units.
Major divisions of bacteria on the basis of cell wall structure

Kingdom : Prokaryotae
Division I : Gracilicutes (thin skin/cell wall, gram negative bacteria)
Class : Protobacteria
Genus- Agrobacterium, Erwinia, Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas, Xylella, Xylophylus, Rhizomonas,
Rhizobacter, Acidovorax, Sphingomonas, Serratia
Division II : Firmicutes (strong/durable cell wall, gram positive bacteria)

ClassI : Firmibacteria
Genus: Bacillus, Clostridium
Class II: Thallobacteria (Branching bacteria)
Genus: Streptomyces, Arthrobacteria, Clavibacterium, Leifsonia, Rhodococcus
Division III : Tenericutes( soft/tender cell wall, mycoplasma)

Class : Mollicutes
Genus: Spiroplasma, Phytoplasma
Division IV : Mendosicutes (faulty cell wall)

Class :Archaebacteria
Characters of some economically important bacteria Lecture-17

Xanthomonas:
It includes 5 species and are of heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Species of Xanthomonas are rod
shaped, 0.4-1.0 by 1.2-3 micrometer, species are non spore forming, non capsulated and usually
produce yellow water soluble pigment in culture. They are gram negative in their stain reaction.
Species are motile and monotrichously flagellated. Disease may be incited by soil or plant denris
or may be seed borne.secondary disease dissemination by irrigation water, rain, wind and other
mechanical carriers.
Pseudomonas:
Cells are straight rods, 0.4-1.0 by 1.2-3 micrometer, gram negative. Pseudomonas includes 17
species.they have one or several polar flagellated and bacterial colony are white or yellow.
Psedomonas sp are usually non capsulated, non spore forming and are aerobic.Pseudomonas
syringae are called fluorescent Pseudomonas because on a medium of low iron content, they
produce yellow green diffusible fluorescent pigments while other does not.
Erwinia :
It includes about 21 species and almost species are facultative anaerobic. Some Erwinia species
do not produce pectic enzymes(E. amylovora) and cause necrotic or wilt diseases. Some other
species have strong pectolytic activity (E. carotovora) and cause soft rots in plants. They are
straight rods in shape measuring about 0.5-1.0* 1.0- 3.0 µ in size. They occur singly or in pairs
or in chains. They are motile by means of peritrichous flagella and gram negative in stain
reaction producing no spore and capsule.
Agrobacterium:
Agrobacteriumare usually rod -shaped, laterally flagellated with white colonies which are rarely
yellow in color. They are 0.8 by 1.5-3 µ gram negative. Species of Agrobacterium enter plants
through wounds and stimulate cells to divide and enlarge which is called crown gall. The kind of
symptom produced is actually determined not by the species of Agrobacterium but by the kind of
plasmid they carry. They are rhizosphere and soil inhabitants.
Corynebacterium:
Species of Corynebacterium are straight to slightly curved rods, measuring about 0.5-0.9* 1.5-
4.0µ in size. It includes 5 species having some fastidious and xylem limited.They are usually non
motile but some are motile by means of one or two polar flagella. They are gram positiveo and
colonies on agar media are bright yellow. Obligate etiological relationship exixts between
Corynebacterium and seed gall nematode (Anguina tritici).
Streptomyces:
They are slender having branched hyphae without cross walls 0.5-2µ in diameter, gram positive.
At maturity aerial mycelium forms chains of three to many spores, colonies surface smooth when
young and with a weft of aerial mycelium that may be granular, powdery or velvety. Produce on
or more antibiotics active against bacteria, fungi, algae, viruses, protozoa or tumor tissues. All
species are soil inhabitants.
Economic importance of bacteria:

Useful activities:
1. Decay and decomposition of organic matter
2. Nitrogen fixation. Eg. Rhizobium
3. Dairy industry for the production of cheese
4. Silage making and retting of flax- fibres
5. Leather industry
6. Antibiotics . eg Streptomycin
7. Vitamins- Closteridium butylicum used for he synthesis of B- complex vitamin
Harmful activities:
1. Food poisoning: A fatal form of food poisonng called botulism is due to effect of
Clostridium botulinium
2. Diseases: cause wilt of plants, crown gall, blight
3. Denitrification
Viruse, Mycoplasma and Spiroplasma, definition and general characters Lecture-18
Matthew (1981) defined a virus as “a set of one or more nucleic acid template molecules,
normally encased in a protective coat, or coats of protein or lipoprotein, which is able to organize
its own replication within suitable host cells. Or
Viruses are defined as sub microscopic particles, which are obligate intracellular parasites, lack
enzymes and formed only of protein and nucleic acids, which multiply inside living cells and
possess the ability to cause disease. They are non living (can be kept in crystal form, particle,
precipitation) and living (carry out vital living activities such as multiplication, infectiveness,
mutations etc).
Chemical composition: Plant virus particles consist of infectious nucleic acid (the genome),
which is encapsidated within a protective protein coat or shell. The genome, essential for virus
replication, is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA in most groups of viruses) and
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA in the caulimovirus and geminivirus groups). The RNA and DNA
may be single stranded (ss) or double stranded (ds). Besides these two basic components, an
envelop of lipid or lipoprotein membrane is present in some plant viruses. Other components are
metallic ions and polyamines present in varying amounts. Some enzymes are found in reoviruses
and rhabdoviruses. Water constitutes 10-50 percent of the mass of virus particle.
Replication of viral RNA:

Replication of viral RNA takes place with help of enzymes. The nucleic acid (RNA) of a virus is
first freed from the protein coat. It then induces the cell to form the viral RNA polymerase. This
enzyme utilizes the viral RNA as a template and forms complementary RNA. The first new RNA
produced is not the viral RNA but a complemantary copy of that RNA. As the complementary
RNA is formed , it is temporarily connected to the viral strand. Thus , the two form a double –
stranded RNA that soon separates to produce the original virus RNA and the mirror image (-)
strand, with the latter then serving as a template for more virus (+ strand) RNA synthesis.
Viral morphology:
 Rigid rod :Tobacco mosaic virus- TMV
 Flexible rod: Cowpea mosaic virus –CMV
 Spherical: Squash mosaic
 Polyhedral : Tulip yellow mosaic
Viroid: Smallest particle than virus and composed of stable but free RNA. They do not have
outer protein coat and transmitted mechanically. They seem closely associated with the nuclei
particularly chromosome of the cells. Depend entirely on the host cell for replication. Eg Potato
spindle virus, Coconut cadang- cadang, chlorotic mottle.
Mycoplasma like organism (Phytoplasma)

Small non-motile, non spore forming, unicellular and filterable organism.Phytoplasmas are
classified as bacteria; however, they lack a cell wall and can take on a variety of shapes. They
are obligate parasites, meaning they can only survive within their host. They are present in the
sap of small numbers of phloem sieve tubes.Highly resistant to penicillin but are sensitive to
tetracycline.Transmitted mostly by leaf hopper. Phytoplasmas live in the phloem of host plants
and are vectored by certain phloem feeding-insects, such as leafhoppers. This pathogen causes
distortion, yellowing, wilting, and “witches’ brooms” (a proliferation of growth). Immature leaf
veins may appear clear (called “vein-clearing), little of brinjal.
Rickettsia like organism (RLOs):

They are smaller than MLO‟s, gram negative. They contain well defined cell wall and found
both in xylem and phloem of the host plant. Pholem inhabiting fastidious bacteria cannot be
cultured but xylem inhabiting fastidious bacteria can be cultured.Transmitted by leaf hopper.
Shape vary to spherical, rod- shaped, and polymorphic and apper coryne form. Eg Pierces
disease, ratton stunting, citrus greening, phony disease of peach etc.
Spiroplasma: Spiroplasmas are helical (spiral) mycoplasmas. Branched non-helical filamentous

are also found. They measure about 120 nm in diameter and 15 μm long. They are motile, move
by a slow undulation of the filament and probably by a rapid rotary a screw motion of the helix.
Rest other characters are similar to those mycoplasmas. They can be cultured in nutrient media
and multiply by fission. They are resistant to penicillin and inhibited by erythromycin,
tetracyclineand neomycin. They cause disease eg. Citrus stubborn (Spiroplasma citri), corn stunt.
Multiplication and transmission of plant viruses Lecture-19

Viruses are distributed or transmitted from the infected plants to the healthy ones in various ways
in nature. As the plant viruses can not penetrate cuticle of their hosts and hence they can enter
into the host tissue through wounds only. The means of transmission are:
1. Mechanical transmission:It is the easiest method of experimental inoculation.
The sap of the infected plant is manually transferred to the healthy plants by
 By contact of infected leaves with healthy leaves brought about by wind
 By rubbing the juice of the diseased plant over the surface of leaves of healthy plants
 Roots of diseased plant may come in contact of roots of healthy plants and spread
disease
2. Graft transmission: In this practice, if either the scion (shoot portion) or stock (root stock) is
infected, the virus usually moves to the healthy partner which may later express visible
symptoms of disease.
3. Transmission through vectors
(i) Insects: Some insect species are the vector of plant viruses which can carry/ transmit viruses
from infected plants to the healthy plants e.g. aphid (potato virus Y, PLVR), white
flies (tobacco leaf curl), beetles (cowpea mosaic virus), mealy bugs (cacao mottle
leaf), thrips (tomato spotted wilt), lace bugs (sugar beet viruses), mites (sterility
mosaic of arhar), leaf hoppers (beet curly top, rice tungro etc.), plant-hoppers (maize
mosaic, maize rough dwarf), tree hopper (tomato pseudo curly top).
(ii) Nematodes: Five genera of nematodues viz., Xiphinema, Longidorus, Paralongidorus,
Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus can transmit plant viruses.
(iii) Fungi: Some species of fungi can also transmit viruses e.g. Olpiduim brassicae (tobacco
necrosis), O. cucurbitacearum (cucumber necrosis), Polymyxa graminis (oat mosaic,
wheat mosaic), P. betae (beet necrotic yellow vein) and Spongospora subterranea
(potato mop top) etc.
4. Dodder transmission: Many viruses can be transmitted through dodder (Cuscuta spp.).
Dodder transmission is used in the laboratory to transfer viruses from the hosts.
5. Transmission through seeds and pollens: Seed coat (testa), embryo, and also pollens of
some plants can transmit viruses. e.g. alfalfa mosaic, barley stripe mosaic, bean common
mosaic, lettuce mosaic are transmitted by both seeds and pollens of Medicago sativa,
Hordeum vulgare, Phaseolus vulgaris and Lactuca sativa, respectively.
General characteristics, Life cycle and reproduction of nematode Lecture-20

Nematodes belong to class Nematoda and are ubiquitous in nature, mostly infest soil. They are
triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented with single cavity. Most of the several
thousand species of nematodes live freely on salt water or in the soil, and feed on
microorganisms and microscopic plants and animals. Plant parasitic nematode which are of 111
are generally obligate parasite. These are transparent or have surface striations, minute,
elongated or eel- shaped and move with snake like motion. They possess a stylet or spear with
which they puncture intact plant cells and inject the saliva. Cell content is partially dissolved by
the saliva that is ingested.
General morphology of nematodes

