ARC WELDING

1. ARC WELDING TYPES

ARC WELDING

Consumable electrode Non-consumable electrode

 SMAW / MMAW  GTAW / TIG
 GMAW / MIG  Plasma Arc
 SAW  Atomic Hydrogen

2. ARC WELDING MACHINES

All arc welding processes need an electrical power source. An arc is a sustained electric
discharge. Welding & cutting arcs can be thought of as simple energy conversion means. They
convert power supplied by the source into heat & light. Whatever happens to the electric power
happens to the arc. When power increases, the arc seems ‘hotter’, & when power decreases, the
arc seems ‘colder’. Actually the temperature doesnot change but the thermal energy released
by the arc goes up or down. The desired characteristics of power sources for arc welding are:
1. OCV should be high enough to strike an arc but not dangerously high.
2. with dc OCV must be atleast 30-35V while with ac should not be lower than 50-55V.
3. Minimum voltage for arc ignition is 25V which must be attained within 0.05sec for
stable arc.
4. Power should be sufficient to provide requisite current.
5. It should have stepless regulation or large number of discrete steps.
6. Voltage should adjust itself rapidly with arc length.
7. short current must be within safe limits.
8. should have a low voltage supply for auxiliary units.
To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of
different power supplies can be used. The most common classification
 constant current power supplies
i) transformer or ii) engine or motor driven alternator
 constant voltage power supplies.
i) transformer with DC rectifier or ii) motor or engine driven generator
The transformer does not have any moving part and as a result operates with less
maintenance and also has higher efficiency. The power used is also less expensive and there is
practically no noise in the operation of the welding transformer. In AC welding, normally only
transformers are used.
In DC arc welding a rectifier or a generator can be used to supply the required DC
power. In the rectifier type, the power supply is first stepped down by means of a transformer
to the required voltage and then silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are used to convert AC to
DC. These rectifiers are very compact, highly reliable and have high efficiency. The other type
is a DC generator which is driven by either an induction motor running on AC or an oil engine.
This combination is less efficient, more expensive & noisy in operation.
 In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the arc, and the current is
related to the amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are most often used for
manual welding processes such as GTAW and SMAW, because they maintain a relatively
constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can
be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus
voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary
the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as
GMAW, flux cored arc welding and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is
kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is
quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material
get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the
tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.
The welding machines can also be divided into three types based on their voltage-
ampere characteristics. The first one is the constant current welding machine or drooping
voltage curve machines or DAV machines. In these machines the welding voltage varies to
account for the change in the arc gap thus maintaining the arc current. As a result of this, the
characteristics of the machine is a drooping one as shown in Fig-a. It can be seen that for such
machine, a large change in output voltage results in a small change in current so the weld
quality can be maintained. This is very essential for MMAW as it is very difficult to maintain
the arc constant manually.

Fig-a Fig-b
In contrast to the constant current or DAV machines, the constant voltage or CAV
machines have a more flat characteristic curve as in Fig-c. The slope of the curve is so flat that
any small change voltage makes for an extremely large change in the output currents. These
systems are generally preferred in the automatic machines since they become self corrective.
For example, when the e1ectrode comes a bit closer to the work, the arc voltage drops raising
the output current to a very high value. This current instantly melts the electrode & thus
maintains the arc gap.
 Fig-c
The third type is the rising arc voltage (RAV) type of machines which are
modifications of the CAV machines. An advantage of RAV over CAV is that as the amperage
requirement from the machine increases, the voltage automatically increases, thus helping to
maintain a constant arc gap even if short circuiting occurs. This RAV is adaptable to fully
automatic processes.

