WAVE OPTICS

Wave Optics :
Introduction, diffraction, construction and theory of plane diffraction grating, Determination
of wavelength of light for different colour using plane diffraction grating, Resolving power of
grating, Huygens’ theory of double refraction (positive and negative Crystals), optical activity,
Laurent’s half shade Polari meter, numerical.

4.1. INTRODUCTION:
It is matter of common experience that path of light entering a dark room through a hole in a
window illuminated by a sunlight is straight. Similarly if an opaque obstacle is placed in a path of light, a
sharp shadow is cast on the screen, indicating thereby that light travels in straight lines. It is also observed
that when a beam of light passes through a small opening (a small circular hole or a narrow slit) it spreads
to some extent in to the region of the geometrical shadow also. If light energy is propagated on the form
of waves then similar to sound waves one would expect bending of a beam of light round the edges of an
opaque obstacle or illuminating of the geometrical shadow.

4.2 DIFFRACTION:
According to Huygens’ wave theory, each progressive wave produces secondary waves, the
envelope of which forms the secondary wave front. In fig 4.1, S is narrow source of monochromatic light
and MN is small aperture. XY is the screen placed in the path of light. AB is illuminated portion of the

Fig. 4.1

screen and above A and below B is the region of geometrical shadow. Considering MN as primary wave
front, according to Huygens’ construction, if the secondary wave fronts are drawn, one could expect
encroachment of light in the geometrical shadow. Thus, shadows formed by small obstacles are not sharp.
This bending of light round the edges of an obstacle or the encroachment of light within the
geometrical shadow is called Diffraction. Diffraction can also be defined as the bending of light around
the corners of an obstacle and spreading of light waves in to geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
4.3. PLANE DIFFRACTION GRATING:
4.3.1 Introduction:
A diffraction grating is an extremely useful device and in one of its forms it consists of a very
large number of narrow slits side by side. The slits are separated by opaque spaces. When a wave front is
incident on a grating surface, light is transmitted through the slits and obstructed by the opaque portions.
Such a grating is called a transmission grating. The secondary waves from the positions of the slits
interfere with one another, similar to the interference of waves in Young’s experiment.
4.3.2 Construction:
Joseph Fraunhoffer used the first crating which consisted of a large number of parallel fine wires
stretched on a frame. Now, gratings are prepared
by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a glass
surface. The lines are drawn with a fine diamond
point. The space in between any two lines is
transparent to light and the lined portion is opaque
to light. Such surfaces act as transmission
gratings. If, on the other hand, the lines are drawn
on a silvered surface (plane or concave) then light
is reflected from the positions of the mirror in
between any two lines and such surfaces act as
reflection gratings.
Fig. 4.2

If the spacing between the lines is of the order of the wavelength of light, then an appreciable
deviation of the light is produced.
Gratings used for the study of the visible
region of the spectrum contain 10,000
lines per cm. Gratings, with originally
ruled surfaces are only few. For
practical purposes, replicas of the
original grating are prepared. On the
original grating surface a thin layer of
collodion solution is poured and the
solution is allowed to harden. Then, the
film of collodion is removed from the
grating surface and then fixed between Fig. 4.3
two glass plates. This serves as a plane
transmission grating. A large number of replicas are prepared in his way from a single original ruled
surface.
4.3.3 Theory:
In Fig. 4.2 is XY is the grating surface and MN is the screen, both perpendiculars to the plane of
the paper. The slits are all parallel to one another and perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Here AB is
a slit and BC is an opaque portion. The width of each slit is ‘a’ and the opaque spacing between any two
consecutive slits is b. Let a plane wave front be incident on the grating surface. Then all the secondary
waves travelling in the same direction as that of the incident light will come to focus at the point P on the
screen. The screen is placed at the focal plane of the collecting lens. The point P where all the secondary
waves reinforce one another corresponds to the position of the central bright maximum.
Now, consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at an angle θ with the
direction of the incident light (Fig. 4.3). The collecting lens also is suitably rotated such that the axis of
the lens is parallel to the direction of the secondary waves. These secondary waves come to focus at point
P1 on the screen. The intensity at P1 will depend on the path difference between the secondary waves
originating from the corresponding points A and C of two neighboring slits. In Fig. 1.3 AB = a, and BC =
b. The path difference CD between the secondary waves starting from A and C is equal to AC sin θ.

But AC = AB + BC = a + b
Path difference CD = AC Sin θ = (a + b) sinθ

The point P 1 will be of maximum intensity if this path difference is equal to integral multiples of
λ where λ is the wavelength of light. In this case, all the secondary waves originating from the
corresponding points of the neighbouring slits reinforce one another and the angle θ gives the direction of
maximum intensity. In general
(a + b) sin θn = n λ------------------------------(1)
where θn is the direction of the nth principal maximum. Putting n = 1, 2, 3 etc. The angles θ1, θ2, θ3
etc. corresponding to the directions of the principal maxima can be obtained.
If the incident light consists of more than one wavelength, the beam gets dispersed and the angles
of diffraction for different wavelengths will be different.
Let λ and λ + dλ be two nearby wavelengths present in the incident light and θ and (θ + dθ) be the
angles of diffraction corresponding to these two wavelengths. Then, for the first order principal maxima
(a + b) Sin θ = λ
and (a + b) Sin (θ + dθ) = λ + dλ
Thus, in any order, the number of principal maxima corresponds to the number of wavelengths
present. A number of parallel slit images corresponding to the different wavelengths will be observed on
the screen. In equation (1) n = 1 gives the direction of the first order image, n = 2 gives the direction of
the second order image and so on. When white light is used, the diffraction pattern on the screen consists
of a white central bright maximum and on both sides of this maximum a spectrum corresponding to the
different wavelengths of light present in the incident beam will be observed in each order.
The angle of diffraction θn corresponding to the direction of the n th principal maximum is given
by the equation
(a + b) sin θ n = n λ
In this equation, (a + b) is called the grating constant / grating element. For a grating with
15,000 lines / inch, the value of grating constant can be calculated as:
2. 54
(a + b)= cm
15,000
Grating constant =