The body of the adult male is cylindrical, filiform, eel-shaped, round in cross section and
tapering at each end. The anterior end is smooth, provided with papillae, leading to a buccal
cavity and to oesophagus. Body is smooth, unsegmented without leg or other appendages. Plant
parasitic nematodes mostly measure 300-1000 μm with some up to 4 mm long x 15-35 μm wide.
The females of some species become swollen at adult stage and have pear-shapes (pyriform) or
spheroid bodies. Male reproductive system contains a testis, seminal vesicle and a terminus is
common with the intestine. Nematodes can be easily observed under microscope. A valve is
located at the junction of oesophagus and the intestine, the latter opening into the rectum and
anus at the posterior end of the body. The entire body is covered with a colourless, impermeable
(permeable only to water) smooth or transversely striated cuticle with a sub-cuticular and
muscular layer. Muscles enable the nematode to move. Body cavity contains a fluid through
which circulation and respiration takes place.
Characters of plant parasitic nematodes:
1. Plant parasitic nematodes are slender, cylindrical, filiform and tapering at each end, motile and
300 to 1000 µm, while some are upto 4 µm by 15-35 in wide
2. In some genera such as Meloidogyne , female forms pear or lemon r kidney shaped
3. The body of nematode is covered by an impermeable cuticle which may be smooth or marked by
different kinds of sculpturing
4. Nematodes usually undergo 4 molts frm egg to adult and at each stage they cast off the cuticle
getting larger each time.
5. Usually second stage juvenile is the infective stage stage of nematodes
6. After copulation he body of a female becomes filled with elliptical and hyline eggs in a jelly like
sac.
7. P.P.N. have stylet to puncture the host cells to draw nutrient fom the cell.
Life cycle and reproduction of nematodes
Nematodes produce eggs. Eggs hatch into larvae. Appearance and structure of larvae are usually
similar to the adults. Larvae start to grow and each larval state is terminated by molt. Nematodes
have four larval stages. Usually, first molt occurs in the egg and the final molt differentiates into
adult male and female. Fertile eggs are produced by females after mating with a male, or
parthenogenetically in absence of males or can produce sperm herself. A life cycle from egg to
egg stage is completed with 3 to 4 weeks or requires slightly longer period in cooler temperature.
In some species of nematode the first and second juvenile stages cannot infect plants and depend
on the energy stored in the eggs for their metabolic functions. When the infective stages are
produced, however, they must feed on a susceptible host ar starve to death, but in other species
the juvenile stages may dry up and remain quiescent or the eggs may remain dormant in the soil
for few years.
Reproduction in Nematodes:
Nematodes are bisexual existing as separate males and females. Males are easily distinguished
from females by presence of copulatory organs in the posterior region of body near anal region,
Sexual dimorphism exists in plant parasitic nematodes i.e males are slender and worm like while
females swell to become pyriform, lemon shaped or saccate. Eg Heterodera spp, Globodera spp
and Meloidogyne spp. Hermophroditism is also found in which the gonads first produces sperms
that are stored in spermatheca and fertilize the eggs developed by the same gonad latter. Intersex
is known in some nematodes genera i.e Meloidogyne and Ditylenchus. Optimum temperature for
hatching of larva in Meloidogyne incognita is 250c. For reproduction 20 to 30oc is optimum.
*** Hermophroditism: the male gonad is insignificant while female gonad is quite prominent.
*** Intersex: Both male and female gonads are present in a nematode but only one gonad is
functional at a time. If male is in action it is called male sex and vice –versa.
Characteristics of Anguina, Heterodera, Meloidogyne, Hirschmanniella: Lecture-21

1. Seed gall nematode: Anguina
Seed gall nematodes were the first recorded plant parasitic nematodes in 1743A.D from
England.this nematode causes ear cockle of wheat or Sechum disease of wheat. This nematode is
associated with yellow ear rot (tundu or tannan disease) caused by the bacterium Clavibacter
tritici. Each gall contains 1000 to 30,000 or more larvae. Adult female is 2.64- 4.36 mm long,
anterior and posterior portions are slender while the middle portion is swollen. Male are 2.04- 2.4
mm long, straight and active. Mature female is obese and immobile. The body of immature
female lies in coiled spiral of in f form.the seed gall nematode overwinters as second stage
juveniles in seed galls or in plants infected in the fall.
2. Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne)
Root knot nematode are cosmopolitan in occurance. They attack more than 2,000 species of
plants and reduce world crop production by 5%. They damage plants by devitalizing root tips
and causing the formation of swellings of the roots. The males are wormlike and about 1.2 to 1.5
millimeters long by 30 to 36 micrometers in diameter. Females are pear shaped and 0.40 to 1.30
millimeters long by 0.27 to 0.75 millimeters wide. Each female lays approximately 500 eggs in a
gelatinious substance. The first and second stage juveniles are wormlike and develop inside each
egg. The second stage juvenile emerges from the eggs into the soil which is only the infective
stage of the nematode .life cycle is completed in 25 days at 27 ̊ but it takes longer at lower aor
higher temperature. Most RRN are found in the root zone from 5 to 25 cm below the surface.
3. Cyst nematode:(Heterodera)
Cysts forming nematode endoparasites of roots are commonly found in temperate region. Cyst
nematode overwinters as egg in brown cysts which are of leathery skins of females in upper 90-
100 cm of soil. Female 3rd and 4th stage juvenile becomes stouter and eventually flask shaped and
finally lemon shaped 0.5- 0.8 mm length by 0.12- 0.5mm width. Female are found attached on
the host inserting their head inside the host plant and the body remains outside. Males are
wormlike 1.3mm by 30-40µm remain in root for few days, they copulate with female then
remain in soil for few days and soon die. Cysts are found in the soil, it contains eggs about 300-
600 in number and can stay in soil for several years. They are dark brown and lemon shaped.
Life cycle is completed in approximately 21- 24 days.eg
Potato cyst nematode- H. rostochiensis
Cereal cyst nematode- H. avenae- cause molya disease of barley and wheat
Soybean cyst nematode- H. glycines
Sugar beet cyst nematode- H. schachtii
Tobacco cyst nematode- H. tabaccum
Clover cyst nematode- H. trifoli
4. Root rot nematode: Hirschmanniella
It is a nematode measuring 1-4mm in length. It has stylet with distinct basal bulb and the tail is
pointed generally. They are found in soil. Hirschmanniella oryzae causes root rot in rice.
Hirschmanniella species are migratory endoparasites of roots. The nematodes produce cavities
and channels through the cortex which become necrotic for some distance into the root. All
stages of the life cycle are infective. Eggs of H. oryzae are deposited in the roots a few days after
invasion by adult female nematodes, and hatching occurs 4-6 days after deposition. The life
cycle is of variable length.
Classification of nematode
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Nematoda
Order: Tylenchida
Sub order: Tylenchina
Super family: Tylenchoidea
Family: Anguinidae
Genus: Anguina
species: tritici
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Nematoda
Order: Tylenchida
Sub order: Tylenchina
Super family: Aphelenchoides
Family: Aphelenchoidedae
Genus: Aphelenchoides
species: bessyii
 Anguina tritici causes ear cockle of wheat
 Aphelenchoides bessyii causes white of rice
There are altogether two orders Tylenchida and Dorylaimida, order Tylenchida contains most of
the plant parasitic nematodes and only few genuses i.e. Longidorus, Xiphinema, Trichodorus and
Paratrichodorus are parasitic nematodes, responsible for transimission of some of viruses, are
situated under order Dorylaimida.
A. Order: Tylenchida
1. Anguinidae
Anguina tritici- wheat or seed gall nematode
Ditylenchus- stem or bulb nematode of alfalfa, onion etc.
2. Belonolaimidae
Belonolaimus- sting nematode of cereals, legumes, cucurbits etc.
3. Pratylenchidae
Pratylenchus- lesion nematode of dereal crop plants and trees
Radopholus- burrowing nematode of banana, citrus, coffee, sugarcane etc.
4. Hoplolaimidae
Hoplolaimus- lance nematode of corn, sugarcane, cotton etc.
5. Heteroderidae
Heterodera- round cyst nematode of potato
Globodera- cyst nematode of tobacco, sugar beet, soybean etc
Meloidogyne- root knot nematode of almost all crops
6. Crieconematidae-
Criconemella- ring nematode of woody plants
7. Paratylenchidae
Paratylenchus- pin nematode of various plants
8. Tylenchulidae
Tylenchulus- citrus nematode of citrus, grape vines, olive tree etc.
9. Aphelenchoididae
Aphelenchoides- foliar nematode of strawberry , rice etc.
B. Order: Dorylamida
10. Longidoridae
Longidorus- needle nematode of some plants
Xiphinema- dagger nematode of trees, woody vines
11. Trichodoridae
Trichodorus- stubby- root nematode of sugar beet, potato, cereals and apple
Paratrichodorus- stubby- root nematode of cereals, vegetables and apple
Pathogenecity and pathogenesis: Lecture-22

