Rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved CO2 and has a pH of 5.6. Why?

- All rainwater is naturally acidic because of the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide. This is
because the carbon dioxide dissolves in the rainwater to create a weak acid in Carbonic Acid, or
H2CO3. Hence, this makes rain naturally acidic and gives it a pH of 5.6. Acid rain is a form of
acid deposition that has a pH of below 5.6, and hence contains additional acids such as the oxides
of sulfur and nitrogen.

Explain both types of acid deposition making sure you define what it is (has a lower pH,
usually below 5.0).

- Acid deposition has a pH of less than 5.0, and includes all processes in which acidic components
such as precipitates or gases leave the atmosphere. An acidic compound refers to something that
has a pH of less than 5.6. The first type of acid deposition is wet acid deposition, which includes
snow, sleet, hail, fog, mist, dew, etc… which falls onto the ground as aqueous precipitates. The
second type of acid deposition is dry acid deposition, which includes the process of acidifying
particles, like gases falling to the ground as dust, and smoke, which later dissolve in water to
form acids.

Explain how acid deposition occurs with equations making sure that you cover the
following:

- Sulfur Oxides, such as sulfur dioxide, or SO2, a colorless gas, is mainly produced from the
burning of fossil fuels, like coal and heavy oils in power plant for electricity generation. It is also
released when metals are extracted from ores, through the industrial process of smelting. As a
result, around 50% of annual global emissions of sulfur dioxide come from coal. This is seen in
the reaction: S(g) + O2(g) → SO2(g). Sulfur Dioxide can also be oxidized to form sulfur trioxide:
2SO2(g) + O2 → 2SO3(g). Nitrogen Oxides, such as nitrogen monoxide, or NO, are mainly
produced from internal combustion engines, where the burning of fuel results in nitrogen and
oxygen in the atmosphere and air combining. This is seen in the reaction: N 2(g) + O2(g) →
2NO(g). Another oxide of nitrogen that could form would be the brown gas Nitrogen Dioxide,
which can be formed in the reactions: N2(g) + 2O2(g) + 2NO2(g), 2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g).
Acid deposition is formed when both nitrogen and sulfur oxides dissolve in water: Sulfur Dioxide
dissolves in water to form H2SO3: H2O (l) + SO2(g) → H2SO3(aq). Sulfur Trioxide can also
 dissolve in water to form H2SO4: H2O (l) + SO3(g) → H2SO4 (aq). Nitrogen monoxide can
dissolve in water to form a mixture of both nitrous acid (HNO 2) and nitric acid (HNO3): H2O (l) +
2NO2(g) → HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq). Nitrogen dioxide can also be oxidized to form nitric acid:
2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) → 4HNO3(aq).

Explain the effects of acid deposition.

- The main effects of acid deposition are its effects and impact on materials, impact on plant life,
impact on water, and impact on human health.
- Firstly, in terms of acid deposition’s impact on materials, building materials such as marble and
limestone are both forms of calcium carbonate or CaCO 3. Both sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid
react with this through dry deposition and wet deposition respectively, forming calcium sulfate:
2CaCO3(s) + 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2CaSO4(aq) + 2CO2(g), CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) +
H2O(l) + CO2(g). Since calcium sulfate is more durable than the original calcium carbonate, it
washes out of the limestone or flakes off, while since it has a greater molar volume than calcium
carbonate, its formation causes expansion and stress in the stonework. A similar reaction occurs
with nitric acid, forming nitric salt: CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g).
All of these reactions result in the erosion of buildings, structures, and many historic buildings
and statues.
- Acid deposition also affects metal, with dry deposition and acid rain working together to react
with metals and cause corrosion, creating an acid salt, while allowing ionic conductivity to occur,
increasing the rate of rusting. For example, sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid can react with iron to
form acid salts: Fe(s) + SO2(g) + O2(g) → FeSO4(s) or Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g).
Acid rain can also react with certain metals such as aluminum, removing the protective oxide
layer on the surface of the metal: Al2O3(s) + 6HNO3(aq) → 2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3H2O(l). Hence, this
allows acid rain to cause significant damage to metallic structures like buildings.
- Acid deposition can also slow growth, and cause injury or death in plants. This is because certain
ions and minerals such as Mg2+, Ca2+, and K+ become soluble in soil and are washed away due to
acid rain, and hence, they cannot be absorbed by plants. This results in plants not being able to
synthesize chlorophyll and conduct photosynthesis. It also introduces harmful substances such as
Al3+ which damage plant roots. Dry deposition can also block stomata or pores for gas exchange
- Acid deposition and acid rain have also caused lakes to be unable to support life. For example,
many fish cannot live in waters with pH levels below 5. If pH levels of water are below 4, rivers
are essentially dead as toxic Al3+ ions trapped under rocks as insoluble aluminum hydroxide leach
out: Al(OH)3(s) + 3H+(aq) → Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l). Aluminum affects fish’s gills and their ability to
 intake oxygen. Acid rain can also cause overfertilization of certain bodies of water, due to the
nitrates present. It results in algal blooms leading to oxygen depletion.
- Acid Deposition components can react to form fine sulfate or nitrate particles which can travel
long distances, and when inhaled, can irritate the eyes, the respiratory tract and increase the risk
of illnesses for asthma, bronchitis, etc… The release of toxic metal ions such as Al 3+, Pb2+, and
Cu2+ by acid rain on metal structures can also pose a health risk.

How can we mitigate the effects of acid deposition?

- SO2 emissions can be reduced through pre-combustion and post-combustion methods. The pre-
combustion method is a process that reduces the amount of sulfur present in coal or oil before
combustion. For metal sulfides, sulfur can be reduced by crushing the coal and washing it with
water. While hydrodesulfurization is a catalytic process used to remove sulfur from petroleum
products by reacting it with hydrogen to form HxS, which is later used to make sulfuric acid. Post-
combustion methods include Flue-gas desulfurization, which can remove up to 90% of sulfur
from flue gas in smokestacks of coal-fired power stations before it is released into the air. This is
seen in the reaction:
- CaO(s) + SO2(g) → CaSO3(s)
- CaCO3(s) + SO2(g) → CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)
- 2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) → 2CaSO4(s)
- Calcium sulfate made can then be used for other industrial processes
- Emissions for oxides of nitrates can also be reduced. For example, catalytic converters can be
used in vehicles by controlling exhaust gases, converting toxic emissions into relatively harmless
chemicals:
- 2CO(g) + 2NO(g) → 2CO2(g) + N2(g)
- Recirculating exhaust gas into the engine lowers its temperatures which can reduce nitrogen
oxide in emissions by the vehicle. While other options include trying to lower the demand for
fossil fuels, more efficient energy transfer systems, greater use of public transport, and switching
to more renewable energy sources. Another method is to use calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide
to restore ecosystems damaged by acid rain:
- CaO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + H2O(l)
- Ca(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)