HARRIET MARTINEAU

Morals and Manners

Harriet Martineau died in 1876. Her ideas and major influence in sociology died shortly

thereafter. Recently there has been a concerted effort to reintroduce her ideas to a new

generation of sociologists. Although there has been some reference made to her throughout the

twentieth century, particularly to her literary work, it has not been until the last few years that her

place in sociology has been reclaimed. Along with locating her ideas and alongside Durkheim,

Weber, and other classical sociologists, it is also necessary to reconstruct her graven image. A

more complete understanding and connection with ideas are helped along when there is a

connection with the person. The first point of order is to briefly discuss Martineau’s place in

sociology.

Harriet Martineau

Harriet Martineau lived and worked simultaneously with sociological icons such as

Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Karl Marx, yet only recently has her work been recovered

from the intellectual dustbin in sociology. Her ideas crystallized between 1834 and 1869,

starting with a love for political economy then venturing on a regular basis into the writing of

novels. Virtually all of her work was oriented to the general reading public, at least the more

generally educated audience. The discipline of sociology was in its early infancy and she was,

after all, a pioneer woman in a world women were rarely allowed visitation. Although she was a

prolific writer, her contributions to sociology center around three major works, an analysis of

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pre-civil war America (1837), a methodological treatise (1838), and her translation and

condensing of Auguste Comte’s Philosophy Positive (1853). The treatise, “Society in America,”

was the result of a two-year visit to the United States intended as a much needed vacation. She

was convinced on her return to write about her travels and observations by a long time associate

and publisher. Her observations and conversations produced an extremely insightful analysis of

the dilemmas of American slave society and as Hill (1989) maintains were ever more insightful

and poignant than the widely read Alex de Tocqueville’s Democracy In America (1959).

Following her somewhat unintended study of American Society, she set about the task of

producing a book hypothetically written for the traveler who needs to be keenly aware of the

framework in which he or she views and then comments on other cultures, but in reality lays out

the foundation of a sociological methodology. A brief discussion of this work will be addressed

further on in the paper. Her growing interest in positive philosophy led her from her Unitarian

roots to discovering and becoming completely enthralled with, the work of Auguste Comte. One

might argue that her non-conformist Unitarian roots were a perfect springboard for positive

philosophy. Her correspondence with Comte and her defense of his work illustrates the

conviction and dedication she had to his ideas. She set out to translate this massive work into

English and in the process condense the book making it more intelligible as well as accessible to

the English-speaking public. Her conviction to the ideas are made clear when, in the later

reprint of the book the editor wanted the work condensed even more to save printing costs and

generally reduce the overall size, and she refused, afraid it would corrupt the ideas too much.

She had after all, already reduced it to its bare minimum. Comte’s original piece was 4000 pages

long and Harriet reduced it to 2000 pages. Unfortunately, none of her works considered

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sociological treaties were widely read by audiences of social scientists and thus virtually

disappeared in the twentieth century. Sociologists pay little attention to Comte except to

acknowledge that he did provide us with our name and identity, but who reads Comte anymore?

It appears that Comte himself stopped reading Comte and read Martineau’s translation instead.

Her work on American society is worthwhile for those interested in how one does sociology, but

the piece itself would have only limited appeal at best. It is her work on methodology that might

in the end provide her with a permanent place in the classics of sociology along side The Rules of

Sociological Methods by Emile Durkheim (1964 [original 1895]). As Seymour Martin Lipset

points out (1968:2):

This volume (How to Observe Manners and Morals) is, perhaps, the first book on the
methodology of social research in the then still unborn disciplines of sociology and
anthropology. Martineau realized that the study of social systems was a separate
scientific discipline, and called it the “science of morals and manners.”

Consequently her work has had negligible influence on late 20th century sociology, and certainly

to this point in time it is safe to say she has had no enduring impact.

Not until over one hundred years after her death, as sociology entered the new

millennium, did sociologists look to re-establish some long lost roots and more importantly

discover women’s contributions to the great tradition of sociology. Symbolic Interaction theory,

with its focus on observational research, will see a direct benefit from studying Martineau.