3. THEORY OF ARC (COLUMN THEORY OF ARC)

??? Cathode Spot, Cathode Drop Zone, Anode Drop Zone, Anode Spot???
The arc column is generated between an anode, which is the positive pole of a dc power
supply, and the cathode, the negative pole. The electrical theory of the arc column is that the
ions pass from the positive pole to the negative pole because metal ions are positively charged
so they are attracted to the negative pole. The cathode and anode are touched together, and an
air gap is established after they are drawn apart. Ions pass through this air gap because of their
attraction to the negative cathode. They are seeking a negative charge by which to balance the
atomic structure disrupted by electricity. As they travel through this air gap, the ions collide
with gas molecules in the atmosphere which produces a thermal ionization layer. This ionized
gas column acts as a high resistance conductor that enables more ions to flow from the anode
to the cathode. Heat is generated as strike the cathode (Figure 1).
 Fig. 1
However, this ion theory does not completely explain the arc column. The electron
theory of the arc column explains what happens more fully (Figure 2).

Fig. 2

Basically, electrons have a small mass, 9.1 x 10-28 gms. Electrons are easily
disassociated from the metal at the negative pole, or the cathode. This small amount of
negatively charged mass is accelerated away from the cathode to the positive pole, or the
anode, striking it at a highly accelerated velocity. This path of the negatively charged mass is
generally in the interior of the arc column which is the hotter portion of the arc column. The
electrons carry an electrostatic charge, 4.80 x 10-10. This electrostatic or small current-carrying
capacity is multiplied thousands of times, causing part of the heat of the arc column. Another
part of the heat liberated by the arc column is directly related to kinetic energy. The formula
for kinetic energy is ½MV2. In this case, M equals the mass of each electron. The electrons
accelerate to a high velocity. Their masses are extremely small but there still is a very high
amount of energy stored within them. As they strike the anode, heat energy is released.
Intermingling with the negatively charged electrons, ions that are positively charged are
returning from the anode to the cathode and producing the ionized gas layer which further
protects the electrons and the electrostatic unit within the electron. The electrostatic unit is
induced into the anode causing in the anode an electromotive force (emf), which is directly
transferred into heat energy. The energy or kilowatt hour rating of the arc column is easy to
predict because there is a direct relationship between the energy supplied to the arc column and
the heat that will be liberated by the arc column. This rating is determined by computing
current, in amperage, times voltage, times time in hours. Time can be broken down into
seconds. When time is in seconds, heat is expressed in terms of Joules.
Because of the characteristics of the electrons and ions in the arc column, three areas of
heat are liberated in the arc stream: the cathode area, the plasma area, and anode area (Figure -
3). Of the three areas, the anode area is the high-heat area where approximately 10,000 to
11,000F of heat is liberated. The liberation of the heat results from the combination of the
impingement of the electrons upon the anode anvil and the current-carrying capacity of the
electrons. The plasma area is heated mainly as a result of the atomic collision of the few
electrons and the many ions that are passing through the ionized gas column. The cathode or
the negative pole is subject mainly to ionic bombardment, which produces the state of medium
heat in the arc column.

Fig.-3
The arc is one of the most efficient means for producing heat that is available to
modern technology. Nearly 50% of the electrical energy input into arc is converted into heat
energy. Approximately two-thirds of the energy released in the arc column system is at anode
or positive pole.

4. MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (MACHINE TYPES &

SPECIFICATIONS)
The arc welding machines are normally specified by means of max. OCV, rated current
& duty cycle.
The maximum rated OCV is normally fixed at about 80V. This is the maximum &
normally a voltage of order of 40 to 50V should be enough for starting an arc, whereas
continuous welding voltage is 20 to 30V.
 The rated current specifies the maximum current in amperes that a welding machine is
capable of supplying at a given voltage. The preferred current ratings as per IS:1851-1966 are
150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 & 900A.
The duty cycle is defined by AWS as “ The percentage of time in a 10min period, that a
welding machine can be used at its rated output without overloading”. Most of the welding
machines need not have to operate full time since a good time is spent in setting up, metal
chipping, cleaning & inspection. Normally, a 60% duty cycle is recommended. The Indian std.
specifies 5min as cycle time which would mean 3min as welding time & 2 min of no-load
operation for the transformer. But continuous automatic welding machines may require 100%
duty cycle.