4.4 WORKING (DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF A SPECTRAL LINE USING THE

TRANSMISSION GRATING):
 In the laboratory, the grating spectrum of a given source of light is obtained by using a
spectrometer. Initially all the adjustments of the spectrometer are made and it is adjusted for parallel rays
by Schuster’s method. The slit of the
collimator is illuminated by
monochromatic light (say light from
sodium lamp) and the position of the
telescope is adjusted such that the
image of the slit is obtained at the
position of the vertical cross-wire in
the field of view of the telescope.
Now, the axes of the collimator and
the telescope are in the same line.
Fig.4.4 The position of the telescope is noted
on the circular scale and 900 is added
to this reading. The telescope is turned to this position. In this position the axis of the telescope is
perpendicular to the axis of collimator. The position of the telescope is fixed. The given transmission
grating is mounted at the centre of the prism table such that the grating surface is perpendicular to the
prism table. The prism table is suitably rotated such that the image of the slit reflected from the grating
surface is obtained in the centre of field of view of the telescope. This means that the parallel rays of light
the collimator are incident at an angle 450 on the grating surface because the axis of the collimator and the
telescope are perpendicular to each other. The reading of the prism table is noted and adding 450 to this
reading, the prism table is suitably rotated to the new position so that the grating surface is normal to the
incident light.
If the wavelength of the sodium light is to be determined, then the angles of diffraction and θ 1
and θ2 corresponding to the first and second order principal maxima are determined Fig. 1.4 OA, OB etc,
give the directions of the telescope corresponding to the first and second order images. A´, B´ etc refers to
the positions of these images towards the left of the central maximum. The angles AOA´ and BOB´ are
measured and half of these angles measure θ1 and θ2. Then
(a + b) Sin θ1 = l λ------------------------- (1)
and (a + b) Sin θ2 = 2 λ------------------------ (2)
Then the value of λ is calculated from equations (1) and (2) and the mean value is
taken. (a + b) is the grating element and it is equal to the reciprocal of the number of lines per cm. If the
number of lines on the grating surface is 15,000 per inch then:
2.54
(a+b)= cm
15,000
With a diffraction grating, the wavelength of the spectral line can be determined very accurately.
The method involves only the accurate measurement of the angles of diffraction.

4.5 RESOLVING POWER:

When two objects or their images are very close to each other, they appear as one and it may not
be possible for the eye to see them as separate. If the objects are not seen separately, then we say that the
details are not resolved by the eye. Optical instrument are used to assist the eye in resolving the objects or
images. The method adapted to seeing the close objects as a, separate objects is called resolution.
 The ability of an optical instrument to produce distinctly separate images of two objects located
very close to each other is called its resolving power.
Resolving power is normally defined as the reciprocal of the smallest angle subtended at the
objective of optical instrument by two point objects, which can just be distinguished as separate.
Rayleigh’s condition can also be stated as follows. Two images are said to be just resolved if
the radius of the central disc of either pattern is equal to the distance between the centres of the two
patterns.

4.6 RESOLVING POWER OF A PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING:

The resolving power of a grating is
defined as the ratio of the wavelength λ of any
spectral line to the smallest difference in
wavelength d λ, between this line and a
neighbouring line such that the two lines appear
just resolved, according to Rayleigh’s criterion.
λ
∵ Resolving power of a grating = dλ
In Fig. 4.5, XY is the grating surface and
MN is the field of view of the telescope, P 1 is nth
primary maximum of a spectral line of wavelength
λ at an angle of diffraction θn. P2 is the nth primary
Fig. 4.5 maximum of a second spectral line of wavelength
λ + dλ at a diffracting angle θn + dθ. P1 and P2 are
the spectral lines in the nth order. These two spectral lines according to Rayleigh will appear just resolved
if the position of P2 also corresponds to the first minimum of P1.

The direction of the nth primary maximum for a wavelength λ is given by,
(a + b) Sin θn = n λ
The direction of the n primary maximum for a wavelength λ + dλ is given by.
th

(a + b) Sin (θn + dθ) = n(λ + dλ)--------------------(1)

These two lines will appear just resolved if the angle of diffraction (θn + dθ) also corresponds to
the direction of the first secondary minimum after the n th primary maximum at P1 (corresponding to the
λ
wavelength λ). This is possible if the extra path difference introduced is N , where N is the total number
of lines on the grating surface.
λ
( a+b ) sin ( θn + dθ ) =nλ+
N ---------------------------------(2)

Equating, the right hand sides of equations (1) and (2).

 λ λ λ
n ( λ+ dλ )=nλ + nd λ= =nN
N or N or dλ
λ
= nN
The quantity dλ measures the resolving power of a grating. Thus, the resolving
power of a grating is independent of the grating constant. The resolving power is directly proportional to
(i) the order of the spectrum and (ii) the total number of lines on the grating surface. For a given grating,
the distance between the spectral lines is double in the second order spectrum than that in the first order
spectrum.
'
dθ n nN
= =
The dispersive power of a grating is given by. dλ (a +b ) cos θ cosθ ; and the resolving
λ
= nN
power of a grating is given by dλ , where n is the order of the spectrum and N is the total number
of lines on the grating surface. N’ is the number of lines per cm on the grating surface. Here θ gives the
direction of the nth principal maximum corresponding to a wavelength λ. From the above equation, it is
clear that the dispersive power increases with increase in the number of lines per cm and the resolving
power increases with increases in the total number of lines on the grating surface (i.e. the width of the
grating surface).

High dispersive power refers to wide separation of the spectral lines whereas high resolving
power refers to the ability of the instrument to show nearby spectral lines as separate ones.

