Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14 – 25

Development of hydro-mechanical deep drawing

S.H. Zhang *, J. Danckert
Department of Production, Aalborg Uni6ersity Fibigerstraede 16, DK-9220 Aalborg, Denmark

Received 16 June 1997

Abstract

The hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process is reviewed in this article. The process principles and features are introduced and
the developments of the hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process in process performances, in theory and in numerical simulation
are described. The applications are summarized. Some other related hydraulic forming processes are also dealt with as a
comparison. © 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Deep drawing; Hydro-mechanical; Numerical simulations

1. Introduction Nakamura and Nakagawa [2] began their research

work on the hydraulic counter-pressure fluid-forming
Hydro-mechanical deep drawing is a new sheet metal process (the FF method). The radial-pressure deep-
forming technology originating from hydroforming drawing method was proposed during this period.
technology. It combines the features of both traditional German researchers began their work in the 1950s
deep-drawing technology and hydroforming technol- [3]. A seal-ring on the die face was used in order to
ogy. In hydro-mechanical deep drawing the limit draw- prevent the leakage of fluid between the die and the
ing ratio (LDR) values can reach 2.8 compared with the blank [2–4].
traditional deep-drawing process where the LDR values Dutch researchers presented the daalderop method in
are only about 2.2. Since its inception, the hydro-me- 1961 and American researchers began research on the
chanical deep-drawing process has found increasing aqua-draw method in 1973. AP & T of Sweden began
application in industry, such as application in automo- researching the process and devices in the 1960s, sup-
bile and aircraft manufacture. After continuous im- plying specialized equipment and devices [1]. Larsen [5],
provement and innovation, much specialized equipment a Danish researcher, published a paper on work in
and many devices have also been devised and put into Denmark in 1977, the research at present being contin-
use. The hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process can ued by Danckert andersen et al. [6,7] at Aalborg Uni-
replace some other metal forming processes, because versity and Bay [8,9] at the technical University of
this process can improve the quality of the product Denmark.
without losing productivity. Chinese researchers began their work on this technol-
Hydro-mechanical deep-drawing technology was first ogy at an earlier date (D.C. Kang, private communica-
developed in 1890 [1]. However, the real development tion, Jan. 1997). Kang is in charge of the research work
began after the second world war. Early research work at Harbin Institute of Technology. He has been co-op-
began mainly in Germany and Japan. erating with Nakamura of Japan since 1980. Kang
Japanese researchers began investigating the process investigated the hydro-mechanical forming process of
in 1955. Kasuga et al. first proposed pressure-lubricated box workpieces, parabolic shells and also the hydro-me-
deep drawing and was in charge of the research work in chanical ironing process. Guo, another researcher at
this field from 1958 to 1964. After the mid 1970s, Harbin Institute of Technology, who stayed in Japan
with Nakamura for a period, has researched the form-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 45 96 358958; fax: + 45 98 ing accuracy of hydro-mechanically drawn cups, boxes
153030; e-mail: zhangsh@iprod.auc.dk and tapered cups. A new press of 2000 kN capacity has

0924-0136/98/$19.00 © 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

PII S0924-0136(98)00039-9
 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25 15