Feminist studies should benefit as will from not only the outline of how to do research but in the

implicit assumption that at the base of human research rests the driving principle of bettering the

human race. For Martineau, as we will see, it is the drive towards human happiness which

shapes morals and manners whereas for Feminist Studies it is the drive towards human equality,

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which in the end may amount to the same thing. Locating Harriet Martineau’s mortal remains

helps provide a physical imagery that seems essential in creating an enduring mental conception

of not only the person but her contributions as well. In the end, finding her grave plays one

small part of paying homage to unarguably the first great woman sociologist.

Method

“He will find no better place of study than the Cemetery,– no more instructive teaching
than Monumental Inscriptions. The brief language of the dead will teach him more than
the longest discourses of the living.” (Martineau, 1995:113)

Harriet Martineau was one of the first sociologists to elaborate both a method and a

methodology for the study of social life. Despite Gillian Thomas’ somewhat dismissive tone

concerning Martineau’s enthusiasm for completing the book on morals and manners (1985:33),

her work elaborates one of the first systematic approaches for doing observational research. Her

somewhat pensive approach to the original work, an article in a larger series, comes mostly from

having agreed to work on what otherwise would have been a primarily restful trip. “My felicity

would have been complete if I could have looked forward to a month of absolute idleness: but

my constitutional weakness, –my difficulty in saying “No,” was in my way, and a good deal

spoiled my holiday” (Martineau 1877, Vol. 1:332). When the original edited book was not

published she was convinced to take her article and write her own book. Here one gets the sense

that it was a difficult but worthwhile project (Martineau 1877:416):

“The chapter which I mentioned having written at sea, on “How to observe Morals and
Manners, was, by the desire of the proposer and of Mr. Knight, to be expanded into a
volume; and this piece of tough work, which required a good deal of reading and
thinking, I accomplished this spring.”

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In, How to Observe Morals and Manners, (1989 [1838]) she suggests that a traveler (the

researcher) must have both Philosophical and Moral Requisites when observing cultures. She

suggests that research must be conducted by those trained in the art of objective observation.

The observer must be open minded but at the same time hold an ideal type in which to compare

and appropriately generalize about what is being observed, but not to necessarily judge the

behavior or practices, although that is not completely ruled out as indicated by her stance on

slavery. Her approach suggests that research must be guided by appropriate ends. Those ends

appear to be established by God or at least something that appears as virtually innate in

humankind. The desired end is human happiness, similar to the driving principles in Adam

Smith, John Stuart Mill, or Jeremy Bentham. This “greatest happiness for the greatest group”

measuring rod tells us that to some extent research, for Martineau, is not value neutral and in fact

does lend itself to advocacy research found in contemporary observational approaches,

particularly feminist studies. This notion of an underlying principle to knowledge is not unique

in sociology; Critical Theory suggests a similar concern with the connection made between

knowledge and human interest. Thus, for example, emancipatory research is connected to

emancipatory interests. For Martineau, the advancement of moral society in all its positive

trappings is linked to that one universal drive towards human happiness. Martineau further

suggests that the Mechanical Requisites perhaps need to be stood on their head and viewed in

reverse order from what might on the surface seem the correct way to acquire knowledge. (In

the same way Marx stood Hegel on his head.) That is, rather than relying on what people say

about morals (norms, values etc.) one needs first to observe the ‘things’ objectively then look to

verbal expressions of those things. C.W. Mills was to argue much later, in a slightly different

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context, that expressed statements actually reflect more structural vocabularies of motives.

Those vocabularies engulf certain situations often conditioned by such accepted structural

constraints such as economic or religious institutional frameworks (Mills, 1940). Martineau does

state that the observer must be careful to converse with people from all walks of life and poke

and probe into all the nooks and crannies of human interaction, representing both public and

private spheres of life. Even though the inquirer might be careful to do all that, the process

cannot guarantee the observer will come away knowing the morals and manners of a group;

although this would bring us far closer than limiting sources to one particular social class, race,

or gender. The more accurate reflection of the morals of a people will reside in collective

representations, the sub-text, rather than in words and will be immortalized in such artifacts as

the cemetery stone.