4.7 DOUBLE REFRACTION:

In 1669 Erasmus Bartholinus, discovered that when a beam of ordinary unpolarized light is
passed through a calcite crystal, the refracted light is split up into two refracted rays [see Fig. 1.14 (a)].
The one which always obeys the ordinary laws of refraction and having vibrations perpendicular to the
principal section is known as ordinary ray. The other, in general, does not obey the laws of refraction and
having vibrations in the principal section is called as extra-ordinary ray. Both the rays are plane polarized.
This phenomenon is known as double refraction. The crystals showing this phenomenon are known as
doubly refracting crystals.
There are two types of doubly refracting crystals: 1) uniaxial, and (2) biaxial. In uniaxial crystals
there is only one direction (optic axis) along which the two refracted rays travel with the same velocity
(examples are calcite, tourmaline and quartz). In
biaxial crystals, there are two such directions
along which the velocities are the same
(examples are topaz, aragonite etc.).
The phenomenon of double refraction
can be illustrated with the following simple
experiment. An ink dot is made on a white paper
and a calcite crystal is placed over it. Now
Fig. 4.6 looking through the top face, two images are
observed. If now the crystal is rotated slowly, it is
observed that one image remains stationary while the other rotates in the direction of rotation of crystal.
The stationary image is known as ordinary image while the rotating one is known as extra—ordinary
image.
Consider a beam AB of un-polarized light incident on the calcites crystal at an angle of incidence
i as shown in Fig. 4.6. Inside the crystal the ray breaks up into ordinary and extra-ordinary rays. The
ordinary ray traveling along BD makes an angle of refraction r1 while the extraordinary traveling along
BC makes an angle of refraction r2. Since the two opposite faces of the crystal are always parallel, both
the rays emerge parallel to the incident rays. The refractive indices of ordinary and extra-ordinary rays
can be expressed as μ0 = Sin i / Sin r1 and μe = Sin i / Sin r2 respectively.
In case of calcite μ 0 > μe because r1 < r2. Therefore the velocity of light for ordinary ray inside
the crystal will be less than the extra-ordinary ray. It is observed that μ 0 is same for all the angles of
incidence while μe varies with angles of incidence. Therefore ordinary ray travels with the same speed in
all directions while extra-ordinary has different speeds in different directions.

4.8 HUYGENS’ EXPLANATION OF DOUBLE REFRACTION IN UNIAXIAL CRYSTAL:

The propagation of light may be treated in terms of wave surfaces. If a point source of natural
light is imagined to be embedded within an isotropic substance such as glass, it gives rise to one wave
surface, which is spherical in
shape. The wave front stimulates
atoms, which then act as sources
of spherical wavelets, all of which
are in phase. They expand in all
directions with the same velocity.
In case of a double
refracting crystal, two wave
surfaces will be formed
simultaneously, with the result
that the beam will split into two
rays. The wave surface
Fig. 4.7 corresponding to 0-ray propagates
with the same velocity in all
directions and is therefore
spherical. The wave surface corresponding to e-ray is an ellipsoid of revolution about the optic axis, since
e-ray travels with different velocities in different directions within the crystal, as represented in fig. 1.16.
The two wave surfaces touch each other at two points and the line joining these points defines the
direction of the optic axis. As light propagates through the crystal, the two wave surfaces travel in
different directions in the crystal. Ultimately, two refracted rays emerge from the crystal.
Because of two different wave fronts, two different types of situations arise. The spherical
wave front of o-ray may be enclosed by the ellipsoidal wave front of e-ray in one type of crystals. Such
crystals are known as negative crystals. They are called negative crystals because the refractive index
corresponding to the e-ray is less than that corresponding to o-ray. Calcite crystal is an example of
negative type crystals. In the other case, the extraordinary wave front lies within the ordinary wave front
and such crystals are called positive crystals. They are positive because the refractive index for the
extraordinary ray is greater than that of o-ray.
4.9 COMPARISON OF ORDINARY AND EXTRAORDINARY RAYS:

Ordinary Rays Extraordinary Rays

1. Ordinary ray obeys the conventional laws 1. Extraordinary ray does not obeys the
of refraction. conventional laws of refraction.
2. Both ordinary and extraordinary rays are plane polarized. They are polarized in mutually
perpendicular planes.
3. The electric vector of ordinary ray vibrates 3. The electric vector of extraordinary ray vibrates
perpendicular to the principal section of parallel to the principal section of extraordinary
ordinary ray. ray.
4. Ordinary ray travels with the same speed in 4. Extraordinary ray travels with the different
all directions within the crystal. speeds along different directions in the crystal.
5. The speeds of both these rays are equal along the optic axis.
6. Ordinary ray travels with the same velocity 6. The refractive index for extraordinary ray varies
in all directions, the refractive index from direction to direction.
corresponding to it has constant value.
7. The principal refractive index for ordinary 7. The principal refractive index for extraordinary
ray is defined as rat is defined as
C Velocity of light in vaccum a) For positive crystals
μo = =
υ o Velocity of o-ray in crystal C Minimum Velocity of e-ray in ¿
μe = =Velocity of light in vaccum¿ ¿
(υo )min the crystal ¿
b) For negative crystals
C Maximum Velocity of e-ray in ¿
μe= =Velocity of light in vaccum¿ ¿
(υo )max the crystal ¿
8. When natural light is incident on an anisotropic crystal at an angle to the optic axis, it splits in to
ordinary and extraordinary rays, which travel in different directions with different velocities.