5. ARC INITIATION

Tap Method Scratch Method

It is not possible to create an arc between the electrode & the work piece just by
connecting them in a circuit. This is because the current needs an ionized passage for flowing
across the gap. Thus, a welding arc needs to be initiated. The method of initiating the welding
arc depends upon the process used. However, in general these methods can be grouped into
two categories. In one category, the ionization of gases between the electrode to work gap is
achieved by the application of high voltage across it & in the other category the electrode &
the work piece are short circuited momentarily by touching each other. The former is used for
immobile or fixed arcs & the latter for mobile or traveling arcs.
For immobile arcs the electrode & work pieces are brought close to each other without
touching & a high voltage of order of 106 volts applied. As such a high voltage at normal
mains frequency of 50hz is lethal, a high frequency high voltage is applied for arc initiation
with help of a spark gap oscillator. This helps in ionizing the gases in the gap between the
electrode & work piece & the arc is, thus, initiated in few milliseconds. As soon as the arc is
stabilized, the auxiliary high frequency high voltage supply is switched off automatically. This
method of arc initiation is utilized in GTAW & Carbon Arc Welding processes to avoid the
contamination of tungsten electrode or to avoid the chances of pick-up of carbon from the
carbon electrode if touch method is used in arc initiation.
The touch method of initiating the arc is normally employed for processes in which
mobile arc is employed. However, it has two variants depending upon the size i.e. diameter of
the electrode. For thick electrodes, the arc initiation is done by touching the electrode to the
workpiece & then withdrawing it. Upon touching, a heavy short circuit current flows in the
circuit causing melting of minute points of contact. When the electrode is withdrawn it results
in sparking & ionization of the gap between the electrode & workpiece. If the arc is not
initiated at the first attempt, the process can be repeated till a stable arc is established. This
method of initiating the welding arc is called ‘touch’ method & the arc so initiated is called a
‘drawn arc’. This method for arc initiation is used in MMAW or SMAW.
 The touch method is executed in one of the two forms: tap or scratch. With tap method,
the electrode is brought down to the base metal & withdrawn as soon as contact is made to
approximately a distance equal to diameter of electrode. This method is more difficult but
preferred by experienced welders as arc column doesnot deface base metal. However, it is
difficult technique & there is a possibility of electrode sticking to the base metal. The scratch
method is used by beginners as it is easier. Major problem with scratch method is that it can
deposit molten metal randomly on base metal if electrode is not immediately retracted upon
contact.
For welding with wires i.e. thin electrodes an electrode is fed to the work at a pre-set
rate. As soon as it touches the workpiece, a heavy short circuit current flows through it & the
electrode melts resulting in ionization of the electrode – to- work gap. The process usually
repeats itself two to four times before a stable arc is established. This method of arc initiation is
usually adopted in GMAW or submerged arc welding both in automatic & semi-automatic
modes.
In some limited cases arc is initiated by placing a ball of steel wool between the
electrode & workpiece. When a heavy current flows through steel wool it melts & in the
process provides an ionized & metal vapour path for the flow of current & a stable arc is
established.

6. AC & DC ARC WELDING

The welding circuit consists of power source, two cables (electrode cable & ground
cable), the ground clamp, the electrode holder, stinger & electrode.

DCSP DCRP AC
Fig-4
In DC welding the electron flow is in one direction while in AC welding the electron
flow is in both directions. In DC welding, the direction can be changed by simply reversing the
cables at the terminals located on the generator. The different settings on the terminals indicate
the electron flow will be either from the electrode to the work which is positive ground or from
the work to the electrode which is the negative ground.

Two-thirds of the heat is developed at the anode while remaining is developed near the
cathode. As a result, an electrode that is connected to positive pole will burn away
approximately 50% faster than one that is connected to negative pole. This helpful in obtaining
desired penetration of base metal (Fig.-4). If the positive ground is used, the penetration will be
greater because of the amount of heat energy supplied by the electrode force to the work. At
the same time the electrode will burn away slowly. If the poles are reversed, & negative ground
is used, two-thirds of the heat will remain at electrode tip. For this reason, the penetration of
heat zone in base metal will be shallow when compared to penetration depth of the positive
ground arc column.
 (DCSP) (DCRP)
Fig-5
Alternating current combines the characteristics of both the deep penetration & the
shallow penetration, yielding a penetration depth that is approximately between that achieved
by the DC positive ground & negative ground. The electron flow switches grounds every cycle
yielding a bead penetration depth approximately between the two DC types.
With direct current, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide
filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged
electrode makes deeper welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting
in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited
after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that
produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time
after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.