Given her keen insight into the importance of studying cemeteries and grave markers, it

is a shame her gravestone is lost. Her gravesite by all indications still resides in Key Hill

Cemetery and can be roughly located with reasonable certainty within the graveyard. The shame

of having lost the grave marker is two fold. First, one of the founding women sociologists,

highly respected in her time, lacks a proper memorial. Perhaps this reflects her position in

sociology over the years since her death. However, resurgence of interest in her work is bringing

her back into the fold of classical sociology. Perhaps we must settle for the Reformers Memorial

found at Kensal Green cemetery in London that includes her name among a long list of names

considered to have made lasting contributions to the improvement of British society. (See Figure

9) As stated on the marker:

“Erected to the memory of men and women who have generously given their time and
means to improve the conditions and enlarge the happiness of all classes of society. They

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 have felt that a far happier and more prosperous life is within the reach of all men, and
they have earnestly sought to realize it. The old brutal laws of imprisonment from free
printing have been swept away and the right of selecting our own lawmakers has been
gained mainly by their efforts. The exercise of these rights will give the people an
interest in the laws that govern them, and will make them better men and better citizens.”

Secondly, the loss of grave markers generally prohibits our ability to document the stated morals

of a community. In the case of Harriet, we know she left us precious little in way of an epithet,

which in itself tells us she likely did not subscribe to many of the dominate vocabularies of

motives of the time or wished not to contribute to defining the morals of the time. Nonetheless, it

would have been useful to see etched in stone the unobtrusiveness of such a grand early

sociologist. She had always played down her importance and contributions and the lack of an

epitaph is one more indication of her humility.

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Page 8
 Figure 7 Marker number 788 I

Figure 8: Left of this marker two plots should be the location of Harriet Martineau’s Grave.

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Figure 9 Reformers marker in Kensal Green Cemetery London, England.

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REFERENCES CITED

Birmingham Public Library. 2003. Birmingham, England.

Comte, Auguste. 188-. The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte. Tr. by Harriet Martineau.
Edited and translated by H. Martineau. Chicago, New York, and San Francisco: Belford,
Clarke & Co.
Durkheim, Emile. 1964 (1895). The Rules of Sociological Methods. New York: Free Press.

General Birmingham Cemetery Company. 1838. Dead of Settlement. Birmingham, UK: B.

Hill, Michael R. 1991. Harriet Martineau. In, Mary Jo Deegen (editor), Women in Sociology: A
Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook. (1991). Greenwood Press: New York.

Hunter, Shelagh. 1995. Harriet Martineau: The Poetics of Moralism. Aldershot, England: Scolar
Press.

Manning, E. H., Secretary and Chaplin. 1905. Official Guide to the Birmingham General
Cemetery. Birmingham, UK: Montague Dightam Small Health Printing Works.

Martineau, Harriet. [1837] 1966. Society In America Vol. 1. Reprint, New York: AMS Press, Inc.

———. [1836] 1968. Society in America (Edited and Abridged). Edited by Seymour Martin
Lipset. Reprint, Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith.

———. [1837] 1989. How to Observe Morals and Manners. Edited by Michael R. Hill. Reprint,
Transaction Pub. Reprint Edition.

Mills, C. Wright. 1940. "Situated Actions and Vocabularies of Motive." American Sociological
Review Vol. 5(No. 6, Dec.):904-13.

Thomas, Gillian. 1985. Harriet Martineau. Twayne's English Authors Series. Edited by H.
Sussman. Boston: G. K. Hall & Company.

Webb, R. K. 1960. Harriet Martineau: A Radical Victorian. London: Heinemann.

Wheatley, Vera. 1957. The Life and Work of Harriet Martineau. London: Secker & Warburg.

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