4.10 COMPARISON OF POSITIVE CRYSTALS AND NEGATIVE CRYSTALS:

Positive Crystals Negative Crystals

1. In positive uniaxial crystals, the ellipsoid of 1. In negative uniaxial crystals the ellipsoid of
revolution corresponding to the e-ray is revolution for e-ray lies completely outside
totally contained within the sphere the sphere corresponding to o-ray. (Fig.
corresponding to the o-ray. (Fig. 2.2.13 2.2.13(b)).
(a)).
2. In positive crystals, the e-ray velocity has 2. In negative crystals the velocity of e-ray has
maximum value along the optic axis and a minimum value parallel to optic axis and a
minimum value in the direction maximum value in a direction perpendicular
perpendicular to the optic axis. to the optic axis.
3. In positive crystals, e-ray travel slower than 3. In negative crystals, o-ray travel slower than
 o-ray in all directions except along the e-ray in all directions except along the optic
optic axis. axis.
υe = υo – parallel to optic axis υe = υo – parallel to optic axis
υe < υo – other directions. υe > υo – other directions.
4. In positive crystals the principal refractive 4. In negative crystals the principal refractive
index for e-ray is larger than the principal index for o-ray is larger than the principal
refractive index for o-ray. refractive index for e-ray.
μe > μ o μ e < μo
5. Birefringence or amount of double 5. Birefringence or amount of double refraction
refraction of a crystal is positive quantity of a crystal is negative crystal as μe < μo.
for positive crystal as μe > μo

Birefringence or amount of double refraction of a crystal is defined as

Δ μ=μ e−μ o
4.11 OPTICAL ACTIVITY:

It is observed that certain substances like quartz sugar crystals, (or sugar in solution) etc, rotate
the plane of vibration of a plane polarized light passing through them. In Fig. 1.17, a quartz crystal on
which plane polarized light is incident with its plane of vibration parallel to its optic axis is shown. When
the plane polarized light travel inside
the crystal its plane of vibration is
slowly rotated about the direction of
propagation. i.e. emergent light has
vibrations in some other plane.
This property of rotating the
plane of vibration of plane polarized
light and about its direction of travel by
Fig. 4.8 some crystal is known as ‘optical
activity’. Thus phenomenon is known
as optical rotation and the angle through which the plane of polarization is rotated is known as angle of
rotation.
Some observed facts about optical rotation:
Biot observed the following facts about the optical rotation:
1. There are two types of optically active substances.
a) Dextrorotatory Substances: substances which rotate the plane of polarization of the light
towards the right are known as right-handed or dextrorotatory.
b) Laevorotatory Substances: substances which rotate the plane of polarization of the light
towards the left are known as left-handed or laevorotatory.
2. The amount of rotation θ produced by an optically active substance is proportional to its thickness
(l) traversed.
i.e. θ ¿ < l
3. In case of solutions and vapors, the amount of rotation for given path length is proportional to the
concentration (C) of the solution of vapor.
i.e. θ ¿ C
4. The rotation varies inversely as the square of wavelength (λ) of light employed
 1
θ ∝
i.e. λ2
Thus it is least for red and greater for violet.
5. The total rotation (θ) produced by a number of optically active substances is the algebraic sum of
the rotations (θ1, θ2, θ3 etc.) produced by individual specimen.
i.e. θ = θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + . . . .
(The rotation in the anticlockwise direction is taken as positive and that in clockwise direction as
negative.)

4.12 SPECIFIC ROTATION:

If an optically active material is kept between two crossed polarizers, the field of view becomes
bright. In order to get darkness once again, the analyzer has to be rotated through an angle. The angle
through which the analyzer is rotated equals the angle through which the plane of polarization is rotated
by the optically active substance. This angle depends on
a) the thickness of the substance.
b) density of the material or concentration of the solution.
c) wavelength of light, and
d) the temperature.

The amount of rotation θ caused by crystalline materials is given by

θ∝ l
In solutions the amount of rotation θ is given by
θ∝cl ∴ θ= sc ℓ

where ‘c’ is the concentration and‘s’ is called the specific rotation,

The specific rotation for a given wavelength of light at a given temperature is defined
conventionally as the rotation produced by one decimeter long column of the solution containing 1gm of
optically active material per c.c. of solution.

[ S]
t
θ
λ= ℓ x c ----------------------(1)
where θ – rotation in degree
l - length in decimeters
c – conc. in gm/cc

[ S]
t
10 θ
=
λ ℓ xc
or ----------------------(2)
where θ – rotation in degree
l - length in centimeters
c – conc. in gm/cc

4.13 LAURENT’S HALF SHADE POLARIMETER:

4.13.1 Introduction:
A polarimeter is an instrument used for determining the optical rotation of solutions. When used
for determining the quantity of sugar in a solution it’s called a saccharimeter.

4.13.2 Construction:
A polarimeter consists of a glass tube for holding the solution under test held between crossed
Nicol prisms. N1 and N2. Beyond the polarizing Nicol prism a half-shade plate is located which is used for

Fig. 4.9

accurately adjusting the two Nicol prisms for crossed position. G is a glass tube which contains the
optically active solution. Light from a monochromatic source is rendered parallel by the lens L and is
incident on the polarizer. N1. The light transmitted by the polarizer is plane polarized. The polarized beam
then passes through the half-shade plate and then through the glass tube G. The light emerging from the
solution will be incident on the analyzer N 2. The light is observed through a telescope T, as represented in
fig. 1.18. The analyzing Nicol N2 can be rotated about the axis of the tube and the rotation can be easured
with the help of a graduated circular scale.