been installed recently at Harbin Institute of Technol- (e) The process can be used for the manufacture of
ogy, especially for hydro-mechanical drawing. Also, complex-shaped workpieces and for the deep drawing
specialized facilities will be installed on a press of 5000 of some materials that are not suitable for intermediate
kN capacity in a Hong Kong firm. The research work heat treatment. The process is flexible. When drawing
of this technology is also being carried out at Jinan automotive body panels higher deformation may easily
Research Institute of Casting and Forging Machinery be obtained to increase the stiffness of the product [23].
[1] and at some other universities [10]. However, the process has its drawbacks, the main
In recent years, hydro-mechanical deep-drawing tech- drawback being that a higher drawing force and a
nology has been developing quickly in some other higher blank-holding force are needed compared with
countries also, for example, France, USA, Russia, Is- those of conventional drawing technology [3,18].
rael, Switzerland, Korea and even Kuwait. Tirosh et al.
[11 – 17] have published a series of research papers on
theoretical analysis and experiment in Israel, whilst 2. Process principles and classification
Gelin et al. have published some papers [18 – 20] on
their research work in France. Hydro-mechanical deep drawing has various names,
According to the analysis by Amino and Bakagawa e.g. Hydromec, Aqua-draw, fluid former, drawing with
[21], the hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process has counter pressure or hydraulic counter-pressure deep
the following features: (a) it has a friction-holding effect drawing, deep drawing, process with fluid-pressure as-
(friction forces are produced between the blank and the sisted method, hydraulic forming and even just Hydro-
punch and serve as part of the forming force); (b) it has form or hydroforming, each representing its different
a resistance-reduction effect (the friction resistance be- features. In fact, the hydro-mechanical deep-drawing
tween the flange and the die is reduced because of the process is a kind of soft-tool forming technology or
flowing out of the fluid); (c) it has an initial extension flexible-forming method originating from hydroforming
effect (extension in the vicinity of the die shoulder technology. Soft-tool forming technologies have been
portion is caused by pre-bulging, the thickness thus used widely in industries because of their simple equip-
becoming more uniform: by using pre-bulging the mate- ment and convenient devices, their low energy con-
rial over the die cavity is initially stretched, causing a sumption, their fine product quality and their cost
more uniform thickness distribution). Because of the effectiveness. Soft-tool forming technologies include
above three fracture-prevention effects, this process can rubber-die forming and fluid-hydraulic forming. Hy-
improve the fracture limit. The process also has a draulic forming is used widely in sheet metal forming
wrinkle-prevention effect; the unsupported portions are and tube forming and it includes soft punch forming (in
subjected to bulging pressure, causing circumferencial which pressurized water or other fluid media such as oil
tensile stresses, which prevents wrinkles from occurring. is taken as the punch, whilst the female die is a rigid
The hydro-mechanical deep drawing process has the body) and soft-die forming (the pressurized water or
following advantages [1,3 – 5,21,22]: other fluid media is taken as the female die, the punch
(a) Due to the fracture-prevention effects and the being a rigid body). The former is usually referred to as
wrinkle-prevention effect, the product may have a hydro-bulging by most researchers and the latter is
higher drawing ratio (the LDR is increased), the form- usually referred to as the hydro-mechanical deep-draw-
ing steps are reduced, a sizing tool and a sizing opera- ing process. However, some researchers call it the hy-
tion are unnecessary, the limitations of the quality and droforming process (especially when using a thin rubber
size of the product are overcome and costs are reduced. diaphragm between the blank and the fluid). The latter
(b) Due to the forced contact between the blank process, i.e. the hydro-mechanical deep-drawing pro-
sheet and the punch and the lubrication effect of the cess, will be discussed in detail in this article. Hydro-
liquid between the flange and the die, less damage is forming (hydrobulging) has been reported most
suffered by the flange, the deep drawing products have recently in automobile industry, especially for tube
a better surface quality, wrinkles can be suppressed, the forming and the forming of panel parts [24–27]. The
dimensional accuracy is high and the wear of the dies is hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process can be divided
clearly reduced [14]. into the hydrostatic type and the hydrodynamic type on
(c) Because of the friction-holding effect, local thin- the basis of the feature of the fluid pressure. The
ning is lighter and the thickness distribution is more hydro-bulging process can also have the two different
uniform. situations according to the loading. In most cases,
(d) As the female die is replaced by fluid pressure, hydrobulging is in the hydrostatic state, but there exist
only a punch is used and the drawing operations are some cases, such as explosive forming with fluid as the
reduced. Therefore, the process is cost effective and can medium, where the fluid is in the dynamic state.
be used in small batch production and even in sheet- The hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process has dif-
metal property tests. ferent performances during operation. Fig. 1 (a) shows
16 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25

Fig. 1. Schemes of the hydromechanical deep-drawing process.

the conventional deep-drawing process, where LDR is between the blank flange and the die. The fluid pressure
somewhere between 2.2 and 2.3 [5], although the theo- is used the in hydro-mechanical deep drawing process
retical prediction should be about 2.715 [11]. The main mainly so that friction can be significantly reduced and
reason for the reduction in LDR is due to the friction so that the clamping (or friction-holding effect) between
 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25 17

Fig. 1. (Continued)

the punch and the blank can prevent fracture of the traditional blank holder is replaced by a fluid pressure
blank at the punch corner, thus enabling the LDR with a thin rubber diaphragm transferring the pressure
value to be increased. However, the fluid can be used in to the blank flange, a fluid blank-holding device being
different ways, therefore the LDR values can be in- required. The friction can be reduced considerably and
creased to different levels. Usually the LDR values can the LDR can reach 2.3; the productivity is reduced a
be increased to about 2.7 within one stroke by means of little in this case. This process is referred to as the
the hydro-mechanical drawing process, whilst the LDR hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process, deep drawing
can be increased to 3.2 for the radial hydro-mechanical with a fluid-pressure-assisted blankholder or hydro-
deep-drawing process in one step. It is reported that the static deep drawing in [11,12,15,16].
LDR values may be increased to about 6 for the
radial-pressure deep-drawing method (two steps). The
hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process may be sub-di- 2.2. Hydro-forming process
vided into the following different types.
As in Fig. 1(d), when the female die is totally re-
placed by a fluid pressure, the pressure is transferred by
2.1. Deep-drawing process with fluid-assisted blank a thin rubber diaphragm between the blank and the
holding fluid. The punch determines the final shape of the
workpiece. The fluid pressure in the chamber can be
This process is shown in Fig. 1(b) and (c). The controlled by a device (a valve or a pump). The fluid
18 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25