An organism which lives in or on other living organisms and derives its nutrients from the latter
is called parasite. The relationship between a parasite and its hosts is known as parasitism.
Parasitism in cultivated crops is common phenomenon. The ability of a pathogen or parasite to
interfere with one or more of the essential functions of the plants, there by causing disease is
known as pathogenicity.
Koch’s Postulates
Koch‟s postulates is followed to prove the pathogenicity, in includes;
1. Recognition: The pathogens must be found associated with the disease in the diseased
plant. The symptom of the disease should be recorded.
2. Isolation: The pathogen should be isolated, grown in pure culture in artificial media. The
cultural characteristics of the pathogen should be noted.
3. Inoculation: The pathogen of pure culture must be inoculated on healthy plant of same
species/variety. It must be able to reproduce disease symptoms on the inoculated plant
identical to step 1.
4. Re-isolation: The pathogen must be isolated form the inoculated plant in culture media. Its
cultural characteristics should be similar to those noted in step 2.
Pathogenesis:
Pathogenesis is the sequence of processes in disese development that describes a pathogen‟s
association with its host. The sequence begins with initial contact between the pathogen and host
and ends when the pathogen is no longer associated with that host (i.e.when the host/pathogen
dies or te pathogen moves to another host). There fore pathogenesis includes inoculation,
penetration, infection, incubation period, invasion/colanaization, reproduction, dissemination,
and over wintering or over summering of the pathogen.
a. Inoculation:
This is the process by which pathogen or their reproductive units are brought into contact with
plant organ(root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit etc).
Inoculum is a pathogen or its parts which can cause infection when transferred to favourable
location; the population of microorganisms introduced in an inoculation. In fungi the inoculum
may be spores, sclerotia, or fragments of mycelium. In bacteria, mollicutes, protozoa, viruses,
and viroids, the inoculum is always whole individuals of bacteria , mollicutes, protozoa, viruses
and viroids respectively. In nematodes, the inoculum may be adult nematodes, nematode juvenile
or eggs. In parasitic higher plants, the inoculum may be plant fragments or seeds.
b. Penetration:
Penetration in the host may be direct and indirect methods. In Fungi, and nematodes the
penetration is direct and indirect. In nemtodes direct penetration is due to stylet. Initial invasion
of a host by a pathogen is known as penetration. Penetration of the cuticle alone Eg.Apple scab-
Venturia inaequalis. Penetration of epidermal cells only eg. Powdery mildew.Penetration may be
direct i.e mechanical pressure of the pathogen by producing appressoria or by secreting enzymes
to soften or dissolve the host surface and then apply the pressure. Indirect penetration may be
through the natural openings such as stomata, lenticles and hydathodes.
c. Infection:
Infection is the process by which pathogen establishes contact with susceptible cells or tissues of
the hosts and procure nutrients from them. For infection to take place the pathogen must be
virulent, host must be susceptible and the environment must be favourable to pathogen.
d.Incubation period
The time interval between inoculation and the appearance of disease symptom is called the
incubation period. This is the period or time interval between inoculation of the plant and the
first appearance of the disease symptoms on the plant. Length of incubation period varies with
the type of pathogen and the environment conditions for few days (2-4) days or few weeks or
months or even years.
e. Invasion/colonization
After the establishment of pathogen on host cell now it tries to spread extensively within the host
tissue for their life activities to fulfill nutrient demand and to undergo reproduction etc. Invasion
follows the establishment of infection.
f. Reproduction:
After colonization or final establishment of pathogen in the host, pathogen now tries to produce
reproductive structures for their multiplication and to cover almost all crops. Eg. Several
thousand to several hundred thousands of spores of fungi may be produced per square cm of
infected tissues. Bacteria divide double their numbers within 20-30 minutes. Millions of bacteria
may be preset in a single drop of infected plant sap so the number of bacteria per plant must be
astronomical. Fastidious bacteria and mollicutes appear to reproduce more slowly than typical
bacteria. First new particles can be detected several hours after infection. A single cell may
contain as many as 100,000 to 10,000,000 particles.
g. Dissemination:
A few pathogens, such as nematodes, oomycetes, zoosporic fungi and bacteria, can move short
distances on their own power and thus can move from one host to another one close to it. These
pathogens are disseminated passively by wind, insect, human beings and other animals.
h.Overwintering and oversummering:
Pathogens that attack annual plants and renewable parts of perennial plants, have evolved
mechanisms by which they can survive the cold winters or dry summers that may intervene
between crops or growing seasons. Fungi produce resting structures such as mycelium itself.
Spores (conidia,chlamydospores,teliospores etc), sclerotia etc. Bacteria overwinters/ oversummar
as bacterial cells in infected plants, seeds and tubers, in infected plant debris and some in soil.
Viruses, viroids, mollicutes, fastidiuous bacteria and protozoa survive only in living plant tissues
such as the tops and roots of perennial plants, vegetative propagative organs and seeds of some
hosts.
Figure: Pathogenesis cycle
Survival and Dissemination of plant pathogens Lecture-23

Survival of the plant pathogens:
Whenever the pathogens get suitable host and environmental conditions they remain active by
continuously growing and multiplying, but whenever the pathogens does not get these conditions
they have to go for passive survival or they have to survive in wild host many times. To
overcome these stress conditions must of the pathogens have their own mechanisms by which
they manage to survive in absence of host and in unfavorable environmental conditions. Active
survival produce secondary inocula, cause infection and in unfavourable host nutrition and
environment prepare for passive survival whereas, passive from produces primary inocula.
Sources of survival of the pathogens:

1) Infected host as reservoir of inoculum:
The infected host serving as reservoir of active inoculum is grouped into
a) Collateral hosts (wild hosts of same families): Weeds which survive and live during non-
cropping season provide for the continuous growth and multiplication of the pathogen. Thus the
weed hosts help to bridge the gap between two crop seasons.
Ex: The fungal pathogen for blast disease of rice, Pyricularia grisea (Teleomorph:Magnaporthe
grisea) can infect the grass weeds like Brachiaria mutica, Dinebraretroflexa, Leersia hexandra,
Panicum repens etc., and survive during off-season ofrice crop. As soon as a fresh rice crop is
raised, the conidia (inoculum) liberated fromthe weed host disseminated by wind infects the
fresh rice crop.
b) Alternate hosts (Wild hosts of other families): The role of alternate hosts is not asimportant
as of collateral hostsThese alternate hosts are very important for thecompletion of the life cycle
of heteroecious rust pathogens.For example in temperate regions the alternate host of Puccinia
graminis tritici (blackor stem rust pathogen of wheat), the barberry bush (Berberis vulgaris)
belonging to a different family is important for survival of the fungus.
c) Perennial host: once the perennial plant is infected the plant remains as a good reservoir
throughtout its life unless effective treatment procedures are followed. Eg. Citrus canker
(Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri), Red rot of sugarcane (Colletotrichum falcatum) etc.
d) Annual host: because of the varied climatic conditions in a country, permit cultivation of the
crop throughout the year in different regions and spores are easily wind- borne to long distances.
Eg. Brown spot of rice (Bipolaris oryzae), Rice blast (Pyricularia oryzae).
d) Self sown crops: Self sown crops, voluntary crops and early sown crops arereservoirs of any
plant pathogens. Ex: Self sown rice plants harbour the pathogen (Rice tungro virus) as well as
vector (Nephottetix virescens).
e) Ratoon crops: Sometimes ratoon crops also harbour the plant pathogens.Ex: Sugarcane
mosaic.
f) Survival by latent infection: Latent infection refers to the conditions in which

theplantpathogens may survive for a long time in plant tissue without development ofvisual
symptoms. Ex: Xylella fastidiosa, the causal agent of pierce‟s disease ofgrapevine infect different
weeds without developing visible symptoms.
2) Saprophytic survival outside the host:

In the absence of the cultivated host plant, fungi are capable of surviving as saprophytes and can
be studied under three categories:
a) Soil inhabitants: Those organisms which survive indefinitely in the soil assaprophytes such
as obligate saprophyte and facultative saprophyte in the absence of the host plant. Ex: Species of
Pythium, Rhizoctoniaproduce oospore and sclerotia as a resting structure which can remain in
soil for longer period in an in active form.
b) Soil invaders/Root inhabitants: These are more specialized parasites that survive in soils in
close association with their hosts. The active saprophytic phase remains as long asthe host tissue
in which they are living as parasites is not completely decomposed.Ex: Species of Fusarium,
Verticillium (vascular wilt causing fungi) and root rot ofcotton (Phymatotrichum omnivorum).
c) Rhizosphere colonizers: Those organisms which colonize the dead substrates inthe root
region and continue to live like that for a longer period which are moretolerant to soil
antagonism. Ex: Leaf mold in tomato: Cladosporium fulvum.
3) Survival as dormant spores or specialized resting structures:

 Plant viruses have no resting stage and are transmitted through a continuous infection
chain.
 Phytopathogenic bacteria: The plant bacteria also do not produce resting spores or
similar structures. They continuously live in their active parasitic stage in the living host
or as active saprophytes on dead plant debris.
 Nematodes: They survive in the form of active parasitic phase on a living host and also
survive through dormant structures, i.e., eggs, cysts, galls, formed in host tissues. These
structures may be present in soil or in seed lots
 Phanerogamic parasites: They survive in dormant state for many years through seeds.
Ex; Seeds of Orobanchae survive in soil for more than 7 years.
 Among plant pathogens, fungi are the only organisms that produce spores, analogous to
eggs of nematodes, and other resting structures for their inactive survival. These dormant
structures of survival can be classified in the following categories.
A) Soil borne fungi:
 Dormant spores Conidia (Peach leaf curl pathogen:Taphrina deformans),
Chlamydospores (Wilt pathogen, Fusarium sp.), oospores (Downy mildew fungi),
perithecia (Apple scab pathogen, Venturia inaequalis) etc)
Fig: Oospore
Fig. Chlamydospore Fig. Perithecia
 Other dormant structures such as thickened hypha, sclerotia (Cottony rot fungus,
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), microsclerotia (Verticillium), Rhizomorphs (Armillaria
mellea), etc.
Fig. Thickened hyphae Fig. Sclerotia Fig. Rhizomorphs Fig. Microsclerotia
B) Seed borne fungi:

a) Externally seed borne: Dormant spores on seed coat Ex: Covered smut of barley,
grain smut of jowar, bunt of wheat, etc.
b) Internally seed borne: Dormant mycelium under the seed coat or in the embryo
Ex: Loose smut of wheat (Ustilago nuda tritici)
C) Dormant fungal structures on dormant or active host Ex: In downy mildew of grapevine,
powdery mildew of grapevine, apple etc., The fungus mycelium may be present in dormant state
in the affected twigs or its oospores or perithecia may be embedded in the tissues of the affected
organs. Parasitic phanerogams survive in the form of seeds, and in plant parasitic nematodes
eggs, cysts and larvae serve as over seasoning structures.
4) Survival in association with insects, nematodes and fungi

Several important plant pathogens may survive within the insect body and over winter therein.
The corn flea beetle, Cheatocnema pulicaria carries inside its body, the corn wilt pathogen,
Xanthomonas stewartii and thus helps in over wintering. Plant viruses like wheat mosaic,
tobacco necrosis, tobacco rattle and tobacco ringspot viruses survive with nematodes or fungi
found in the soil between crop seasons. Tobacco ringspot is associated with the nematode
Xiphinema americana. The fungi, Polymyxa graminis (Wheat soil borne mosaic & Barley yellow
mosaic) and Spongospora subterranea (Potato mop top virus) carry the viruses internally and
transmit them through the resting spore.
Dissemination or dispersal of the plant pathogens:

Transport of spores or infectious bodies, acting as inoculum, from one host to another host at
various distances resulting in the spread of the disease, is called dispersal, dissemination or
transmissionof plant pathogens.
In fungi, productions of asexual and sexual spores follow the active vegetative growth of the
fungus in or on the host tissues and are dispersed mechanically in time and space by various
means.
In bacterial diseases, the bacterial cells come out on the host surface as ooze or the tissues may
be disintegrated so that the bacterial mass is exposed and then dispersed by various physical and
biological agencies.
In Viral diseases which have no such organs are transmitted by insects, mites, phanerogamic
parasites, nematodes and human beings.
Inocula to be effective, have to reach the infection court. The movement of pathogen from
diseased to healthy plants in spaceoccurs through two ways:
1. Autonomous or direct or active dispersal.
2. Indirect or passive dispersal.
I) Autonomous or direct or active dispersal:

Transportation of fungal, bacterial, viral and nematodes pathogens takes place through seed ,soil,
planting material or plant organ during normal agronomic operations. There is no major role of
external agencies like insects, wind, water, etc. in this type of dispersal.
1) Seed as the source of autonomous dispersal:

The pathogens may be mixed with seed lot or sed may be contaminated by the pathogen during
harvesting, threshing and cleaning. The dormant structures of the pathogen (Ex: seeds of
Cuscuta, Sclerotia of ergot fungus, smut sori, etc.) are found mixed with seed lots and they are
dispersed as seed contaminants. The bacterial cells or spores of fungi present on the seed coat
(such as in smuts of barley, sorghum, etc.) are transported to long distances. Dormant mycelium
of many fungi present in the seed is transmitted to long distances. There are three types of
dispersal by seed, viz.,
Contamination of the seed: (Ex: Smut of pearlmillet and ergot of rye. Smut sori and ergots mix
easily with the seed lots during harvest and threshing)
Externally seed borne:

Close contact between structure of the pathogen and seedsis established where the pathogen gets
lodged in the form of dormant spores or bacteriaon the seed coat during growth of the crop or at
the time of harvest and threshing. Ex: smut of sorghum, bacterial blight of cotton, loose smut of
barley etc.
Internally seed borne. The pathogen may penetrate into the ovary and cause infectionof the
embryo while it is developing. They become internally seed borne. Ex: Loosesmut of wheat
Differentiate Seed infection and infestation
Seed infection: The seed in infected only when the pathogen has grown in or on it for sometime
and established its relationship with the seed tissues. Ex: Loose smut of wheat, where the fungus
grows in the embryonic tissues and becomes dormant when the seed enters dormancy.
Seed infestation: When the fungus or the pathogen is present on the seed coat and in the seed lot,
it is only transport of the pathogen and the seed is infested.
2) Soil as a means of autonomous dispersal:

Soil borne facultative saprophytes orfacultative parasites may survive through soil.
A) Dispersal in soil: The following are the three stages of dispersal in soil
i) Contamination of soil: Contamination of the soil takes place by gradual spread of thepathogen
from an infested area to a new area.
ii) Growth and spread of a pathogen in soil: Once the pathogen has reached the soil it cangrow
and spread based on its ability to multiply and spread.
iii) Persistence of the pathogen in soil: The pathogens persist in the soil as dormantstructures like
oospores (Pythium, Phytophthora, Sclerospora etc.), Chlamydospores (Fusarium), smut spores
(Ustilago) and sclerotia (Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium).
B) Dispersal by the soil: The pathogen is dispersed by the soil during cultural operationsthrough
the agricultural implements, irrigation water, workers feet etc. Propagules offungi and the plant
debris containing the fungal and bacterial pathogens thus spreadthrough out the field.
Forexample transfer of papaya seedlings from a nursery infested with Pythiumaphanidermatum
(causal agent of stem or foot rot of papaya) can introduce the pathogenin new pits for
transplanting the seedlings.
3) The plant and the plant organs as a means of autonomous dispersal:

The plants, plant parts other than seed that are used for vegetative propagation, raw field
produce and plant debris that accumulates during the course of cropping is another means of
autonomous dispersal. Ex: Late blight of potato was introduced in North America and in Europe
through seed tubers brought from the native source of the in South America. Citrus canker was
introduced into California from Asia. The climatic conditions favoured its epidemic in
California.
II) Passive or Indirect dispersal:

Passive dispersal of plant pathogens happens through animate and inanimate agents.
1) Animate agents:
a) Insects: Insects carry plant pathogens either externally (epizoic) or internally(endozoic). They
can disseminate bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycoplasmas, spiroplasmas,rickettsia, etc.
Fungal diseases: The external transmission is of special interest in those fungi which produce
conidia, oidia and spermatia in honey secretions having attractive odours. Dutch elm disease
(Ceratostomella ulmi) is transmitted internally by elm bark beetles.
Bacterial diseases: The fire blight organism (Erwinia amylovora) and citrus canker bacterium
(Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri) are transmitted by flies (bees) and ants and the later by leaf
miner respectively. The cucumber wilt bacterium, Erwinia tracheiphila is spread by the stripped
cucumber beetles and the spotted cucumber beetle.
Viral diseases: More than 80 per cent of the viral and phytoplasmal diseases are spreadby
different types of insects. The insect which acts as specific carriers in disseminatingthe diseases
are called insect vectors. Both Aphids and leaf hoppers in the order Homoptera contain largest
number and the mostimportant insect vectors of plant viruses. Aster yellow- leaf hopper
Mycoplasma diseases: Plant MLO‟s are phloem inhabitants and those insects which are feeding
on phloem of plants transfer the MLO‟s. Mycoplasmal diseases are mostly transmitted by leaf
hoppers. Ex: Sesamum phyllody (Orosious albicinctus) and little leaf of brinjal (Hishimonas
phycitis)
b) Mites: Mites belonging to class Arachnida transmit plant viruses. The genera
Abacarus,Aceria, Eriophyes and Brevipalpus are important. Ex: Aceria cajani transmits
Pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus, Aceria tulipae transmits wheat streak mosaic
c) Fungi: Some soil borne fungal plant pathogens carry plant viruses in or on their restingspores
and zoospores, and transmit them to susceptible hosts during the infection process. Tobacco
necrosis virus and Cucumber mosaic virus are carried outside the fungi, while lettuce big vein
virus is carried inside the zoospores.
d) Nematodes: Several nematodes act as vectors for transmission of fungi, bacteria andviruses.
Bacterial diseases: The bacterium which causes yellow ear rot of wheat (Corynebacterium
tritici or Clavibacter tritici) is disseminated by ear cockle nematode, Anguina tritici. If these
two diseases appear together, a complex disease called tundu of wheat occurs. Corynebacterium
tritici is not capable of dispersal and infection unless it is carried by Anguina tritici.
Fungal diseases: Similarly, root rot and wilt pathogens such as Phytophthora,
Fusarium,Rhizoctonia, Verticillium, etc., are disseminated by nematodes.
Viral diseases: Plant nematodes play a vital role in transmitting certain virus diseases.Many soil
borne viruses are known to be transmitted by the nematodes. Xiphenema,Longidorous,
Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus are the nematode genera belonging to Dorylaimoidea which
are known to transmit plant viruses. The nematode transmittedviruses are divided into two
groups on the basis of shape of their particles: nematode transmitted polyhedral viruses (NEPO)
and nematode transmitted tubular (NETU) viruses.
NEPO viruses: These are nematode transmitted viruses with polyhedral particles.These are
generally transmitted by species of Xiphenema and Longidorus.
Ex: Tobaccoringspot virus, Tomato ringspot virus, Tomato black ring virus, Arabis mosaic virus
NETU viruses: These are nematode transmitted viruses with tubular particles. NETUviruses
are transmitted by Trichodorus and Paratrichodorous. Ex; Pea early browningvirus (Trichodorus
sp.), Tobacco rattle virus (Trichodorus pachydermis)
e) Human beings: Human beings role in dissemination of plant pathogens is more directthan
indirect. The ways and means in which human beings help in dispersal are asfollows.
1. Transportation of infected planting materials such as grafted plants, tubers, rhizomes,
sugarcane sets etc.
2. Transporting of infected seed- they are carried even longer distance than infected planting
materials.
3. The spores, mycelium or bacterial cells may be carried through workers‟s shoe, clothing,
hand etc plant to plant.
4. The use of contaminated implements such as plough, hoe, spade, knife etc.
5. Grafting and budding between healthy and diseased plants is the most effective method
of distribution of pathogens of horticultural crops.
6. Cultural operation such as ploughing, weeding, irrigation, pruning etc. The pathogen are
carried from disease areas to healthy areas along with the implements.
f) Dispersal by phanerogamic parasites: Phanerogamic parasites transmit the virusesby acting

as a bridge between the diseased and healthy plants. Ex: Dodder(Cuscuta California,
C.campesris, C. subinclusa etc.)
Cuscuta subinclusa – Cucumber mosaic virus
Cuscuta california– Tobacco mosaic virus
g) Dispersal by birds: This mode of dispersal is important in dissemination of seedsof flowering

parasites and certain fungi. Seeds of Loranthus are disseminated by birds bysticking on their
beaks and also through excreta. Moreover, spores of chestnut blight fungus, Endothea parasitica
are disseminatedby more than 18 species of birds. Cleistothecia of many powdery mildew fungi
arecarried by feathers of birds.
h) Farm and wild animals: Farm animals (cattle) while feeding on diseased fodderingest the
viable fungal propagules (spores or oospores or sclerotia) and pass out as such in the dung. This
dung when used as manure spread in the field and act assource of inoculum
2) Inanimate agents:
a) Wind:
Wind acts as a potent carrier of propagules of fungi, bacteria and viruses.
Fungi: The adaptations for wind dispersal in fungal pathogens include production ofnumerous
spores and conidia, discharge of spores with sufficient force, production ofvery small and light
spores so that they can move to long distances. Ex: Powdery mildew,downy mildew, rusts, smuts
etc. Sporangia of downy mildew fungi, conidia of powdery mildew fungi and basidiospores of
rust fungi are short distance disseminated and uredospores of rust fungi,Chlamydospores of smut
fungi and conidia of Alternaria, Helminthosporium and Pyricularialong distance disseminated
by wind.
Nematodes: In addition to fungi, it also helps in the dissemination of the cysts ofnematodes and
also the seeds of phanerogamic parasites. Ex: Cysts of the nematode Heterodera major, which
causes molya disease of wheat and barley, are carried by duststorms from Rajasthan to
Haryana
Bacteria: Some pathogenic bacteria are carried along with the infected material to shortdistances
by wind. Ex: Erwinia amylovora, the causal agent of fire blight of apple andpear, produces fine
strands of dried bacterial exudates which may be broken off and are transmitted by wind.
Viruses and phytoplasmas are not directly transmitted by wind, but the insect and mite vectors
that carry the viruses move to different directions and distances based on the direction and speed
of the air.
b) Water:Water isless important than air in long distance transport of pathogens, but it is more
efficient asthe pathogens land on the wet surface and can germinate immediately and help in the
infection process. Ex: The mycelial fragments, spores or sclerotiaof fungi, Colletotrichum
falcatum (red rot of sugaecane), Fusarium, Ganoderma, Macrophomina, Pythium,
Phytophthora, Sclerotium, etc., are transmitted through rain or irrigation water.
It is one of the efficient methods of dispersal of bacterial plant pathogens. Ex: Bacterial leaf
spot of rice (Xanthomonascampestris pv. oryzae), Bacterial leaf streak of rice (Xanthomonas
campestris pv.oryzicola), Green ear of bajra (Sclerospora graminicola).
Epidemiological study Lecture-25

Epiphytology or Epidemiology of plant diseases is essentially a study of the rate of
multiplication of a pathogen and spread of the disease caused by it in a plant population.
Epidemiology deals with outbreaks and spread of diseases in a population.
Disease Triangle: The interactions of three components of disease, i.e., the host, pathogen and
environment, can be visualized as a disease triangle. The length of eachside is proportional to the
sum total of the characteristics of each component that favour disease.
Thus addition of time component to the disease triangle results into a tetrahedron
Or disease pyramid.
Essential components/conditions for an Epiphytotic/ Epedimic

1. Host factors 2. Pathogen factors 3. Environmental factors
1. Host factors
i) Distance of susceptible plants from the source of primary inoculum
ii) Abundance and distribution of susceptible hosts:
iii) Disease proneness in the host due to environment:
iv) Presence of suitable alternate or collateral hosts:
Presence of Barbery which is an alternate host to Puccinia graminis tritici helps in the
heterogenous infection chain.
2. Pathogen factors:
i) Presence of virulent/aggressive isolate of a pathogen:
ii) High birth rate:
iii) Low death rate of the pathogen:
iv) Easy and rapid dispersal of the pathogen
Ex: Fungal spores disseminated by wind, water, etc.Viruses disseminated by insect vectors
Bacteria dispersed through rain splashes and water
v) Adaptability of the pathogen:
.
3. Weather/ Environmental factors.
Weather conditions such as, optimum temperature, moisture, light, etc., are very essentialfor the
development of an epidemics. White stem blight becomes epidemic when environment is cool
i.e. temperature 10-12oC, high humidity above 90% and prolonged cloudy weather. High
application of nitrogen results blast attack whereas silicon application will reduce infection by
this pathogen.
An epidemic is more likely to occur when:

1. Monocropping i.e single variety is grown in an area for several years.
2. When plants are predisposed to infection such as high dose of nitrogen, imbalance use of
fertilizers.
Analysis of epidemics: Increase in the amount of disease at any time depends upon:
1. Initial amount of disease or inculum (Xo)
2. Rate of disease increase (r)
3. The duration or time of disease increase (t)
If we know the initial inoculums of pathogen, and the role of environment in disease increment,
we can guess the disease at any time by using simple formula
X= Xo ert, where X= Final disease reading
Xo= Initial inoculums

e= nature logarithm or logarithm infection rate
t= time factor
r= rate of multiplication
The epidemic can be classified as i) Simple interest disease and ii) Compound interest disease
Van- der plank has pointed out that an epidemic always starts with the first diseased plant in
population. When there is an ideal condition for disease development, the amount of disease in a
susceptible population increase logarithemically in the beginning until the remaining infected
plant population decreases, there by limiting disease increase. The disease epidemics can be
classified into the following 3 zones.
 Exponential zone: This is a stage when disease development is slow due to environmental
factor.
 Logistic phase: As the environment becomes favorable the disease rises very rapidly till
the host tissues are exhausted.
 Terminal phase: Starts when tissues are used up by pathogen they reach the peak and
slow downs.
Once the epidemic has reached the peak, the disease decreases rapidly, because of the following
i) Lack of un-infected tissues
ii) Due to unfavorable environmental conditions
Use of Epidemiology for disease management

1. Forecasting of the disease incidence on he basis of primary, inoculums and he
environmental conditions
2. Fixing strategies to reduce the final diseases
A) Control measures to reduce initial noculum (Xo)

a. Roughing
b. Hot water treatment
c. Soil fumigation
d. Destroying infected plant debris
e. Vertical resistant varieties
f. Control insect vector
g. Summer ploughing
h. Soil solarization
B) Control measures to reduce (r)

a. Use of horizontal resistant varieties
b. Modification or improvement of cultural practices
c. Avoid over crowding
C) Control measure to reduce (t)

a. Plant early or late in the season or early or late maturing varieties.
Pre and post defence mechanism in plants: Lecture -26

In general plants defend themselves against pathogens by two ways: structural or morphological
characteristics that act as physical barriers and biochemical reactions that take place in cells and
tissues that are either toxic to the pathogen or create conditions that inhibit the growth of the
pathogen in the plant.
I. Structural defense mechanisms: These may be pre-existing, which exist in the plant even
before the pathogen comes in contact with the plant or induced, i.e, even after the pathogen has
penetrated the preformed defense structures, one or more type of structures are formed to protect
the plant from further pathogen invasion.
A) Pre-existing structural defense structures

These include the amount and quality of wax and cuticle that cover the epidermal cells and the
size, location and shapes of natural openings (stomata and lenticels) and presence of thick walled
cells in the tissues of the plant that hinder the advance of the pathogen.
i) Waxes: Waxes on leaf and fruit surfaces form a hydrophobic or water repellent surface
preventing the germination of fungi and multiplication of bacteria.
ii) Cuticle and epidermal cells: A thick cuticle and tough outer wall of epidermal cells may
increase resistance to infection in diseases in which the pathogen enters its host only through
direct penetration. Ex: Disease resistance in Barbery species infected with Puccinia graminis
tritici has been attributed to the tough outer epidermal cells with a thick cuticle. The silicification
and lignifications of epidermal cells offers protection against Pyricularia oryzae and
Streptomyces scabies in paddy and potato, respectively.
iii.Sclerenchyma cells: The sclerenchyma cells in stems and leaf veins effectively blocks the
spread of some fungal and bacterial pathogens that cause angular leaf spots.
iv) Structure of natural openings:

a) Stomata: Most of the pathogens enter plants through natural openings. Some pathogens like
stem rust of wheat can enter its host only when the stomata are open. The wheat varieties
(Cultivar, Hope) in which stomata open late in the day is resistant to disease. The structure of
stomata provides resistance to penetration by certain plant pathogenic bacteria.
Ex: The citrus variety, szinkum, is resistant to citrus canker because it posses a broad
cuticular
b) Lenticels: The shape and internal structure of lenticels can increase or decrease the incidence
of fruit diseases. Small and suberised lenticels will offer resistance to potatoscab pathogen,
Streptomyces scabies.
B) Post-infectional structural defense mechanisms/Induced structural barriers:

These may be regarded as histological defense barriers (cork layer, abscission layers and tyloses)
and cellular defense structures (hyphal sheathing).
i) Histological defense structures
a) Cork layer: Infection by fungi, bacteria, some
viruses and nematodes induce plants to form several
layers of cork cells beyond the point of infection and
inhibits the further invasion by the pathogen beyond the
initial lesion and also blocks the spread of toxins
substances secreted by the pathogen.
Ex: Potato tubers infected by Rhizoctonia; Prunus
domestica leaves attacked by Coccomyces pruniphorae.
b) Abscission layers: Gradually, infected area shrivels, dies, and

sloughs off, carrying with it the pathogen. Abscission layers are
formed on young active leaves of stone fruits infected by fungi,
cteria or virus which acts as defence structure for pathogen entry.
Ex: Xanthomonas pruni, and Closterosporium carpophylum on
peach leaves
c) Tyloses
Tyloses have cellulosic walls and areformed quickly ahead of the pathogen and
may clog the xylem vessels completely blocking the further advance of the
pathogen in resistant varieties. In susceptible varieties, few or no tyloses are
formed ahead of pathogen invasion.
Ex: Tyloses form in xylem vessels of most plants under invasion by most of
the vascular Wilt pathogens.
d) Deposition of gums: The defensive role of gums stems from the fact that they are deposited
quickly in the intercellular spaces and within the cells surrounding the locus of infection, thus
forming an impenetrable barrier that completely encloses the pathogen. The pathogen then
becomes isolated, starves, and sooner or later dies.
ii) Cellular defense structures:

Hyphal sheathing: The hyphae penetrating the cell wall and growing into the cell lumen are
enveloped by a cellulosic sheath (callose) formed by extension of cell wall, which become
infused with phenolic substances and prevents further spread of the pathogen.
Ex: Hyphal sheathing is observed in flax infected with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lini.
iii. Cytoplasmic defence reaction:

The cytoplasm becomes granular and dense, and various particles or structures appear in it.
Finally, the mycelium of the pathogen disintegrates and the invasion stops. Eg. Weakly
pathogenic Armillaria strains and the mycorrhizal fungi, that induce chronic diseases or nearly
symbiotic conditions, the plant cell cytoplasm surrounds the clump of hyphae and the plant cell
nucleus is stretched to the point where it breaks in two.
II) Biochemical defense mechanisms: These can be classified as pre-existing and Post-
existing/induced biochemical defenses.
A) Pre-existing chemical defenses:
a) Inhibitors released by the plant in its environment:
Plants exude a variety of leaf and root exudates which contain aminoacids, sugars, glycosides,
organic acids, enzymes, alkaloids, flavones, toxic materials, inorganic ionsand also certain
growth factors. The inhibitory substances directly affect micro-organismsor encourage certain
groups to dominate the environment which may act as antagonists to pathogen.
Eg. Tomato leaves secrete exudates which are inhibitory to Botrytis cinerea
Eg.Resistant varieties of linseed secrete HCN in roots which are inhibitory tolinseed wilt
pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lini.
b) Inhibitors present in plant cells before infection:

Several phenolic compounds, tannins, and some fatty acid like compounds such asdienes, which
are present in high concentrations in cells of young fruits, leaves or seeds are responsible for the
resistance of young tissues to Botrytis. These compounds are potent inhibitors of many
hydrolytic enzymes.
Ex: Chlorogenic acid in potato inhibits common scab bacteria, Streptomyces scabies, and to wilt
pathogen, Verticillium alboatrum.
c) Lack of essential substances for growth of the pathogens
Even if toxic substances are not present in the host cell, deficiency or absence of an essential
nutrient or growth factor may create unfavourable chemical environment for the pathogens.
Eg.Rhizoctonia solani (seedling disease of radish and lettuce) forms a cushion on the host
surface from where an infection peg develops to penetrate the host.
d) Absence of common antigen:

Plants are not able to produce antibody with response to foreign proteins being injected inside
host cell as the animals do. Eg presence of pathogen protein (antigen) in the host proved to be
susceptible for leaf spot of cotton (Xanthomonas malvacearum) and linseed rust (Melampsora
lini).
2) Post inflectional or induced defense chemical defence mechanisms:

a) Phytoalexins (Phyton = plant; alexin = to ward off)
Phytoalexins are toxic antimicrobial substances produced in appreciable amounts inplants only
after stimulation by phytopathogenic micro-organisms or by chemical or mechanical injury.
However, resistance occurs when one or more phytoalexins reach a concentrationsufficient to
restrict pathogen development.
b) Hypersensitive response (HR)

The hypersensitive response is a localized induced cell death in the host plant at thesite of
infection by a pathogen, thus limiting the growth of pathogen. In the infectedplant part, HR is
seen as water soaked large sectors which subsequently become necrotic and collapsed. HR may
occurwhenever virulent strains or races of pathogens are injected into non-host plants orinto
resistant varieties, and when avirulent strains or races of pathogens are injected
into susceptible cultivars.
c) Plantibodies
Antibodies, encoded by animalgenes, but produced in and by the plant, are called plantibodies.
Ex: Transgenic plantsproducing plantibodies against coat protein of viruses, such as, artichoke
mottle crinkle virus have been produced.
d) Formation of substances resistant to enzymes of the pathogen:

Pathogen produce pectinolytic substances for the degradation of middle lamella and
disorganization of tissues frame work but against it host produces polyvalent cations of pectin
proteins which helps to fight against pectinolytic substances such as pectinmethylesterase, pectin
glycosidase, polygalacturonase. Eg. Late blight of potato can be controlled by spraying auxin if
plant contain abundant amount of calcium
e) Defence through inactivation of pathogen enzymes

Mos necrotrophic and hemibiotrophic fungi and bacteria secrete an array of hydrolytic enzymes
that often diffuse into host tissues in advance of the pathogen. Resistant variety show enhanced
activity of phenols, tannins and proteins as hydrolases inhibitors.
f) Defence through detoxification of pathogen toxins:
Toxic substances/chemicals produced by pathogen are detoxified to non toxic form and thus
plant tries to escape from infection. Pyricularia oryzae produces two toxins viz. picolinic acid
and piricularin. Faster the plant detoxifies the toxic substances the more the plant will be
resistant.
Physiology of infected plants: Lecture -27