4.13.3 Working:
To find the specific rotation of a solution, the analyzer is first adjusted such that field of view is
completely dark. Then the glass tube is filled with the solution and is held in position. The field of view
now becomes illuminated. The field of view can be again be made dark by rotating the analyzer through a
certain angle which gives the optical rotation of the solution. The practical difficulty in this method is in
determination of the exact position for which complete darkness is achieved. The difficulty is overcome
by using what is known as a Laurent half-shade device (Fig.1.19).
Laurent half-shade device consists of a semicircular half wave place ACB of quartz cemented to a
semicircular plate ADB of glass. The optic axis of the wave plate is parallel to the line of separation AB.
The half wave plate introduces a phase difference of 180° between e-
ray and o-ray passing through it. The thickness of the glass plate is
such that it transmits the same amount of light as done by the quartz
half wave plate. One half of the incident light passes through the
quartz plate ACB and the other half through the glass plate ADB.
The light after passing through the polarizer is incident
normally on the half shade plate and has vibrations along OP. On
passing through the glass, half the vibrations will remain along OP but
on passing through the quartz half, the vibrations will split into e- and
o-rays. The o-vibrations are along OD and e-vibrations are along OA.
Fig. 4.10 The half wave plate introduces a phase difference of π rad between the
two vibrations. The vibrations of o-ray will occur along OC instead of
OD on emerging from the plate. Therefore the resultant vibration will be along OQ whereas the vibrations
of the beam emerging from glass plate will be along OP.
In effect, the half wave plate turns the plane of polarization of the incident light through an angle
2θ. If the principal plane of the Nicol N 2, is aligned parallel to OP, the plane polarized light emerging
from the glass tube will pass through the glass plate of the half shade plate and that part appears brighter.
On the other hand light coming out of the quartz plate is partially obstructed and the corresponding field
of view appears less bright.
If the principal plane of N2 is parallel to OQ the quartz half will appear brighter than the glass
half. Thus, the two halves of the plate are unequally illuminated. When the principal plane of N 2 is
parallel to AB, the two halves appear equally bright and when it is parallel to CD, the two halves are
equally dark.
To find the specific rotation of a solution, the analyzer is first set in the position for equal
darkness without solution in the tube G. The reading on the circular scale is noted.
Next, the tube is filled with the optically active solution of known concentration. The field of
view is now partially illuminated. The analyzer is rotated till the field of
view becomes equally dark. The reading on the circular scale is noted
again. The difference between the two scale readings gives the angle of
rotation of the plane of polarization caused by the solution. Knowing the
values of θ, l, and c, the specific rotation is obtained using the formula 1 or
2. Or otherwise, knowing the value of the specific rotation, the
concentration of the solution can be determined with the help of the
equation 1 or 2.
In the actual experiment, different concentrations of solutions are
Fig. 4.11
taken and the corresponding angles of rotation are determined. A graph is
plotted between concentration C and the angle of rotation θ. The graph is a
straight line. (fig. 4.11).
Using the value of the slope in equation 1 or 2, the specific rotation of the optically active
substance is calculated. The accurate concentration can be found out by knowing the angle of rotation for
a solution.

*****
 LASER
INTRODUCTION:
Laser is one of the outstanding inventions of the 20 th century. Laser is photonic device, which is
actually responsible for the resurgence of interest in optical technology and for the birth of a new field,
namely Photonics.
The world laser is the acronym for Light Amplification through Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. However, Laser is not a simple amplifier of light but is actually a generator of light.
Lasers are essentially coherent optical sources. It was as early as in 1917 that Einstein first
predicted the existence of two different kinds of processes by which an atom can emit radiation. These are
called spontaneous and stimulated emission. The fact that stimulated emission process could be used in
the construction of coherent optical sources was first put forward by Townes and Schawlov in the USA
and Bosov and Prokhorov in the USSR. Maimam demonstrated the first working Laser in 1960.
Laser differs vastly from the traditional light sources. It is not used for illumination purpose as we
use other light sources. Laser produces a highly directional coherent monochromatic light beam. Laser is
most sought after tool in metal working, entertainment electronics, optical communications and bloodless
surgery, weapon guidance in wars and in a wide variety of other fields.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF LASER:

Some of the basic concepts associated with the laser are discussed in this section. These include
concepts such as spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, absorption, population inversion and
pumping.

3.1.2.1 Spontaneous Emission:

Let us consider two energy levels 1
and 2 of some given atom, its energy being E 1
and E2 (Fig. 3.1a). For convenience level 1 is
taken to be the ground level. Let us now
assume that the atom is initially in level 2.
Fig. 3.1 Since E2 > E1, the atom will tend to decay on
its own to level 1. The corresponding energy
difference (E2 - E1) must therefore be released by the atom. When this energy is delivered in the form of
an electromagnetic wave or photon, the process is called spontaneous emission. The frequency v of the
radiated wave is then given by the expression.
E 2 - E1
υ=
h ----------------------------(1)
Where h is the Planck’s constant. Note that radiative emission is just one of the two possible
ways for the atom to decay. The decay can also occur in a non-radiative way for some levels. In this case
the energy difference E2 - E1 is delivered in some form other than electromagnetic radiation (e.g., it may
go into kinetic energy of the surrounding molecules).

Stimulated Emission:
Let us again suppose that the atom is found initially in level 2 and that an electromagnetic wave
of frequency v given by equation 1 is incident on the atom (Fig. 2.1.b). Since this wave has the same
frequency as the atomic frequency, there is a finite probability that this wave will force the atom to
undergo the transaction 2 → 1. In this case the energy difference E 2 - E1 is delivered in the form of an
electromagnetic wave which adds to the incident one. This is the phenomenon of stimulated emission.
There is, however, a fundamental distinction between the spontaneous and stimulated emission
processes. In the case of spontaneous emission, the atom emits an electromagnetic wave which has no
definite phase or directional relation with that emitted by another atom. In the case of stimulated
emission, since the process is forced by the incident electromagnetic wave, the emitted light by the atom
is in phase with that of the incident electromagnetic wave. The emitted wave is also in the same direction
as that of the incident wave. The concept of stimulated emission was first put forward by A. Einstein in
1917.

COMPARISON BETWEEN SPONTANEOUS EMISSION AND STIMULATED EMISSION:

Sr.
No Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
.
1. It is a natural transition in which an atom is It is a artificial transition in which occurs due
de-exited after the end of its life time in the to de-excitation of an atom before the end of
higher energy level. its life time in the higher energy level.
2. The photon emitted due to spontaneous The photon emitted due to stimulated emission
emission can be moved in any direction. can be moved only in the direction of incident
photons.
3. The probability of spontaneous emission The probability of stimulated emission
depends only on the properties of the two depends on the properties of the two energy
energy level between which the transition levels involved in the transition as well as on
occur. the energy density of incident radiations.