pressure is very important because wrinkles will appear 3. Experimental research into the process
if the pressure is not sufficiently high. In the case of
too-high a pressure, the workpiece may be damaged by 3.1. Progress in process performance and principle
rupture. This process is referred to as the hydro-form in6estigation
or hydroforming (HF) process by researchers
[4,11,28,29]. It is also called flexforming, or internal Buerk [3] reported work on hydro-mechanical draw-
high-pressure metal forming [28 – 30]. ing in 1967; he used a seal ring between the blank flange
and the die. It was concluded that the deformation is a
combination of stretching, compressing and bending.
2.3. The typical hydro-mechanical deep drawing process An upward bead is usually formed at the free portion
of the blank due to the fluid pressure, which increases
As in the former section, in the hydro-mechanical very rapidly whilst the punch moves down. The upward
deep-drawing process when the female die is replaced bead causes radial and tangential stresses in the flange
by fluid pressure and the final shape of the workpiece is area. The actual drawing takes place over the bead, but
determined by the punch, an O-ring is used for prevent- not over the drawing radius on the die and the LDR
ing the flowout out of the fluid on the flange. The can reach a value of 3.0 or greater. The seal ring is
function of the blank holder is almost the same as in made of a wear-resisting plastic and it is preferred that
the conventional deep drawing [4]. The process is a copper ring be placed on top of the plastic cord for
named hydro-mechanical deep drawing, or Hydromec very high pressure.
which was the name of the process when German Buerk also proposed different combinations of the
researchers obtained a patent [3,4] for it (see Fig. 1 (e)). hydro-mechanical drawing, the redrawing (second
draw) and the reverse draw (counter draw) processes
2.4. Hydrodynamic deep drawing process and also a combination of blanking and drawing or
other combinations.
If the fluid below the blank can flow out at a high Larsen [5] made some investigations into the hydro-
speed, then the fluid pressure will change quickly with dynamic process (aquadraw) in 1977. Oil was used as
increase of the punch stroke. In such a situation the the pressure fluid medium. When the opening pressure
process is a hydrodynamic deep-drawing one, as can be (threshold pressure) is reached, the oil is pressed out
seen in Fig. 1 (f) and (g). This process shown in Fig. 1 under the blank flange; the oil flow acts as a lubricant
(g) is complex, but it can be used for forming different and the friction between the blank flange and the die is
workpieces, for example a cup with variable thickness a minimum. At the same time, the critical area moves
can be produced by using a ball die that can rotate from the bottom of the workpiece to the area around
freely. A hexagon cup can also be formed [11]. It is the die radius. The fluid chamber can be pressurized by
unnecessary to control the fluid pressure and a thin a pressure pump (called a preliminary pressure pump)
rubber diaphragm is not necessary. This process was before the punch moves down to the blank. If a prelim-
proposed by the Japanese researchers Kazuga et al. as inary pressure pump is provided then no contact be-
pressure-lubricated deep-drawing in 1958 and also re- tween the blank and the die radius exists, the
ferred to as aquadraw deep drawing or the daalderop deformation is better and time is saved due to the
method, in which the thin rubber diaphragm is replaced deformation occurring before reaching the opening
by a hydrodynamic fluid [20]. This has proven to be pressure. The pressure can be regulated by a valve. The
cost effective. The process is also referred to as hydro- strain distribution, the optimal preliminary pressure
mechanical forming [5] or hydro-forming [31,32]. and the effect of the die radius on the process were also
determined experimentally.
Becker and Bensmann [4] reported a modification to
2.5. The radial-pressure deep-drawing method or the the hydromec process in which the seal ring is dispensed
hydro-rim process with, an undulating die-ring or undulating blank-holder
being used instead. This process is in fact a hydrody-
This process was advanced by Nakamura and Naka- namic process (see Fig. 1 (h)). A dual-action die was
gawa (Fig. 1 (i) and (j)) [2,5]. Some other researchers designed for the predraw and the redrawing process.
also carried out investigations into this process [33]. Nakamura and Nakagawa [2] carried out some inves-
The process is a modification of the hydrodynamic tigations into the fracture mechanism of the workpieces
deep-drawing process, including the direct method (Fig. during forming and how to suppress the fractures.
1 (i)) and an indirect method (Fig. 1 (j)). The LDR Their work has contributed a great deal to the applica-
values can reach 3.2– 3.3 [6] in one step. In [5] a 0.8 mm tions of the process in Japan. Their work proved that
thick and 30 mm diameter cup was drawn with a DR of pre-bulging before hydro-mechanical forming can in-
3.3, the pressure being 25.0 MPa. crease the LDR considerably. They proposed the re-
 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25 19