When the plants are infected by pathogen it‟s one or more physiological functioning is disturbed
by the pathogen. Many times different pathogen attack same plants may have changed different
physiological functioning. Sometimes many pathogens may be involved to produce one changed
physiologcal functioning and vice versa. Following changes in the plant physiology have been
noticed
1. Disturbance in transformation of minerals and water
 Root: Root rotting may cause reduced water absorbtion.Gall formation by (Meloidogyne
spp) in roots cause enlargement of cells which exert pressure in xylem vessels, which
may crush or misplace the vessels.
 Stem: Stem rotting such as damping off may physically block water conducting vessels
or destroy the cells.
 In wilt disease such as Fusarium, Verticillum, Pseudomonas producing mycelium ,spore
or cell block the movement of water.
 Tylosis formed or produced larger molecules of polysaccharides macromolecular
component from the breakdown of the cell wall or by collapse of xylem vesicles
 Disturbance in stem by any of the above cause temporary/permanent wilting in plants.
2. Disturbance in the translocation of organic compounds:

Organic compounds are required for photosynthesis which are transported through
plasmodesmata to the phloem then to the protoplasm of cells where they are they are stored and
used.
 Several virus pathogen causes phloem necrosis there by accumulating the starch in leaves
 Obligate parasites and majority of facultative saphrophyte cause accumulation of organic
and inorganic nutrient where they colonize, which results into increased respiration.
3. Reduction in photosynthetic activity

Mostly leaf diseases reduce photosynthetic activities. Some pathogen destroys the chloroplast
and reduces the chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis. Certain viruses, viroids and Mycoplasma
may block the synthesis of chlorophyll resulting in chlorosis, followed by stunted growth.
4. Increased transpiration:
Some pathogens like powdery mildew, downy mildew and rust pathogens destroy cuticle and
epidermis there by increase the permeability of the cells resulting into increased transpiration.
Detrimental water loss occurs through increased transpiration.
5. Changed in the growth of host:

Due to attack of pathogen plant growth is disturbed by various ways
 Production of unfamiliar hormones that causes abnormal host response
 Producing substances that compiles due up the host to produce too little or too much of
growth hormones
Eg.Taphrina deformans producing puckering and curling of leaves by producing of toxin, which
caused elongation and differentiation of cell. Puckering is due to the more pronounced response
of leaf blade cells to auxin compared to the response of the midrib. Formation of callus tissues in
canker is probably due to increased indole acetic acid (IAA) that is formed by host pathogen.
6. Change in the reproduction of host

1. Effect on floral parts:
a. Change in the flower parts eg. Phyllody – changes flower into leaf lik structures.
b. Colonization of flower parts, anthers is replaced by pathogen. Eg. Ustilago
maydis(smut)
c. Invade the flower and kill the ovary by sclerotia of the pathogen
d. Entering through nectar cells cause bloom blight
2. Effect on seeds:
a. Replacement of seeds by pathogen especially by the spores. Seed coat remains intact
eg. Covered smut
b. Seed coat is also replaced. Eg loose smut te infection is not noticed till the plants bear
flower.
c. Remain dormant in/on the seed coat/endosperm. This seeds look normal from out but
carry the pathogen. Eg Helminthosporium causing leaf spots.
7.Death of cells and tissues
a. Disintegrate f cell wall: Disintegration of cell wall is due to breakdown of cellulose,

hemicellulose and pectic substances present in cell wall.
b. Breaking down of proteins: Proteolytic produced by the pathogen contains pectolytic
enzyme which causes increase tissue maceration.
c. Disintegration of the protoplasm: Pectolytic enzyme destroys middle lamella which
causes separation of cells, increased permeability and water loss. Various types of
hydrolytic enzymes attak cell.
Toxins, enzymes and growth regulators: Lecture -28

The term toxin is used for a product of the pathogen, its host, or pathogen host interaction which
even at very low concentration directly acts on living host protoplasm to influence disease
development or symptom expression.
Toxin hypothesis
1. A toxin should produce all symptoms characteristic of the disease
2. Sensitivity to toxin will be correlated with susceptibility to pathogen
3. Toxin production by the pathogen will be directly related to its ability to cause disease.
Except, victorin, the toxic metabolite of Cochliobolus victoriae, the vast majority oftoxins
associated with plant diseases fail to exhibit all the above characters
According to the source of origin, toxins are divided into 3 broad classes namely,
Pathotoxins, Vivotoxins and Phytotoxins.
1. Pathotoxins: These are the toxins which play a major role in disease production andproduce
all or most of the symptoms characteristic of the disease in susceptible plants. Most of these
toxins are produced by pathogens during pathogenesis.
Ex: Victorin: Cochliobolus victoriae (Helminthosporium victoriae), the causal agent of
Victoria blight of oats. This is a host specific toxin.
Other examples:
a) Selective
T- toxin: Helminthosporium maydis race T
HC-toxin: Helminthosporium carbonum
HS- toxin: Helminthosporium sacchari
Phyto-alternarin: Alternaria kikuchiana
PC- toxin: Periconia circinata
b) Non-selective
Tentoxin: Alternaria tenuis
Tabtoxin or wild fire toxin: Pseudomonas tabaci
Phaseolotoxin: Pseudomonas syringae pv. Phaseolicola
c) Produced by plant or plant X pathogen interaction

Amylovorin: Erwinia amylovora (Fire blight of apple and pears)
2) Phytotoxins: These are the substances produced in the host plant due to host-
pathogeninteractions for which a causal role in disease is merely suspected rather than
established.They are non-specific and there is no relationship between toxin production and
pathogenicity of disease causing agent.
Ex: Alternaric acid – Alternaria solani
3) Vivotoxins: These are the substances produced in the infected host by the pathogenand / or its
host which functions in the production of the disease, but is not itself theinitial inciting agent of
the disease.
Fusaric acid – Wilt causing Fusarium sp.
Lycomarasmin – Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.lycopersici
Piricularin – Pyricularia oryzae
Classification based on specificity of toxins
1. Host specific / Host selective toxins: These are the metabolic products of thepathogens which
are selectively toxic only to the susceptible host of the pathogen
Ex: Victorin, T-toxin, Phyto-alternarin, Amylovorin
2. Non-specific / Non-selective toxins
These are the metabolic products of the pathogen, but do not have host specificity andaffect the
protoplasm of many unrelated plant species that are normally not infected bythe pathogen
Ex: Ten-toxin, Tab-toxin, Fusaric acid, Piricularin, Lycomarasmin and Alternaric acid
Effect of toxins on host tissues

A) Changes in cell permeability: Toxins kill plant cells by altering the permeability ofplasma
membrane, thus permitting loss of water and electrolytes and also unrestrictedentry of substances
including toxins. Cellular transport system, especially, H+ / K+exchange at the cell membrane is
affected.
B) Disruption of normal metabolic processes
 Increase in respiration due to disturbed salt balance
 Malfunctioning of enzyme system Ex: Piricularin inhibits polyphenol oxidase
 Uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation
C) Interfere with the growth regulatory systemof host plant: Ex: Restricted development `of roots
induced by Fusarium moniliforme
ROLE OF GROWTH REGULATORS IN PLANT PATHOGENESIS

Growth regulators
Growth regulators are of two types
1. Growth promoting substances and 2. Growth inhibiting substances
1. Growth promoting substances:
a) Auxins:
Auxin in plant is responsible for cell growth and differentiation but due to the attack of pathogen
producing excess amount of auxin there is abnormal increase in tissues respiration and even
effects on the genetics of the plant.
Increased IAA results in hypertrophy and decreased IAA results in atrophy. Increased IAA
may be due to inhibition of IAA oxidase.
Ex: Ralstonia solanacearum (Pseudomonas solanacearum), the causal agent of wilt
ofSolanaceous plants, induces a 100 fold increase in IAA level in diseased plants. Increased IAA
levels have been reported in plants infected with the following pathogens.
Phytophthora infestans (Late blight of potato), Ustilago maydis (Maize smut), Plasmodiophora
brassicae (Club root of crucifers), Sclerospora graminicola (Downymildew of sorghum),
Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Crown gall of apple), and Meloidogyne (Root knot nematode).
b) Gibberellins: First isolated from Gibberella fujikuroi (Conidial stage:

Fusariummoniliforme), the causal agent of bakanae or foolish seedling disease of rice.
Infectedseedlings show abnormal elongation due to excessive elongation of internodes. Best
known gibberellin is Gibberellic acid.
Site of Gibberellin activity is in the cell close to nucleic acid synthesis activities
Imbalance Gibberellin Causes:
 Growth reduction : Due to excess amount of gibberellin the effected plants are sub-
normal in growth eg. Downy mildew o sugarcane: Sclerospora sacchari
Rust of Euphorbia: Uromyces
 Growth increase: Excess growth takes place in diseased plants.
Eg: Bakane disease of rice: Gibberella fujikuroi
c) Cytokinins:
Functions: Cytokinins are necessary for cell growth and differentiation. It inhibits breakdown of
proteins and aminoacids and thereby inhibit senescence and they have thecapacity to direct the
flow of aminoacids and other nutrients towards high cytokinin concentration. Cytokinin activity
increases in club root, in crown galls and in rustinfected bean leaves. Ex: Green islands are
formed around infection in bean (Phaseolusvulgaris) leaves infected by Uromyces phaseoli.
2. Growth inhibiting substances

a) Ethylene (CH2=CH2): Ethylene exerts a variety of effects on plants, viz., chlorosis,leaf
abscission, epinasty, stimulation of adventitious roots, fruit ripening and increasedpermeability
of cell membranes.
Ex: Ethylene is involved in premature ripening of fingers in banana infected byPseudomonas
solanacearum, the causal agent of moko disease of banana. Ethylene wasalso detected in leaf
epinasty symptom of the vascular wilt syndrome. Ex: Fusariumoxysporum f.sp. lycopersici(Wilt
in tomato).
b) Abscissic acid: It exerts dormancy in seeds, closure of stomata, inhibition of seedgermination

and growth and stimulated germination of fungal spores. It is one of the factors involved in
stunting of plants.
c) Dormin / Abscissin II: Dormin induces dormancy by converting developing leafprimordia of

a bud into bud scales. It acts as an antagonist of gibberellins and masks the effect of IAA.
However, the exact role of dormin is not known.
Polysaccharides: Fungi, bacteria and nematodes release varying amounts ofmucilaginous

substances that coat their bodies and provide interface between the outersurface of the micro-
organism and its environment.In the vascular wilts, large polysaccharide molecules released by
the pathogen in the xylem causes mechanical blockage of vascular bundles and initiate wilting.
Ex: Ralstonia solanacearum (Bacterial wilt of Solanaceous plants)
Enzymes:
They are the metabolites produced by the pathogen which are harmful for the plants. Enzymes
are produced by the pathogen and they are translocated in plant system so the effect may be seen
in parts other than the site of infection.
Enzymesproduced by the pathogen and their possible site of action and their effect
Substrate Effect Enzymes Pathogen involved
Pectic substance Breakdown in the chain Pectic methyl esterase Phytophthora
of linkage Pectic glycosides Rhizopus
Poly glacturonase Erwinia carotovora
Cellulose Turns to glucose Gluconase Fungal, bacterial,
nematodes and
Phanerogamic plants
Hemicellulose Turns into simple sugar Hemicellulase Sclerotinia fructigena
Β manosidase S. sclerotiorum
α galactoridose
Lignin Breakdown Lignanease Alternaria

Ligase Cephalosporium
Oxidase Fusarium
DISEASE FORCASTING AND PRINCIPLE OF DISEASE MANAGEMENT: Lecture 29-30