Absorption:
Let us now assume that the atom is initially lying in level 1 (Fig. 2.1.C). If this is the ground
level, the atom will remain in this level unless some external stimuli is applied to it. We shall assume then
that an electromagnetic wave of frequency υ (given by equation 1) is incident on the material. The energy
difference E2 – E1 required by the atom to undergo the transition is obtained from the energy of the
incident electromagnetic wave. This is called absorption.

Population Inversion: (Awadhanulu & Kshrirasagar, Edition 2014, Page: 709)

When the material is in thermal equilibrium condition, the population ratio is governed by the
Boltzmann factor according to the following equation:
N 2 −( E −E ) /kT
=e 2 1

N1

It means that the population N2 at the excited level E 2 will be far smaller than the population N 1 at
the level E1. (For example, if we take typical values for E 1 and E2, the population N1 would be 1030 times
of N2.) The condition in which there are more atoms in the lower energy level and relatively lesser
number of atoms in the higher energy
level is called normal state or
equilibrium state (fig. 3.2a). Under the
thermal equilibrium condition, the
value of N1>> N2.
Population inversion is the
Fig. 3.2 condition of the material in which
population of the upper energy level N2
far exceeds the population of the lower energy level, N 1 (fig. 3.2 b). That is, N1<<N2
In this condition the population distribution between the levels E1 and E2 is inverted and hence it
is known as the inverted state. This is a non-equilibrium state and exists only for a short time. Population
inversion is obtained by employing pumping techniques, which transfer large number of atoms from
lower energy level to higher energy level.

Pumping:
For achieving and maintaining the condition of population inversion, we have to raise continuously
the atoms in the lower energy to the upper energy level. It requires energy to be supplied to the system.
Pumping is the process of supplying energy to the laser medium with a view to transfer it into the state of
population inversion. Because N1 is originally very much larger than N 2, a large amount of input energy is
required to momentarily increase N2 to a value comparable to N1.
These are number of techniques for pumping a collection of atoms to an invested state. Those are
1. Optical pumping
2. Electrical discharge
3. Direct conversion.

e. g. Optical Pumping: a light source such as a flash discharge tube is used to illuminate the active
medium. This method is adopted in solid state laser.
In Electrical discharge method, the electric field causes ionization of the medium and raises it to the
excited state.
In Semiconductor diode laser, a direct conversion of electrical energy in to light energy takes place.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ORDINARY BEAM OF LIGHT AND LASER:

Sr.
No Ordinary beam of light Laser beam
.
1. It is not monochromatic. It is monochromatic.
2. It is incoherent; i. e. the constituent waves are It is coherent; i. e. the constituent waves are
generally not in the same phase. exactly in the same phase.
3. It does not travel longer distance as divergent It travels longer distance as concentrated and
beam. parallel.
4. Ordinary light produced by spontaneous Laser beam produced by stimulated emission.
emission.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER BEAM:

The important characteristics of laser beam are as follows –

1.Directionality:
The conventional light sources emit light uniformly in all directions. When we need narrow beam
in specific direction, we obtain it by placing a slit in front of source of light.
In case of laser, the active material is in a cylindrical resonant cavity. Any light that is traveling in
a direction other than parallel to the cavity axis is eliminated and only the light that is travelling parallel to
the axis is selected and reinforced. Light propagating along the axial direction emerges from the cavity
and becomes the laser beam. Thus, a laser emits light only in one direction.

2.Divergence:
Light from conventional sources spreads out in the form of spherical wave fronts and hence it is
highly divergent. On the other hand light from laser propagates in the form of plane waves. The light
beam remains essentially a bundle of parallel rays. The small divergence that exists is due to the
diffraction of the beam at the exit mirror. A typical value of divergence of a He-Ne laser is 10 -3 radians. It
means that the diameter of the laser beam increases by about 1 mm for every meter it travels.

3. Intensity:
The intensity of light from a conventional source decreases rapidly with distance, as it spreads in
the form of spherical waves. One can look at the source without any harm to his eyes. In contrast, a laser
emits light in the form of a narrow beam which propagates in the form of plane waves. As the energy is
concentrated in a very narrow region, its intensity would be tremendously high. It is estimated that light
from a typical 1-m W laser is 10,000 times brighter than the light from the sun at the surface. The
intensity of the laser beam stays nearly constants with distance as the light travels in the form of plane
waves.

4. Coherence:
 A conventional light source such as an incandescent lamp or a natural source such as the sun
produces incoherent light since they emit random wavelength light waves with no common phase
relationships. On the other hand, the waves emitted by a laser source will be in phase and are of the same
frequency. Therefore, light generated by a laser is highly coherent.
The coherence length of light radiation by conventional monochromatic source is of the order of a
few millimeters. On the other hand the coherence length of light emitted by laser beam is of the order of
one km.

5. Monochromaticity:
If light coming from a source has only frequency (single wavelength) of oscillation, the light is
said to be monochromatic source. Light from traditional monochromatic source spreads over a
wavelength range of 100 Å to 1000Å. On the other hand, the light from lasers is highly monochromatic
and contains a very narrow range of a few angstroms (< 10 Å).

TYPES OF LASERS:
There are several ways in which we can classify lasers in to different types. We prefer here to
classify the lasers on the basis of the material used as active medium. Accordingly, they are broadly
divided into four categories and few subcategories as mentioned below
1. Solid State Laser
- Ruby laser
- Nd : YAG laser
2. Gas Laser
- He-Ne laser
- CO2 laser
3. Liquid Dye Lasers
4. Solid State Diode Laser or Semiconductor Diode Laser.
Among all the various types of lasers, few out of them are discussed below of our interest.

SOLID STATE LASER (RUBY LASER):

Introduction:
Ruby laser belongs to the class of solid state lasers. The term solid state has different meanings in
the field of electronics and lasers. A solid state laser is one in which the active centers are fixed in a
crystal or glassy material. Solid state lasers are electrically non-conducting. They are also called doped
insulator lasers.
Historically, the ruby laser was the first laser. It was invented in 1960 by Theodore Maiman,
U.S.A. The ruby laser rod is in fact a synthetic ruby crystal, Al 2O3 crystal, doped with chromium ions at a
concentration of about 0.05% by weight. Cr 3+ ions are the actual active centers and have a set of three
energy levels suitable for realizing lasing action whereas aluminium and oxygen atoms are inert.