drawing process, which can perform conventional can be used for forming complex parts; the deforma-
drawing and hydro-mechanical deep drawing within tion can be increased so that the strain hardening is
one stroke, the LDR values reaching 4.9 [5]. Naka- greater, the stiffness can be increased whilst the qual-
mura and Nakagawa [6] recently published a paper ity is improved, weight can be reduced and the costs
reporting hydro-mechanical drawing in detail and sys- can be lowered. The active hydro-mechanical forming
tematically. The principles, the process features, the technology can be applied to all large-surface outer
equipment and the applications are introduced and panels: hoods, deck lids, roofs, doors and fenders. In
analyzed. the active hydro-mechanical process, an oil-in-water
Yang et al. [33] made some modifications to the emulsion is used as the active fluid medium, pre-
radial-pressure deep-drawing method when forming bulging is used before deep drawing and then the fluid
very long cups with conventional predraw and hydro- is pressurized to a particular pressure during pressing.
mechanical redrawing process. A separated radial-pres- Nakamura, et al. [34] presented techniques used in
sure system was used for the slight difference between the hydro-mechanical drawing of automotive body
the optimal radial pressure and the optimal chamber panels. They discussed how to integrate drawing and
pressure to obtain a very high drawing ratio and iron- bending, how to insist on using only one die half
ing was used after redrawing the cups to secure a (avoiding using the lower die), how to improve the
good surface quality and fine thickness distribution. surface quality (eliminating surface torsion) and how
The drawing ratio reached 4.46 in their experiments to reduce wrinkles.
and the quality of the product proved to be very ABB [28,29] reported that fluid deep-drawing (hy-
good. droforming) can produce drawn parts such as boxes,
Yossifon and Tirosh [13] proposed a new set-up cups and parabolic shapes in one step and that hydro-
which in principle is a deep-drawing process with forming allows 50% greater DR and 50% less material
thinning than for conventional deep-drawing.
fluid-assisted blank holding (see Fig. 1(c)). The set-up
looks like a hydroforming set-up, but pressure is ex-
3.2. Other progress
erted only upon the flange, a rigid die and a rigid
punch still being in use. Yossifon and Tirosh [17]
Tirosh et al. [30] proposed the process hydrostatic
investigated deep drawing with fluid pressure assisted
ironing, in which the ironing process is assisted by
being blankholder. The process seemed feasible and
hydrostatic pressure in order to increase the friction
had some features different from those of conventional
between the punch (or mandrel) and the workpiece.
deep-drawing and hydro-forming/hydro-mechanical
The punch force can thus be reduced and even omit-
forming, a sound working-pressure path being sug-
ted (with a threshold pressure) and the limit ironing
gested.
ratio (LIR) can be increased considerably.
Anderson [6,7] performed some experimental investi- Asakura et al. [36] carried out some investigations
gations into the hydro-mechanical forming behavior of on deep drawing utilizing lateral fluid pressure (Fig. 2
high strength steel workpieces, the relationship be- (a)), high pressure being exerted upon the perimeter of
tween the shape accuracy of the workpieces, the mate- the blank whilst only a lower punch force is needed.
rial properties and process parameters being The LDR reached 4 and 6 in two experiments on hard
determined by experiment. It is indicated that the ac- aluminium workpieces. The punch force decreases with
curacy is affected by the residual stresses and the an- the increase of the lateral fluid pressure. When the
isotropy of the sheet blanks. The shape accuracy is lateral fluid pressure is sufficiently high, the punch
determined and compared by measuring the radii of force is close to zero, therefore experiments without a
workpieces drawn conventionally and hydro-mechani- punch were also performed. When the die diameter is
cally and the strain distribution is determined by the within a strict range, the drawing experiments failed
grid-method and a computer-vision based analysis sys- due to buckling of the workpieces.
tem. It is worth noting that a new fluid-pressure-assisted
Hydro-mechanical drawing was first put into use at deep-drawing process was reported recently [35], which
SMG Engineering Germany [6]. SMG Engineering [23] is referred to as an HBU process (high-pressure sheet
developed hydro-mechanical drawing and referred to it metal forming). In this process, the fluid pressure plays
as active hydro-mechanical forming. It includes: (a) the role of the punch, in contrast to hydro-mechanical
pre-bulging; (b) closing of the dies; and (c) increase of forming. Two workpieces are formed in each work-cy-
the pressure. Large automotive outer panels can be cle and the female dies determine the final shapes of
produced by this technology. Large outer panel parts the workpieces (Fig. 2 (b)). This process is suitable for
need high stiffness to avoid buckling or vibration dur- the forming of complex sheet parts and small lot pro-
ing running and thus many measures have been taken duction. The process time may be a little longer and
in order to enhance the stiffness. The new technology accurate positioning at the dies may be difficult.
20 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25

Fig. 2. Some new developments in hydromechanical forming processes.