7. STRAIGHT & REVERSE POLARITY, EFFECTS & USES

With DC power supply, if positive ground is used i.e. the electrode is connected to
negative pole & workpiece to positive pole, the setup is termed as straight polarity. The
electrons flow from the electrode into the work. When the electrode is positive & the work is
negative, the electrons flow from the work into the electrode; it is termed as reverse polarity.
(Fig-5). With reverse polarity, the work remains cooler than in straight polarity.
Since more heat is produced at anode, in all processes using non-consumable
electrodes, the electrode is connected to cathode (DCSP or DCEN) to minimize heat losses.
However, it may not be always possible to do so because, at times, the cleaning action of the
mobile cathode spot needs to be utilized to release the tenacious refractory oxides from the
metal eg welding of aluminium & magnesium. DCSP is also preferred for working with parts
of large thickness.
When consumable electrode is used, metal transfer from the wire electrode to the
workpiece is more uniform, frequent & better directed if the reverse polarity (DCRP or DCEP)
is used i.e. the electrode is connected to positive pole. DCRP is popular with MIG (GMAW)
which also provides cleaning action on metals with tenacious oxides like Al. DCRP is
preferred for workpieces with less thickness.

8. ARC BLOW
 Magnetic arc blow is experienced generally when direct current is employed for
welding; however, this peculiarity is sometimes experienced when using alternating current for
the power supply. When using alternating current, there is only approximately 1 percent
chance that magnetic arc blow will be encountered. When current flows through a conductor, it
produces a magnetic flux that circles around the conductor in perpendicular planes. The centers
of the flux circles are located at the center of the conductor. The magnetic flux is produced in
the steel and across the arc gap. The arc column is mainly influenced by the lines of force
crossing the arc gap. As the weld joins the pieces together, there is less and less chance that the
magnetic field will concentrate in the arc gap. As the weld is filling the gap of the joint, it
pushes the magnetic flux ahead of the arc. As long as the flux can travel, no serious arc blow
will interrupt the weld. When the flux ceases to move, however, it piles up, and a magnetic
field of considerable strength develops. The buildup of the flux causes a deflection of the arc
column as it pulls away from this heavy concentration of magnetic force. Ionized gases that
carry the arc from the end of the electrode wire to the work piece are acting as a flexible
conductor. This concentration of flux that pulls the arc from its intended path is called arc
blow. Areas where lines of force have a tendency to concentrate are at points of starting &
stopping & in such places as the inside corners of boxes or frames. In some, instances,
relocation of the ground helps to reduce the strength of the magnetic fields. The effect of the
ground placement is much more apparent in narrow material than in wide material. The wider
the base metal, the less important ground placement is.

The types of electrode used also affect the magnetic field. Electrodes that have iron-
powder coatings or other heavily coated electrodes will produce a large slag formation that is
troublesome when an blow occurs. The slag formation runs under the arc when the arc blow
occurs, causing incomplete fusion and excessive weld splatter.
 Also when the slag runs under the arc, continuity of the weld bead is broken. The arc
column is not self-starting, so if it is extinguished it must be reestablished. There are two
essential factors involved in proper continuity. The arc column must be maintained, and the
electrode must be fed into the weld puddle at a continuous rate in order to maintain the proper
spacing between the electrode and the work. As the arc column becomes longer, more arc
voltage is required to maintain the arc. The type of coating on the electrode also changes the
amount of emf or arc voltage that is required to maintain an arc column within a range of
optimum fusion. If there is an insufficient amount of arc voltage or an oversupply of arc
voltage, there will be insufficient fusion of the weld bead. Oxidation and porosity can be kept
to a minimum also by keeping the arc column within an optimum fusion range,. which helps to
control the problem of arc blow.
The base metal, which is also a conductor, has a flux field around it as current passes
through it. These lines of force are perpendicular to the current passing through the work.
Magnetic lines of force circle around the electrode, around the arc column, and around the
work piece. The "right-hand rule" used for finding the direction of the flux is that when the
thumb of the right hand points in the direction of the current flow, the fore-finger points in the
direction of the flux lines. There are three areas of magnetic field travel. The first field is
created by the current passing through the electrode. The second field is created in the base
metal by the ground. The third is created by the electrode arc column that comes in contact
with the base metal. The current is passed through the arc column into the metal. Of these three
types of flux fields or magnetic fields, the second type created in the base metal by the ground
is desirable because this field causes a slight forward pull in the arc column. The first type and
the last type should be controlled.
Magnetic fields created by the flux can never be removed but they can be controlled by
various methods.
 set up a magnetic field of sufficient strength to neutralize the force caused by
the flux
 welding away from the earth ground connection;
 changing the position of the earth connection on the work;
 wrapping the welding electrode cable a few turns around the work;
 using run-out tabs;
  reducing the welding current or the electrode size;
 welding toward a heavy tack or portion of the weld already completed;
 reducing the rate of travel of the electrode;
 shortening the arc column length;
 changing the power supply to alternating current.

