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Module 1 Lesson 8

This document discusses predicate logic and quantified statements. It defines predicates, domains, and the basic concepts of predicate logic. It then explains universal and existential quantification, how to symbolize quantified statements using quantifiers, and how to evaluate the truth value of quantified predicates. Finally, it provides examples of translating natural language statements into symbolic logic and lists some logical equivalences between quantified statements.

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Module 1 Lesson 8

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Mathematics in the Modern World

Module 1 – Lesson 8
Predicate Logic
Edgar M. Adina
Lesson 6: Propositional Logic

In the previous lesson, we studied propositional logic. Lesson 8 is

dedicated to another type of logic, called predicate logic.
Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, students
should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of universal and existential quantification;
2. Exhibit the symbolisms of quantified propositions;
3. Evaluate the truth value of a predicate;
4. State the rules for the negation of quantified propositions;
Introduction
Consider the following proposition:
p: Every college student must take Mathematics in the Modern
World.
q: Luka is an incoming college student.

It is easy to deduce that Luka will be taking Mathematics in the

Modern World. But propositional logic lacks the form and tool to
formalize the argument.

A different tool is needed!

Basic Concepts

Recall: a proposition is a statement that is either true or false

A predicate is a proposition that contains one or more variables. Thus, a

predicate is a proposition with parameters.

Example:
Proposition: “p: 2 is even”
Predicate: “p(x): x is even”

Predicate logic deals with “sets of entities” (as compared to

propositional logic – deals with propositions with specific domain)
Basic Concepts

The domain of a predicate variable is the collection of all possible values

that the variable may take.

Note that a predicate does not have immediate truth value. The
predicate “p(x): x divided by itself is always equal to 1” can be true or
false depending on the domain. For example, if the domain to be
considered is the set of positive real numbers, then p(x) is true. But if
the domain is simply the set of real numbers, p(x) is false.

To affirm this, consider the real number x = 0. Then p(0) is false. By the
principle of conjunction, p(x) cannot be true in R.
Basic Concepts

To put it more formally, when we try to substitute specific values of the

variable, the predicate becomes a proposition and the truth value can be
known automatically. This is called the process of instantiation.

In other words, a proposition is just an instantiated predicate.

To evaluate, the truth value of a predicate, we have to instantiate it and

check if there is an instance that it becomes false. This does not mean,
however, that we check all possible values.

We deal with what we call QUANTIFICATION.

Quantifications in Predicate Logic

1. Universal : “all”, “every”

Symbolism: If S is a set and P(x) is a statement about
the element x, then the expression
∀𝑥𝜖𝑆 𝑃(𝑥)
means “For all x in S, P(x) is true” or “P(x) is true for
every x in S”.
Quantifications in Predicate Logic

2. Existential : “some”, “there exists”

Symbolism: If S is a set and P(x) is a statement about
the element x, then the expression
∃𝑥𝜖𝑆 𝑃(𝑥)
means “There exists x in S for which P(x) is true” or
“There is at least one x in S for which P(x) is true for”.
Quantifications in Predicate Logic
In terms of propositions, we can interpret quantified propositions as
either conjunction or disjunction:

Suppose 𝑆 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }. Then

∀𝑥𝜖𝑆 𝑃 𝑥 ↔ 𝑃 𝑥1 ∧ 𝑃 𝑥2 ∧ 𝑃 𝑥3 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑃(𝑥𝑛 )
and
∃𝑥𝜖𝑆 𝑃 𝑥 ↔ 𝑃 𝑥1 ∨ 𝑃 𝑥2 ∨ 𝑃 𝑥3 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝑃(𝑥𝑛 )
Truth Values of Quantified Statements
Translating Quantified Statements

1. Every odd integer is a prime number.

Symbolism: ∀𝑥, 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟(𝑥, 𝑜𝑑𝑑 → 𝑥, 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒)
or ∀𝑥𝜖𝑍(𝑜 𝑥 → 𝑝 𝑥 )
Here, we use ``𝑜(𝑥)′′ to symbolize “x is odd” while
“𝑝(𝑥)” means “𝑥 is prime”
Common Mistake: ∀𝑥𝜖𝑍(𝑜 𝑥 ⋀ 𝑝 𝑥 )
Truth Value : False or “F” (why?)
Translating Quantified Statements

2. Some right triangles are also isosceles.

Symbolism: ∃𝑥, 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑟(𝑥) ∧ 𝑖(𝑥))
Common Mistake: ∃𝑥, 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑟 𝑥 → 𝑖 𝑥 )
Truth Value : True or “T”
Translating Quantified Statements

3. No real number is divisible by 0.

Symbolism: ∀𝑥(𝑥𝜖R) → ~𝑑 𝑥
Here, we use ``𝑑(𝑥)′′ to symbolize “x is divisible by 0”
Equivalent: ~∃𝑥(𝑥 𝜖 R ⋀ 𝑑 𝑥 )
Truth Value : T
Translating Quantified Statements

4. Not every real number is divisible by 0.

Symbolism: ~∀𝑥(𝑥𝜖R → 𝑑 𝑥 )
Equivalent: ∃𝑥(𝑥 𝜖 R ⋀ ~𝑑 𝑥 )
Truth Value : F
Logical Equivalences in Predicate Logic
1. ~∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 ↔ ∃𝑥(~𝑃 𝑥 )

Example: “Not all college graduates have good manners” is

equivalent to any of the following:

“There are some college graduates who does not

have good manners”

“There exists a college graduate who has no

good manners”
Logical Equivalences in Predicate Logic

2. ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 ↔ ~∃𝑥(~𝑃 𝑥 )
Example: “All college graduates have good manners”
is equivalent to any of the following:
“There are no college graduates who does not
have good manners”
“It is not true that there are some college
graduates who have no good manners”
Logical Equivalences in Predicate Logic

3. ~∀𝑥 ~𝑃 𝑥 ↔ ∃𝑥(𝑃 𝑥 )

Example: “It is not true that every student cannot afford an

online education” is equivalent to”
“There are some students who can afford online
education”
“There is at least one student who can afford an
online education”
Logical Equivalences in Predicate Logic

4. ∀𝑥 ~𝑃 𝑥 ↔ ~∃𝑥(𝑃 𝑥 )
Example: “Every odd integer is not divisible by 2” is
equivalent to:
“It is not true that there are some odd integers that
are divisible by 2”
“There are no odd integer that is divisible by 2”