4. Theoretical investigation and numerical simulation of Yossifon and Tirosh [13] applied the energy method
the process to the analysis of the buckling (wrinkles) phenomena
and proposed a formulation. The buckling mode (with
4.1. Theoretical in6estigation a number of wrinkles) can be predicted under particular
pressure and strain and the general solution can be
Larsen [5] proposed an equation for calculating the obtained under particular conditions. The number of
opening pressure in the chamber to lift the blank free wrinkles can vary under different pressures and usually
from the die radius in aquadraw: increases with the increase of the fluid pressure. The
2 ln b lowest fluid pressure suppressing buckling was pre-
P= 2kt
Rd dicted and compared with the results from experiments,
where P is the pressure, k is the yield stress in pure which established the validity of the formulation. In
shear, t is the blank thickness, Rd is the die radius and fact, this formulation demonstrates the relationship be-
b is the drawing ratio. tween the current blank geometry (b/t), the flange
Ressener and Hora [38] analyzed the hydromec pro- width (1− a/b) and the minimum fluid pressure.
cess by the energy-stability criterion and the stresses Tirosh and Konvalina [14] reported the LDR values
and the strains occuring throughout the deep drawing for the hydrodynamic process using limit analysis in
being analyzed by iteration. The LDR can be predicted plasticity theory coupled with the flow analysis of vis-
considering the fluid pressure and other forming cous, non-inertial fluid. The LDR values are theoreti-
conditions. cally determined by the upper-bound and lower-bound
Yossifon and Tirosh [12] proposed a concept MDR methods. The stress in the flange floating are presented
(maximum drawing ratio) for the hydroforming pro- and the effect of die curvature on the LDR values, as
cess, because excessive pressure can cause rupture and well as the maximum effective cup height, are analyzed.
insufficient pressure may cause wrinkling (buckling). Shirizly et al. [15] reported their work on limit analy-
The pressure-path has a working zone without failure sis of the deep-drawing process with fluid-pressure
and two critical pressure values can be calculated under blank-holding. The upper-and lower-bound results were
different conditions. A good process can be successfully obtained, with special emphasis on the geometry of the
carried out through the pressure passage without touch- die profile. The blank is divided into five zones.
ing the two critical lines. The two critical pressure Yossifon and Tirosh [16] analyzed the hydroforming
values may be increased and the passage may be process, with particular attention being paid to tensile
widened by reducing the friction or changing other rupture. The bank is divided into three portions, the
process conditions. The MDR reaches a minimum stress and deformation are predicted and the working
value between n=0.1 and 0.2, this having been verified path between the rupture and the wrinkles is
by experiments. Rupture occurs on the portion near the investigated.
die radius (not the punch radius as in conventional Hsu and Hsieh [32] analyzed the rupture and wrinkle
drawing) and wrinkles occur at the unsupported por- loci in hemisphere punch hydroforming processes (in
tion between the flange and the punch. fact hydro-mechanical drawing). The blank was divided
 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25 21