Forcasting means estimating the disease incidence and intensity in advance which is essential
for economical and safe use of pesticides. Environmental condition, weather of the particular
location, amount of inoculum, vector activities and other factors effects pathogenesis and
pathogen dissemination and there by play a role in disease severity.
Practical advantage of disease forcasting:

Disease forcasting can be done in two basis 1) Short term forcasting i.e. during crop season or
just before the crop season 2) Long term forcasting i.e. prediction of disease is made in advance
to know the epidemiological condition of the next year. If there is the system of monitoring of
disease and its progress or forcasting, the time and degree or extent of occurance, the necessity ,
economy and efficiency of control measure can be suggested to the growers so that they can
adopt the technology can be aware of the disease occurance. Thus it will reduce the misuse of the
deadly hazardous chemicals thre by reducing the cost of production and encironmental risk of
pesticides. This method is practicable to those diseases which outbreak in epidemic form.
For practicle forcasting system the following points must be considered.
 The disease causes economically significant damage of crops loss in quality and quantity.
 Onset, speed of spread and destruactiveness of the disease varies with weather condition
 Farmers if they know onset of disease development, they can apply chemical measures
which are economical
 Information on the interaction of disease, pathogens, environment and host are know
Some of the examples of disease forcasing that has been applied explored in developed contries
are
1. Late blight of potato caused by Phytophthora infectans
 A night temperature below dew point for at least 4 hours
 A minimum temperature of 10oC nad relative humidity of 75% for 2 days
 A mean cloudiness on the next day of at least 0.8 and
 At least 0.1mm of rain during the next 24 hours
2. Downy mildew of grape (Plasmopara viticola)

Disease forcasting is based on the basis of weather favourable for germination of the
oospores and infection of the plant.
3. Tikka disease or leaf spot of ground nut ( Cercospora personata and C. arachidicola)
Disease forcasting is based on diurnal periods of 10 hrs or longer with RH at or below
95% and with temperature above 21oC during these periods.
4. Rice blast(Pyricularia oryzae)

Night temperature range 20- 26oC with RH 90% and above for a week or more during
seedling stage, post-transplanting tillering stage and neck emergence stage
Disease forcasting methods:

i. Empirical fforcasting
This has been for several years on the basis of field observations and practical experience.
Recent empirical methods have been derived based on pathogen development and its lfe cycle,
effected by various environmental conditions.
This method is developed based on the green house experiments, then tested in fields.
ii. Van Der Plank model

This model was used on the information of initial inoculum of disease (Xo) and the rate of
disease increase (r) in particular time (t) and estimated the final disease as their magnitude. He
expressed the equations as
X= Xo ert where,X= Final inoculum
Xo= initial inoculum
r= rate of disease increase
t= time of disease increase
e= natural log
Initial inoculum must include all possible sources of primary inoculum such as soil, plant debris,
wild host, seed, other economical plants and vectors.
iii. Computer system of disease forcasting

This model utilizes quantitative data regarding the effects of temperature, rainfall, light, wind
and humidity on the pathogenesis and production of primary and secondary inocula, pathogen
and vector activities, competitors, antagonist, as well as genetic variation in the pathogen and
hosts.
This method also includes weather data on amount of rainfall, amount and duration of dew,
intensity and duration of light, speed and direction of wind, ambient temperature and relative
humidity and fed into computer, the stimulator then predicts the actual amount of disease in the
field at particular time.
The first model was EPIDEM developed for early blight of potato and BLITCAST, SYMPHYT
MODEL for late blight of potato.
Methods of loss assessment

1. Survey method: this method is based upon the information or reports that is gathered
from large area where disease incidence took place and its impact on crop loss and yield
estimate of the concerned area for many years. The accuracy of the method depends upon
the reliability of data from assembled reports.
2. Experimental method: experiment in green house or in the field need to be carried out
to assess the disease incidence. For statistical analysis proper designing of experimental
method is very necessary.
Remote sensing:
Remote sensing is a science/art that permits us to obtain information about anobject/a
phenomenon through analysis of data obtained through sensory devices without being in physical
contact with that object. Remote sensing is done through aerial photography and also can be
done by space vehicles through satellites and is effective where epidemic has occurred.
Objectives of remote sensing in plant Pathology

1. Assessment of disease over a vast area
2. To know the relationship of diseases and environment
3. To know the origin and development of epidemics
4. Quantitative assessment of the disease
Principles and methods of plant disease management:

Principle of plant pathology is to develop the appropriate disease management strategy so that
the total loss of the crop due to disease is overcomed.
Principles of plant disease management are classified into two groups, Prophylaxis and
Immunization
Under prophylaxis four principles of disease control are included
I. Avoidance of the pathogen: These methods aim at avoiding the contact between thepathogen
and susceptible stage of the crop. This is achieved by
a. Proper selection of geographical area
b. Proper selection of the field
c. Adjusting time of sowing
d. Disease escaping varieties
e. Proper selection of seed and planting material
II.Exclusion of the pathogen: These measures aim at preventing the inoculum fromentering or
establishing in the field or area where it does not exist. Different methods ofexclusion are seed
treatment, seed inspection & certification, and plant quarantineregulation.
III. Eradication: These methods aim at breaking the infection chain by removing thefoci of
infection and starvation of the pathogen (i.e., elimination of the pathogen from thearea by
destruction of sources of primary and secondary inoculum). It is achieved by
a) Rouging:
b) Eradication of alternate and collateral hosts:
c) Crop rotation:
d) Crop sanitation:
e) Manures and fertilizers:
f) Mixed cropping:
g) Summer ploughing:
h) Soil amendments:
i) Changing time of sowing:
j) Seed rate and plant density:
k) Irrigation and drainage:
iv. Protective measures:
a.Chemical treatments
b.Chemical control of insect vectors
c.Modification of evnironments: Improvement of aeration to reduce RH (eg. P. viticola)
d. Modification of host nutrition: Use of less nitrogen, high calcium will lead to resistant to wilt
causing pathogen.
2. Immunization: It includes the measures that make the host resistant to invasion or ill the
pathogen after it has invaded. Under these two principles of disease control are included.
I. Genetic resistance:
Altering the effectiveness of inoculum by employing resistance in host, including all techniques
that contribute to alter physiological or structural nature of individual plants in order to make
them tolerant or resistant to infection.
ii. Therapy:
Reducing the severity of disease in an infected individual by heat therapy or chemotherapy.
Sometimes single control method may involve more than one principle of control. Eg external
seed dressing involves eradication and protection from the external seed borne pathogens. Other
therapy like cutting infected branches, covering wound with fungicidal paste can be also used.
Methods of disease control

1. Cultural method:
a.Crop rotation:
Continuous cultivation of the same crop in the same field helps in theperpetuation of the
pathogen in the soil. Soils which are saturated by the pathogen areoften referred as sick soils. To
reduce the incidence and severity of many soil borne diseases, crop rotation is adopted. Crop
rotation is applicable to only root inhabitants and facultative saprophytes, and may not work with
soil inhabitants.
Ex: Panama wilt of banana (long crop rotation), wheat soil borne mosaic (6 yrs) and clubroot of
cabbage (6-10 yrs), etc.
b. Physical method of soil treatment:

Soil solarization was developed for the first time in Israel (Egley and Katan) for the management
of plant pathogenic pests, diseases and weeds. Soil can be sterilized in green houses and
sometimes in seed beds by aerated steam or hot water. At about 500C, nematodes, some
oomycetous fungi and other water molds are killed. At about 60 and 720C, most of the plant
pathogenic fungi and bacteria are killed.
c. Summer ploughing:
Ploughing the soil during summer months expose soil to hot weather which will eradicate heat
sensitive soil borne pathogens. Eg. Nematode exposure to soil are killed, similary
helminthosporium, phythium are also eradicated.
d. Mixed cropping:
Root rot of cotton (Phymatotrichum omnivorum) is reduced when cotton is grown along with
sorghum. Intercropping sorghum in cluster bean reduces theincidence of root rot and wilt
(Rhizoctonia solani) because of hydrogen cynide (HCN) exudated from the root of sorghum acts
antagonist to wilt disease.
e.Manures and fertilizers:

The deficiency or excess of a nutrient may predispose a plant to some diseases. Excessive
nitrogen application aggravates diseases like stem rot, bacterial leaf blight and blast of rice.
Nitrate form of nitrogen increases many diseases,whereas, phosphorous and potash application
increases the resistance of the host.
f.Soil amendments:
Application of organic amendments like saw dust, straw, oil cake,etc., will effectively manage
the diseases caused by Pythium, Phytophthora, Verticillium,Macrophomina, Phymatotrichum
and Aphanomyces.
Ex: Application of lime (2500 Kg/ha) reduces the club root of cabbage by increasing soilpH to
8.5, Application of Sulphur (900 Kg/ha) to soil brings the soil pH to 5.2 and reduces the
incidence of common scab of potato (Streptomyces scabies).
g.Changing time of sowing:

Alternation in date of sowing can help avoidance of favourable conditions for the pathogens .Ex:
Rice blast can be managed by changing planting season from June toSeptember/October
h.Seed rate and plant density

Close spacing raises atmospheric humidity and favours sporulation by many pathogenic fungi.
High densityplanting in chillies leads to high incidence of damping off in nurseries.
i.Irrigation and drainage:

The amount, frequency and method of irrigation may affect the dissemination of certain plant
pathogens. Many pathogens, including, Pseudomonas solanacearum, X. campestris pv. Oryzae
and Colletotrichum falcatum are readilydisseminated through irrigation water. High soil moisture
favours root knot and othernematodes and the root rots caused by species of Sclerotium,
Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Phytophthora, Phymatotrichum, etc.
j. Destruction of alternate and collateral host:

Many weeds provides shelter for the survival of many pathogens in absence of crop host. So by
destruction of wild host many diseases can be reduced eg. Wheat rust, red rot of sugarcane and
viral diseases.
2. Physical method: The physical agents used commonly in controlling plant diseases are
temperature , dry air, unfavourable light ,and various types of radiation. Hot water treatment of
certain seeds, bulbs and nursery stock is done to kill many pathogens present in or on the seed
and other propagating materials. Hot water treatment is used for controlling sett borne diseases
of sugarcane [whip smut, grassy shoot and red rot of sugarcane (52OC for 30 min)] and loose
smut of wheat (520C for 10 min).
3.Mechanical method: This method is used to separate the pathogens carried along with the
seeds. In case of ergot of bajra the sclerotia and incase of ear cockle of wheat, the nematodes
galls can be picked up with hand or separated by sieving.
4. Regulatory method: Plant quarantine is defined as “a legal restriction on the movement of

agricultural commodities for the purpose of exclusion, prevention or 4delaying the spread of the
plant pests and diseases in uninfected areas”. Plant quarantine laws were first enacted in France
(1660), followed by Denmark (1903) and USA (1912).
Plant quarantine has five major points to be considered:
1. Embargo: absolute prohibition on the movement of infected materials from a quarantined
area to a protected area.
2. Detention: delays in the release from a period when the plant material are held under
careful observation until freedom from the parasite have been assured or organism has
been eliminated.
3. Inspection: plant material examined either on the source of produce or at the point of
entrance.
4. Disinfection: if the material is found diseased, either seed treatment or hot air or sorting is
done.
5. Unrestricted entry: when it is considered that there is no harmful disease it is allowed to
enter anywhere.
5. Biological method: In this method the living microorganism which are detrimental to the
pathogens but harmless to the crop host are either directly or indirectly applied which encourage
for its growth and multiplication and controls the pathogenic organisms. The mechanism for the
biological control are:
A. Hyperparasitism: Direct parasitism or lysis and death of the pathogen by anothermicro-

organism when the pathogen is in parasitic phase is known as hyperparasitism. Ex: T. harzianum
parasitize and lyse the mycelia of Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium.
B. Competition: Most of the biocontrol agents are fast growing and they compete withplant
pathogens for space, organic nutrients and minerals.eg Pseudomonas fluorescens (known as
pseudobactins ) helps in the control of soft rot bacterium, Erwinia caratovora
C. Antibiosis: Antagonism mediated by specific or non-specific metabolites of microbial origin,

by lytic agents, enzymes, volatile compounds or other toxic substances is known as antibiosis.
Biological control Pathogen/ disease
Ampelomyces quisqualis Powdery mildew fungi
Darluca filum, Verticillium lecanii Rust fungi
Pichia gulliermondii Botrytis, Penicillium
Pasteuria penetrans (Bacteria) Juvenile parasite of root knot nematode
Paecilomyces lilacinus (Fungus Egg parasite of Meloidogyne incognita
T. harzianum, T. viride, T. virens Root rots, seedling rots, collar rots, damping.
6. Chemical control
The aim of chemicals in plant disease management is to
 Create a toxic barrier between the host surface and the pathogen and
 Eradicate the pathogen present at particular site on the host, such as seed, foliage,
roots etc.
Fungicides are classified into three categories: Protectants, eradicants and therapeutants.
1. Protectants: These are the chemicals which are effective only when used before infection
(prophylactic in behavior). Contact fungicides which kill the pathogen present on the host
surface when it comes in contact with the host are called protectants. Theseare applied to seeds,
plant surfaces or soil. These are non-systemic in action (i.e, they cannot penetrate plant tissues).
Ex: Zineb,sulphur, captan, Thiram, etc.
2.Eradicants: Those chemicals which eradicate the dormant or active pathogen from the host.
They can remain on/in the host for some time. Ex: Lime sulphur, Dodine.
3. Therapeutants: These are the agents that inhibit the development of a disease syndrome in a
plant when applied after infection by a pathogen. Therapy can be by physical means (solar and
hot water treatment) and chemical means (by use of systemic fungicides, i.e., chemotherapy).
Classification and formulation of common pesticides used:

Copper fungicides
Prepared from copper sulpahte (Cuso4 ), copper carbonate , cupric oxides, copper oxychloride. In
the fixed or insoluble copper compounds, the copper ion is less soluble than in Bordeaux
mixture. So, these are less phytotoxic than Bordeaux mixture but are effective as fungicides.
 Copper sulpahte: Borduex mixture (10gm CaCO3, 10 gm CuSO4 in 1000ml water),
Borduex paste(10gm CaCO3, 10 gm CuSO4 in 100ml water), Burgundy mixture. Used for
downy mildew
 Copper carbonate: Chaubattia paste
 Copper oxychloride (Common name): Trade name – Fytolan, Blitox-50. Used for
banana leaf spot, citrus canker, downy mildew of cucumber, early and late blight of
potato
 Cuprous oxide: Peronox
SULPHUR FUNGICIDES
Sulphur is probably the oldest chemical used in plant disease management for the controlof
powdery mildews and can be classified as inorganic sulphur and organic sulphur.
Inorganic sulphur fungicides include lime sulphur and elemental sulphur fungicides.Organic
sulphur fungicides, also called as carbamate fungicides, are the derivatives ofdithiocarbamic
acid.
Inorganic sulphur fungicides
Common name Trade name Disease managed
Lime sulphur 20 Kg of rock lime + 15 Kg Powdery mildew ofapple,
of sulphur +500 liters of water Apple scab,bean rust
Sulphur dust Kolo dust, Mico-999 Common scab ofpotato,
Grain smutof jowar
Wettable sulphur Sulfex, Thiovit,Cosan Powdery mildews of various

crops
Organic sulphur fungicides

Dialkyl Dithiocarbamates
common name Trade name Disease managed
Ziram Ziride, Hexazir, Anthracnose of pulses, tomato, beans,

tobacco, etc., bean rust
Ferbam Ferbam, Fermate leaf curl of peaches, apple scab, downy

mildew of tobacco
Thiram Arasan, Hexathir, Soil borne diseases caused by Pythium,

Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium,
Monoalkyl dithyiocarbamates
Nabam Chembam,Dithane D-14 Foliar and soil borne
pathogens, Fusarium,
Pythium and Phytophthora
Zineb Dithane Z-78 Chilli die-back and fruit rot,
Apple scab,
Vapam or Metham sodium Chem-vape, vapam Soil fungal pathogens like
Fusarium,Pythium, sclerotium
and Rhizoctonia.
Maneb Mancozeb (78%Maneb +22 Early and late blight of potato and
% zinc ion): Dithane M45, tomato
Heterocyclic nitrogenous compound

Common name Trade name Diseased managed
Captan Captan 50W Onion smut, Chilli die-back
and fruit rot
Folpet Phaltan Apple scab, tobacco brown
spot
Captafol Difosan, Difolaton Sorghum anthracnose, cotton
seedling diseases
Iprodione Rovral, Alternaria, Sclerotinia,
Helminthosporium and
Rhizoctonia
Vinclozolin Ornalin, Ronilan,Vorlan sclerotia forming fungi like
Botrytis, Monilinia and
Sclerotinia
Systemic fungicides
A systemic fungicide is capable of managing a pathogen remote from the point of application.
On the basis of chemical nature these fungicides are classified as follows
ACYLALANINES
Common name Trade name Diseaed managed
Metalaxyl Ridomil MZ-72WP Effective against Pythium,
Phytophthora and
many downy mildew
Benalaxyl Galben 25% WP Blue mold of tobacco, late blight of
and 5% G potato and tomato
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
Chloroneb (Common name ) Demosan(Trade name ) Seedling diseases of cotton
BENZIMIDAZOLES
Carbendazim Bavistin 50WP, Derosol 60WP Effectively controls anthracnose,
powdery mildews and rusts
Benomyl Benlate 50WP Effective against
powdery mildews
Thiabendazole Mertect 60WP Blue and green molds of citrus, loose
smut of wheat
OXATHINS or CARBOXIMIDES
Carboxin Vitavax 75WP Commonly used for the control of loose smut
of wheat, onion smut, grain smut of sorghum
Oxycarboxin Plantavax 75 WP Highly effective against rust diseases
ORGANOPHOSPHATES
Iprobenphos Kitazin 48EC Fungicide with insecticidal properties, effective
against rice blast, stem rot and sheath blight of rice
Ediphenphos Hinosan 30 and Highly specific against rice blast, stem rot and
50% EC sheath blight of rice
TRIAZOLES
Triadimefon Bayleton Effective against powdery mildews and rusts of
several crops
Hexaconazole Contaf powdery mildew and rust of apple, rust and
tikka leaf spot of groundnut
Propiconazole Tilt Sheath blight of rice, Sigatoka leaf spot of
banana, brown rust of wheat
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGICIDES BASED ON METHOD OF APPLICATION

The fungicides can also be classified based on the nature of their use in managing the
diseases.
1. Seed protectants: Ex. Captan, thiram, carbendazim, carboxin etc.
2. Soil fungicides (preplant): Ex. Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy chloride, Chloropicrin,
Formaldehyde, Vapam, etc.
3. Soil fungicides: Ex. Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy chloride, Captan, PCNB, thiram
etc.
4. Foliage and blossom: Ex. Capton, ferbam, zineb, mancozeb, chlorothalonil etc.
5. Fruit protectants: Eg. Captan, maneb, carbendazim, mancozeb etc.
6. Eradicants: EX. Lime sulphur
7. Tree wound dressers: Ex. Boreaux paste, chaubattia paste, etc.

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pIntroduction and classification of plant pathology and plant diseases Lecture-1

Objectives of Plant Pathology

Scope of Plant Pathology

Importance of the Plant Diseases

Physiological activities of a healthy plant

Irritation in plants/ host is caused by the following interrelated pathways.

Definition and terms

4. Hemibiotroph/ facultative saphrophyte: A plant pathogenic fungus that initially requires

6. Pathogenicity: The relative capability of a pathogen to cause disease.

7. Pathogenesis: It is a process caused by an infectious agent (pathogen) when it comes in

8. Virulence: The degree of infectivity of a given pathogen.

9. Infection: The initiation and establishment of a parasite within a host plant.

12. Invasion: The penetration and spread of a pathogen in the host.

Causes, classification and general symptoms of plant diseases Lecture 2

Fig. 1.The biotic and abiotic disease tables.

(vi) Rickettsia like organism (RLOs):

(vii) Parasitic higher plant:

Phosphorus: Phosphorus seems to increase resistance either by improving the balance of

Molybdenum: Deficiency results whiptail of cauliflower.

4. Industrial contaminants: the gasses released by factories, smelting, refineries plants,

b. Infectious/ parasite/ biotic :

2. On the basis of mode of spread and severity:

3. On the basis of source of inoculum:

4. On the basis of mode of action:

6. On the basis of plant specie

 Symptoms due to visible pathogens:

 Symptoms due to some effect or change in the host plants:

 Symptoms due to Atrophy or hypoplasia or dwarfing- Inhibition of growth resulting

Defination, Importance and General morphological characters of fingi Lecture-3

Typical structure of fungi:-

These Plasmogamy occurs by the following five general methods

Types of fruiting bodies:

2. Acervulus: Boat or saucer shaped structure on or in the surface of the

3.Synnema: A group of conidiophores cemented together and forming an

4.Sporodochium: A cushion shaped stroma covered with conidiophores

Sexual fruiting bodies:

2. Perithecia:- It is more or less closed ascocarp with an opening called

3. Apothecia:-It is an open ascocarp lined with asci producing ascospores.

Classification of Fungi with their diagnostic characters Lecture 5-15

2. Sub division: Zygomycotina

4. Sub division: Basidiomycotina

5. Sub division: Deuteromycotina

3. Phylum: Labyrinthulomycota ( net slime molds)

Diagnostic characters of some important classes and their classification.

Class: Chytridiomycetes: (True fungi)

1.Synchytrium endobioticum (deBary & Woron)

1. Sporangia are produced or somatic 1. Sporangia are produced on special aerial

Usually formed in sub division mastigomycotina It is found in sub division mastigomycotina

It is asexual spore It is a female gamete.

Mucor is saprophyte and appers in damp substratum. Mycelium is coenocytic. Axesual

4. Ascomycotina (Higher fungi)

Genus Erysiphe consists of about 10 species and is characterized by superficial mycelium.

 Only one germ pores on teliospore  One germ pores on teliospore

 Amphisporus are also formed in some  No amphispores are formed in any

6.Sub division:- Deuteromycotina

Defination, general morphology of bacterial cell and their function Lecture-16

Fig: A typical ultrastructure of Bacterial cell

Locomotion of the bacteria:

 Lophotrichous: Two or more flagella at one or both end of the cell. eg

 Amphitrichus: One flagellum at each end. eg Pseudomonas