3.1.5.2. Construction:
 Fig.3.3

The schematic of a ruby laser is shown in Fig. 3.3. Ruby rod is taken in the form of a cylindrical
rod of about 4 cm in length and 0.5 cm in diameter. Its ends are grounded and polished such that the end
faces are exactly parallel and are also perpendicular the axis of the rod. One face is silvered to achieve
100% reflection while the other is silvered to give 10% transmission and 90% reflection. The silvered
faces constitute the Fabry-Perot resonator. The laser rod is surrounded by a helical photographic flash
lamp filled with xenon. Whenever activated by the power supply the lamp produces flashes of white light.

Working:
Ruby laser uses a three-level pumping scheme. The energy levels of Cr 3+ ions in the crystal
lattice are shown in Fig. 3.4. There are two wide energy bands E 3 and E´3 and a pair of closely spaced
levels at E2. When the flash lamp is activated, the xenon discharge generates an intense burst of white
light lasting for a few milliseconds. The Cr 3+ ions are excited to the energy bands E 3 and E´3 by the green
and blue components of white light. The energy levels in these bands have a very small lifetime (≈10 -9s).
Hence the excited Cr3+ ions rapidly lose some of the energy to the crystal lattice and undergo non-
radiative transitions. They quickly drop to the levels E 2. The pair of levels at E 2 are metastable states
having a lifetime of approximately 1000 times more than the lifetime of E 3 level. Therefore, Cr3+ ions
accumulate at E2 level. When more than half of the Cr 3+ ion population accumulates at E2 level, the state
of population inversion is established between E 2 and E1 levels. A chance photon emitted spontaneously
by a Cr3+ ion initiates a chain of stimulated emissions by other Cr 3+ ions in the metastable state. Red
photons of wavelength 6943 Å traveling along the axis of the ruby rod are repeatedly reflected at the end
mirrors and light amplification takes place. A strong intense beam of red light merges out of the front-end
mirror.
Note that the green and blue components of light play the role of pumping agents and are
responsible for causing population
inversion. The spontaneous photons of λ =
6943 Å, corresponding to red colour, act as
the input of the oscillator which actually
gets amplified. The xenon flash lasts for a
few milliseconds. However, the laser does
not operate throughout this period. Its
output occurs in the form of irregular
pulses of microsecond duration. It is
because the stimulated transitions occur
faster than the rate at which population
inversion is maintained in the crystal. Once
stimulated transitions commence, the
metastable state E2 gets depopulated very
rapidly and at the end of each small pulse,
Fig. 3.4
the population at E2 has fallen below the
threshold value required for sustained
emission of light. As a result the lasing ceases and laser becomes inactive. The next pulse appears after
the population inversion is once again restored. The process repeats.

Metastable State:
 The life time of an atom in excited state is found to be very small about 10 -8 seconds. The
intermediate state of comparatively larger life time is called metastable state.
Metastable state is such state, in which in order to establish the condition of population invertion
the excited atoms are required to remain for longer time at the upper energy level till large number of
atoms accumulate at that level. In metastable state single photon emission is not possible. Atoms remains
excited for time which is of the order of 10-3 seconds.
Hence, metastable state allows accumulation of large number of excited atoms at that level. It
establishes the condition of population inversion, without metastable state it is impossible to create the
state of population invertion and hence no laser action occurs if metastable state does not exist.

APPLICATIONS OF LASER:
Engineering:
1. The lasers have wide industrial applications. They can blast holes in diamond and hard steels.
2. Laser beam is highly intense. Hence it can be utilized in applications such as welding cutting and
ablation of material. One advantage of laser is that the beam can be focused into the fine spot.
Small spot size implies that high energy densities are possible.
3. The laser beam is particularly suited for welding of fine wires, contacts in miniature assemblies
etc. lasers are also found suitable for machining and drilling holes.
Medical:
1. Lasers have wide medical applications. They have been used successfully in the treatment of
detached retinas.
2. Preliminary success had also been obtained to treat the human and animal cancers.
3. Microsurgery is also possible because laser beams can be focused on very small areas (due to
very narrow angular spread) and hence one harmful component can be destroyed without
seriously damaging neighboring regions.
4. Lasers are used for treatment of dental decay, the destruction of malignant tumors and the
treatment of skin diseases.
5. In recent years genetic research has wide scope with the help of fine highly penetrating laser
beam.