into three zones and the stress and the internal pressure Bayoumi [40] carried out a theoretical analysis and
were obtained so that the diagram of pressure – punch some experiments using brass, steel and annealed alu-
stroke could be formed on the basis of calculations. minium under different process conditions (different
Bay and Malberg et al. [8,9] proposed the master- friction and punch roughness) to investigate the LDR
curve concept (the hydromec process). A diagram values. The effects of material properties (n and R
showing the relative drawing-in and the actual drawing values) on the process are discussed.
ratio can be determined by experiment or calculation Hyun and Cho [41] proposed a method using an
under a constant fluid pressure (hydromec) and blank- artificial neural network to predict the forming-pressure
holder force and the feasibility of the hydro-mechanical curve for hydroforming processes based on the upper-
drawing process with the same conditions can also be bound analysis by Tirosh et al. [16]. The effects proved
determined by this diagram. When the drawing-in curve to be very satisfactory.
intersects with the master curve, the workpiece will be
subjected to rupture; if not, the process will be success- 4.2. Numerical simulation
fully carried out. Using this method, the hydro-mechan-
ical forming of workpieces with complex shapes Computer simulation has been used in the research
(cylindrical, conical or combined shapes) can be pre- and design of hydro-mechanical deep drawing process.
dicted. It is also predicted that the LDR value increases Computer simulation has developed quickly in recent
with the increase in the fluid pressure, due to the years and compared to experimental methods computer
friction increase between the punch and the deformed simulation has the advantages of low cost, short time,
workpiece with increased pressure. more information and well-illustrating graphics. There-
A paper published by Zhang and Li [10] presented fore, it is now widely used in metal forming.
both an analytical method and a computer program A finite-element analysis of the hydro-mechanical
that can predict the process feasibilities according to the process (hydro-forming —in fact an aquadraw process)
analytical calculated data and the experimental loading
was reported recently [31]. The forming of an oil pan
conditions.
upper of an automotive engine was simulated using an
Gelin and Delassus [18] presented a theoretical calcu-
explicit non-linear finite-element code on a Pentium-90
lation of the pressure under the blank holder for the
PC. Shell elements were used for simulating the blank,
aquadraw process. The stress in the flange and the
the punch, the die and the blank holder. The fluid-pres-
thickness of the lubricant film are calculated. The veloc-
sure path and the blank holding force path were deter-
ity of the flange in the radial direction and the influence
mined by the simulation in order to obtain a successful
of the cavity volume on the process are demonstrated.
process. The blank size and the draw-bead location
They also introduced some other proposals for measur-
could also be determined by the simulation, but the
ing the cavity pressure in Ref. [19], where they pointed
out some disagreements with the experimental results in draw-bead shape and size could not be predicted using
Ref. [18]. Some of their experimental results gave the this code.
pressure cavity evolution, which is dependent on the Yang et al. [31] performed FEM simulations of the
material behavior, the blank thickness, the die entrance separate radial-pressure drawing of the long cups. A
radius and the drawing ratio. The cavity pressure and rigid–plastic FEM code employing Hill’s anisotropic
the blank-holding pressure are estimated theoretically theory was used. The numerical simulations predicted
and the winding angle around the die entrance radius is the optimal chamber pressure, the optimal radial pres-
given. A new mechanical model was recently proposed sure and the thickness distribution; the simulations can
by them [20] to determine the fluid pressure in the die help in judging whether the process can be carried out
cavity and the blank-holding pressure. It was discov- successfully. FEM analysis of the axisymetrical deep
ered that the blank-holding pressure has little effect on drawing process was also performed by these authors
the cavity pressure and therefore, a new model is set up [33].
by the equilibrium of the blank-holder. The blank- Gelin and Delassus [18,19] performed FEM simula-
holder pressure is low near to the blank edge. The tions of the aquadraw process of stainless steel and
model was proven to be better than previous ones when low-carbon steel workpieces. In the numerical analysis,
using aquadraw to draw stainless- and mild-steel a 3D explicit elastic–plastic code was used and the
workpieces. forming process with fluid pressure was simulated to
A finite-difference method analysis was made by predict the distribution of the thickness. In future, the
El-Domiaty and Shabara [39] for the radial-pressure fluid pressures in the chamber and beneath the flange
deep-drawing process. According to their analysis, the are expected to be coupled with the deformation.
LDR can be increased by utilizing the radial pressure. FEM analyses of the hydroforming (hydrobulging) of
A higher value of P/k (P, radial pressure; k, shear yield tubular and complex automobile parts have been re-
stress) can improve the LDR values, wich can rise to ported recently. Wu et al. [25] used the LS-DYNA3D
2.86 for steel sheets and 3.5 for aluminium. code to analyse the hydroforming of complex tubular
22 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25