9. ELECTRODE TYPES, COATED ELECTRODES FOR MMAW &

FUNCTIONS OF COATING

Functions of Coatings:
 Release inert gases such as carbon dioxide under arc heat which shield the molten pool
& protect it from atmospheric oxygen, hydrogen & nitrogen pick up thus reducing
contamination of weld metal.
 Coatings provide flux to molten metal pool which mixed with the oxides & other
impurities present in the puddle, forms a slag. The slag being lighter than molten metal
floats on the top of the weld pool & protects it from surrounding air during weld bead
solidification. It also helps the metal to cool slowly preventing a brittle weld. Slag can
be removed when weld gets sufficiently cool.
 Some arc stabilizing elements are also added to the coatings. Different coatings for AC
& DC welding.
 Special alloying elements introduced to get specific characteristics of the joint metal.
 Coating melting rate is slower than the core (filler) which causes the coating to extend
beyond the core causing the arc to be concentrated & directing the filler metal to the
joint. Thermal losses to the atmosphere from electrode tip are reduced.
 Coatings are usually insulators of electricity & hence, permit use of electrodes in
narrow grooves & other difficult locations.
 Iron powder coatings permit large deposition rates & high electrode efficiency.
 Coatings also contain materials which can control the slag to be viscous or fluid.
Viscous slag is useful for making welds in vertical & overhead positions to cover the
weld pool for a longer time.
10. MMAW PROCESS
The manual metal arc welding also called the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is
the most extensively used manual welding process which is done with stick (coated)
electrodes. While its use is decreasing in comparison to the other arc welding processes in the
USA, in India, it still is the most used arc welding process.
This process is highly versatile and can be used extensively, for both simple as well as
sophisticated jobs. Further, the equipment is least expensive compared to that being used in
other arc welding processes. Welds by this process can be made in any position. Job of any
thickness can be welded by shielded metal arc welding. But very small thicknesses below 3mm
may give rise to difficulty in welding because of their lack of rigidity. Similarly very large
thicknesses above 20 mm may take a long time for filling up the joint groove.
The shielded metal arc welding can be done with either AC or DC power source. The
typical range of the current usage may vary from 50 to 500 A, with voltages from 20 to 40 V.
The main disadvantage of the shielded metal arc welding process is the slow speed. The
typical weld metal deposition rates may be in the range of 1 to 8 kg/hr in the flat position. This
reduces substantially for the vertical and overhead positions. Further, a lot of electrode material
is wasted in the form of unused end, slag and gas. There are more chances of slag inclusions in
the bead. Also special precautions are needed to reduce moisture pick-up so that it would not
interfere with the welding.
The electrodes for the welding operation should be selected properly, depending on the
requirements of the welding. The main points to be considered are
1. The composition of the base metal which determines the electrode composition.
2. The tensile strength of the required joint.
3. The thickness of the base metal. For thinner metals the current setting should be lower.
4. The required metal deposition rate.
5. The type of arc welding equipment used. DC arc welding equipment would be preferable for
overhead welding.
6. The weld position, flat, horizontal, vertical or overhead. A flat position can accommodate a
larger size electrode. Also to increase metal deposition rate coatings with iron powder can be
used. In case of vertical & overhead positions, it is necessary that the weld pool is smaller for
better control which requires small size electrode.
BASIC JOINT POSITIONS