Communication:
1. Due to narrow band width, lasers are used in microwave communication. We know that is
microwave communication the signal is mounted on carrier waves by the process of modulation.
If band width of carrier wave is limited, the no. of channels of message which can be carried
simultaneously is limited. By use of lasers, more channels of message can be accommodated as
the band width is very small.
2. By the use of lasers, the storage capacity for information in computers is generally improved due
to the narrowness of the band width. The IBM Corporation is trying to transmit an entire memory
bank from one computer to another by the use of laser beam.
3. Low power semiconductor lasers are used in CD players, laser printers, laser copiers, office
automation equipments, optical floppy disc, optical memory cards, information processing
devices, range finders, strain gauges, optical micrometers, velocity meters, measuring
instruments, information transmission in optical communication, radar signalling etc.
Science:
 1. Laser has applications is the field of pure science. Laser offers a wonderful opportunity to
investigate the basic laws of interaction of atoms and molecules with electromagnetic waves of
high intensity. Many a new optical phenomenon has been observed with lasers, which otherwise
would not have been possible.
2. Due to narrow angular spread, the laser beams have become means of communication between
earth, moon and other satellites. The distances between various satellites can be very accurately
determined by using the laser. The distance between earth and moon can be determined to an
accuracy of ± 15 m.
3. The velocities of moving objects can be very easily calculated by comparing frequency of the
laser signal reflected from the object with the emitted frequency.
4. They can initiate or hasten certain chemical reactions which could not be possible in the absence
of suitable photons. They can be used for investigating the structure of molecules.
5. Raman spectroscopy is one in which lasers have made so much impact that a separate branch
named as Laser Raman Spectroscopy has grown rapidly.
6. By use of lasers, the Raman spectrum can be obtained for much smaller samples and faster too.
Not only that but some interactions also arise due to high intensity excitation which provides
additional information.
7. It is well known that enormous energy released from the sun and the stars is due to thermonuclear
fusion reactions. Attempts are being made to generate fusion energy in laboratory. One of the
difficulties associated with the fusion reactions is requirement of very high temp of the order of
108 K for the fusion reaction to occur. This can be obtained by heating the thermonuclear material
with the half of lasers
8. Lasers are also employed for separating various isotopes of an elements. This has enormous use
for the large scale enrichment of uranium for use in nuclear power reactors. There are many
applications for the pure isotopes in medicine. In isotopes separation using lasers beam, one
makes the use of the slight differences in the energy levels of the atoms of the isotopes due to
difference in nuclear mass. This light of certain wavelength may be absorbed by one isotope,
while the other isotope of the element may not be absorbed it. This is one of the important simple
and very useful methods to separate various isotopes.
Military:
Their study also oriented for military purpose. They can be served as was weapon. It has been
predicted that they become legendary ‘death ray’ which could annihilate anything near or far.

HOLOGRAPHY:

Introduction:
Image of the object are generally obtained using photographic method. In this method a lense
focuses the light reflected from three-dimensional object in to photographic firm. Where, two dimensional
image of the object is formed. A negative is first obtained by developing the film and then positive is
obtained through printing. The positive print is two dimensional record of light intensity received from
the object. It contains information about the square of the amplitude of the light wave that produced the
image but the information about the phase of the wave is not recorded and is lost.
 In 1948 Dennis Gabor outlined a two step lenseless imaging process. It is radically a new
technique of photographing the objects and is known as wave front reconstruction. The technique is
called holography.
The word ‘holography’ is formed by combining parts tit two Greek words: ‘holos’, meaning
‘whole’, and ‘graphein’ meaning ‘to write’. Thus holography means writing the complete image.
Holography is actually a recording of interference pattern formed between two beams of coherent light
coming from the same source. In this process both the amplitude and phase components of light wave are
recorded on a light sensitive medium such as a photographic plate. The recording is known as a
hologram. Holography required an intense coherent light source. Laser was not available when Gabor
formulated the idea of holography. Holographic technique became a practical proposition only alter the
invention of lasers. Leith and Upatnicks prepared laser holograms for the first time. In this chapter we
discuss the fundamental concept of holography.

PRINCIPLE OF HOLOGRAPHY:
Holography is a two-step process. First step is the recording of hologram where the object is
transformed into a photographic record and the second step is the reconstruction in which the hologram is
transformed into the image. Unlike in the conventional photography, lens is not required in either of the
steps. A hologram is the result of interference occurring between two waves, an object beam which is the
light scattered off the object and a coherent background, the reference beam, which the light is reaching
the photographic plate directly. In Gabor’s original experiments, the reference beam and object beams
were coaxial. Further, advance was made
by Leith and Upatnieks, who used the
reference beam at offset angle. That made
possible the recording of holograms of
three-dimensional objects.
The off-axis arrangement for
generating and viewing holograms is
described here.

3.1.7.3 RECORDING OF THE

HOLOGRAM:
In the off-axis arrangement a
broad laser beam is divided into two
Fig. 3.5 beams, namely a reference beam and an
object beam by a beam splitter. The
reference beam goes directly to the photographic plate, as shown in fig. 3.5. The second beam of light is
directed onto the object to be photographed. Each point of the object scatters the incident light and acts as
the source of spherical waves. Part of tile light, scattered by the object, travels towards the photographic
plate. At the photographic plate the innumerable spherical waves from the object combine with the plane
light wave from the reference beam. The sets of light waves are coherent because they are from same
laser. They interfere and form interference fringes on the plane of the photographic plate. These
interference fringes are a series of zone- plate like rings, but these rings are also superimposed, making a
complex pattern of lines and swirls. The developed negative of these interference fringe patterns is a
hologram. Thus, the hologram does not contain a distinct image of the object but carries a record of both
the intensity and the relative phase of the light waves at each point.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE IMAGE:

Whenever required, the object can be viewed. For reconstruction of the image, the hologram is
illuminated by a parallel beam of light from the laser, as shown in fig. 3.6. Most of the light passes
straight through, but the complex of fine fringes acts as an elaborate diffraction grating. Light is diffracted
at a fairly wide angle. The diffracted rays
form two images: a virtual image and a real
image. The virtual image appears at the
location formerly occupied by the object and
is sometimes called as the true image. The
real image is formed in front of the
hologram. Since the light rays pass through
the point where the real image is, it can be
photographed. The virtual image of the
hologram is only for viewing. Observer can
move to different positions and look around
the image to the same extent that he would
Fig.3.6 be able to, were he looking directly at the
real object. This type of hologram is known
as a transmission hologram since the image is seen by looking through it.
The original configuration adopted by Gabor for recording hologram was a coaxial arrangement.
In this arrangement the real image is located in front of the virtual image and is inconvenient for viewing
or photographing. The advantage of the off-axis configuration is that the two images are separated.
The fundamental difference between a hologram and an ordinary photograph is like this. In a
photograph the information is stored in an orderly fashion, each point in the object relates to a conjugate
point in the image. In a hologram there is no such relationship: light from every object point goes to the
entire hologram, this has two main advantages:
1. As the observer moves sideways in viewing the hologram, the image is seen in three dimensions.
2. If the hologram were shattered or cut in to small pieces, each fragment would still reconstruct the
whole object, not just part of the object.