parts, the results proving good and the code being working operations, such as blank-holding and blank-
suitable for the analysis and design of the process. Berg rejection. The AP&T hydraulic presses can be used in
et al. [26] developed a new shell element by the explicit hydro-mechanical deep drawing, as well as in other
FEM code to simulate the hydroforming of automobile metal forming processes.
parts. The AP&T hydro-mechanical forming devices are
An FE analysis [42] was made of a flanging operation independent of the hydraulic presses and can be in-
using a fluid cell press. This is the flanging process of stalled on different AP&T hydraulic presses. These
sheet material by rubber die forming, which is some- devices have their independent hydraulic systems, which
what similar to hydroforming. The fluid pressure is can be used for supplying the fluid, for pressurizing, for
transferred through some layers of rubber membrane to pressure-keeping, for pressure unloading and for oil
the workpiece; the rubber plays the role of the punch, filtering. The hydraulic pressure can be adjusted or
the blank is forced to contact the die and thus, flanging programme-controlled with the stroke and can change
is performed. This analysis was carried out using the from 20 to 120 MPa. Three types of AP&T hydro-me-
LS-DYNA3D code and the wrinkles on the flange were chanical forming devices are supplied: (a) the numerical
predicted in the simulation. control type, which has independent power system and
An FE analysis was also arried out of the HBU oil-filtering system, in which the pressure can be ad-
process [37]; the 3D FEM code INDEED (developed in justed continuously or controlled with the movement of
Germany) was used in the simulation of this process the cylinder, these types of devices being suitable for
and the tool components and the O-ring seal behavior the forming of complex sheet workpieces; (b) the pres-
were simulated by a FEM code named MARC. The sure-limit type, which has a pressure-restraining circuit,
contact area and the wrinkles were predicted by the where the peak pressure is present by a pressure-re-
FEM simulation. straining valve and can be adjusted manually; and (c)
Asakura et al. [43] performed a numerical simulation the lifting pressure type, in which the device has a
of the deformation process of punchless drawing with lifting-pressure cylinder at the device bottom, the upper
lateral fluid pressure using the matrix method. The or down movement of the cylinder changing the cham-
deformation behavior of the blank and the contact ber volume so that the pressure can be changed, this
behavior on the die shoulder under various tool condi- type being suitable for the forming of small complex
tions were analysed and the optimum die radius for the workpieces.
punchless drawing was determined theoretically. The Specialized equipment has also been devised in Ami-
matrix method is the early form of the finite-element tio Press Technical Center, Japan [2]. A conventional
method, the present authors using this method in their hydraulic press with double-action oil cylinders was
research around 1983. first used in Japan. The press was equipped with an
ejector, a liquid supplying unit to the die chamber, an
automatic hydraulic counter-pressure control unit and
5. Equipment and devices an automatic blank-holding force-control device. Many
of these items of equipment can control the pressure
Ordinary presses can be used, either single or double freely. A single-action press with a cusion cylinder that
acting. Hydraulic presses are the most suitable because is simple and convenient for hydro-mechanical forming
of the constant drawing speed and independently sepa- has also been on the Japanese market since 1983.
rate control of the motion [3]. About 50–60 hydro-mechanical forming machines had
Mechanical eccentric presses (crank-driven straight- been installed in Japan up to 1987 of which about a
sided press, e.g. with 2-point slide suspension) were half were in production whilst others were in research
tested for the hydro-mechanical drawing process and it institutes. No seal ring is provided for these machines.
is established that the mechanical press can also be A special press for active hydro-mechanical forming
used. The punch force undergoes a slight increase if the is also being developed at SMG Engineering, this being
punch speed is increased compared with the process on a double-action press equipped with hydromec facilities
a hydraulic press. The testing machine can work at a [23], consisting of a hydromec unit and a quick die
speed of from 24 to 41 strokes per minute [4]. change system. SMG intended to supply presses that
Specialized equipment and devices for the hydro-me- can perform active hydro-mechanical forming, hydro-
chanical deep drawing process have been devised at forming and die try-out for conventional deep-drawing.
AP&T Sweden and at some other companies. The Lagan Press Sweden (a member of ABB Group) [28]
AP&T hydraulic presses [1,46,47] use welded bodies supplies equipment for hydro-mechanical drawing.
and frame structures and have three or four cylinders, ABB Metallurgy supplies Qintus presses for hydro-
i.e. the principal cylinder, the triple cylinder, the cusion forming up to a pressure of 200 MPa [28]. Qintus
cylinder and a fourth cylinder have a comparatively fluid-cell presses are available in different sizes with
high pressure, which can perform some additional maximum forming pressures of 100, 140 and 200 MPa,
 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25 23

all parts exposed to high stresses being wound with produced by this process, e.g. a fender trim, of 0.8 mm
prestress wire. When the pressures exceed 100 MPa, the thickness, 650 mm length and 420 mm width was
axial forces in the press tray are absorbed by a pre- produced by this process. Nakamura et al. [34] reported
stressed frame. the automotive body parts produced at Toyota Motor
Corporation by hydro-mechanical drawing (referred to
as liquid-pressure press-forming in their paper). Eleven
6. Applications in industry major parts were shown, including fenders, quarter tails
and door inners. As demanded by the diversifying
The hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process has market, personalized vehicles can be produced inexpen-
found many applications in industry because of its sively and of good quality, by the commercialisation of
obvious features in process, product quality and eco- the hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process.
nomical aspects. The applications are reported mostly (d) Kitchen utensils and electrical household applica-
in Japan. Some applications are summarized in the tions. Applications in this field began earlier, but less
following. detailed descriptions have been published.