Universal Position Diagram for Groove Welds

Basic Welding Joint Positions

Groove Welds Fillet Welds
Position Diagram Inclination Rotation Diagram Inclination Rotation
Reference of Axis () of Face Reference of Axis () of Face
() ()
Flat A 0-15 150-210 A 0-15 150-210
Horizontal B 0-15 80-150 B 0-15 125-150
210-280 210-235
Overhead C 0-80 0-80 C 0-80 0-125
280-360 235-360
Vertical D 15-80 80-280 D 15-80 135-235
E 80-90 0-360 E 80-90 0-360
Universal Position Diagram for Fillet Welds
Groove Weld Positions (Test Plates)

Fillet Weld Positions (Test Plates)

FLAT OR DOWNHAND WELDING:
 Most common & preferred position. Most welding work done with this position
 Metal placed like a book on desk
 Very efficient, high deposition rate & faster. Easy to get smooth & slag-free beads.
 Less tiring & requires least skills
 Heavy & extensive fixturing to position parts in flat position
 Gravity aids the work. Other positions termed as out-of-position welds.

 Forehand & Backhand Welding (travel)

Forehand Travel Backhand Travel

HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION:
 Second most popular position. More skill than downhand welding.
 C, J & O movements preferred.
 Weld bead on vertical surface running from left to right or right to left.
 Weld bead has a tendency to sag. Avoided by shorter arc length & quicker movements.
 There is a tendency to undercut at the top edge of the bead.

 Use of proper heat, angle, travel speed required.

 Angle important to compensate effect of gravity.

VERTICAL WELDING POSITION:

 Two types : Uphill & Downhill.
 Uphill method mostly used because heat goes deeper into metal causing more
penetration.
 Uphill also stronger of the two. With downhill welding slag advances from the bead &
is entrapped.
 Downhill method used for sealing operation & in pipelines or for thin metals.
 Electrode inclined to fight gravity.
 One puddle directly upon other.
 Oval, C or whip movements preferred.
  Better protection required compared to flat or horizontal positions from flying sparks &
heat.

OVERHEAD WELDING POSITION:

 Most hazardous but not most difficult.
 Movements & weld angles are same as flat position.
 Weld puddle tends to drop from the work under gravity. But surface tension effect tries
to hold it in place.
 Short arc length & rapid electrode manipulation required.
 Most tiring position & difficult to hold the arm steady to maintain the arc length for the
length of the weld.
 Protection required.
 After selecting the electrode size, the choice is to be made of the parameters of the
welding machine to be set.
 Having chosen the electrode, the welding machine is set and the edge made ready for
welding. To start the arc, first the welder has to make a contact between the electrode and the
workpiece so that current flow is established.
After establishing required arc length, welder should move electrode along length of
joint maintaining the arc by moving the electrode downwards & weaving to maintain bead
width & then moving forward to form a new puddle.

11. JOINT PREPARATION FOR ARC WELDING PROCESS

1. to reduce the heat losses from the weld ma, that: in turn
reduces tJle cooling rate ofthe weld,
2. to reduce ~rsclraingb g pseventing &3 tbmatibn of hard
s d w e (&elto &be &ria&tiun clif martensite in the cam
of steels),
3. to duee the expansion arrd contraetb rates thus
reducing &&* 4 residual strewera,
4. k Cum ease, eil, and scale h the joint area leading
to faster welding ~peeds,
5. pheating also keeps the weld beads more fluid with
flabter surfaces thus avoids stress concentration due to
notch effect,
6. preheating also brings some steels abwe the temperature
where bSttle Pfaeture might 6em~d dngw elding,
7. to help Bllow suftki6nt time for hydrogeti to diffuse out
of the weld and HAZ. This may also modify the
mikrostructure of the weld, making it less susceptible to
W2-embrittlement .