6.1. Applications in Japan 6.2. Applications in other countries

More than 300 kinds of workpieces were formed by Conical hollow bodies such as reflectors were re-
the hydro-mechanical forming process in Japan up to ported to be formed by hydro-mechanical process at
1987 [2,5]. The materials cover mild steel sheets, alu- the beginning of 1967 [3]. One draw is sufficient to form
minium sheets, titanium alloys and stainless steel sheets, a conical hollow workpiece in the hydro-mechanical
with a thickness of 0.2 – 3.2 mm. High-strength steel process, whereas five draws and a sizing are needed for
sheets and mild-steel sheets coated with Teflon (a kind conventional deep drawing (see Fig. 3).
of sandwich sheet) have also been used. The sizes range Recently, an oil pan upper was reported to be pro-
from 30×30×30 mm to 1200 ×1000 × 250 mm. The duced in the United States [31], being part of an
application fields are mostly related to reflectors of automotive engine. A motor housing was formed by
lighting equipment, aircraft parts and automobile parts. hydro-mechanical deep drawing process in 1977 [5]
Nakamura and Nakagawa [6] reported many examples (DR= 2.76). In China, tractor oil-pans were manufac-
of automobile body panels formed by hydro-mechani- tured by hydro-mechanical drawing in the 1970s [10]. In
cal deep drawing presses in a recent paper. the early 1980s, stainless-steel cups with a depth of 200
(a) Reflectors of lighting equipment. These parts are mm were formed at a factory in Guangzhou. Some
usually made of aluminium sheet and have rather com- specialized presses have been devised in China.
plicated shapes and large sizes. They usually need 6 In addition to the materials used in Japan, some
forming steps by the conventional spinning process, but other materials such as pure copper and brass have also
can be formed in one stroke by the hydro-mechanical been tried out in other countries [4]. Drewes et al. [44]
forming process. In addition, the inner surface quality dealt with the potential of reducing car weight by using
and the thickness distribution is much better. The die the hydro-mechanical deep-drawing or hydroforming
cost is low, which is suitable for small-lot production. process.
The production rate of a automobile light reflector is 8 Hydroforming is reported mainly to be used in auto-
pieces per minute and one machine can produce 200000 motive industry and tube forming industry. It is re-
pieces ever month. ported [45] that a Dutch steel company and a German
(b) Aircraft parts. These are subjected to high safety automotive firm have been implemented using the hy-
standards, thus local thinning should be avoided. The droforming process to produce automotive parts such
hydro-mechanical deep-drawing process can reduce the as exhaust manifolds and engine cradles, at an annual
friction between the die and the blank-holder, so that rate of 1.5 million pieces. The hydroformed parts can
the thickness distribution becomes much better. Some be very complex. They are lighter, cheaper and of high
aluminium aircraft parts have been formed by this quality, particularly when high-strength steel is used.
process instead of by the spinning process. A lip skin, Tubular automobile parts are also reported to be hy-
with a thickness of 1.6 mm and a diameter of 1150 mm, droformed in some countries [25,26].
was produced with a thinning of 12% in Japan. Hydroforming is reported to have been used by
(c) Automobile parts. Because of the fewer forming General Motors and Magna International Plant in
steps and the omission of the female dies, some auto- Aalen, Germany, to produce automotive parts such as
mobile parts have been formed by the hydro-mechani- pipes [30]. A sixteen-hundred metric ton Siempelkamp
cal deep drawing process. In addition to the hydroforming press has been introduced, which is said
manufacture of light reflectors for automobiles, some to be the first HF press built especially for automotive
panel parts (autobody) of automobiles have also been components. Huber and Bauer GmbH is reported to be
24 S.H. Zhang, J. Danckert / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 83 (1998) 14–25

Fig. 3. Drawing of conical or parabolic hollow bodies.

a German-based manufacturer of high-pressure hydro- 7. Conclusions

forming equipment.
Johannisson [28,29] introduced the applications of The deep drawing processes assisted with fluid pres-
hydroforming in automotive industry. Hydroforming sure has been summarized in this article. The process
can be used for producing automotive deep-drawn principles and the process features and the development
parts, which makes small-scale production profitable; and research progress have been introduced in detail. It
the main reason being that it requires only one rigid is believed that hydro-mechanical deep-drawing pro-
tool half. Flexforming is an unbeatable process for cesses have a prosperous future in the sheet metal
producing prototype parts. The rigid tool half can be forming industry, but further work must be carried out
made from inexpensive materials. Parts made from in their process control and their applications.
blanks of different thickness and materials can be pro-
duced using the same tools. The fluid-cell process al-
lows several parts to be formed in the same press cycle. Acknowledgements
Draw clearance between tools is unnecessary. A car
engine cradle arm and a car front fender made by this The authors are very grateful to M.R. Jensen for
technology have been presented. supplying materials.
Hydroforming can reduce tool costs (only one tool
half), production cycle tool costs can be reduced by
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