Finite field

In mathematics, a finite field or Galois field (so-named in honor of Évariste Galois) is a field that contains a finite
number of elements. As with any field, a finite field is a set on which the operations of multiplication, addition,
subtraction and division are defined and satisfy certain basic rules. The most common examples of finite fields are
given by the integers mod p when p is a prime number.

The order of a finite field is its number of elements, which is either a prime number or a prime power. For every
prime number p and every positive integer k there are fields of order all of which are isomorphic.

Finite fields are fundamental in a number of areas of mathematics and computer science, including number theory,
algebraic geometry, Galois theory, finite geometry, cryptography and coding theory.

Contents
Properties
Existence and uniqueness
Explicit construction
Non-prime fields
Field with four elements
GF(p2) for an odd prime p
GF(8) and GF(27)
GF(16)
Multiplicative structure
Discrete logarithm
Roots of unity
Example: GF(64)
Frobenius automorphism and Galois theory
Polynomial factorization
Irreducible polynomials of a given degree
Number of monic irreducible polynomials of a given degree over a finite field
Applications
Extensions
Algebraic closure
Quasi-algebraic closure
Wedderburn's little theorem
See also
Notes
References
External links

Properties
A finite field is a finite set which is a field; this means that multiplication, addition, subtraction and division
(excluding division by zero) are defined and satisfy the rules of arithmetic known as the field axioms.

The number of elements of a finite field is called its order or, sometimes, its size. A finite field of order q exists if
and only if q is a prime power p k (where p is a prime number and k is a positive integer). In a field of order p k,
adding p copies of any element always results in zero; that is, the characteristic of the field is p .

If q = p k, all fields of order q are isomorphic (see § Existence and uniqueness below).[1] Moreover, a field cannot
contain two different finite subfields with the same order. One may therefore identify all finite fields with the same
order, and they are unambiguously denoted , Fq or GF(q), where the letters GF stand for "Galois field".[2]

In a finite field of order q , the polynomial Xq − X has all q elements of the finite field as roots. The non-zero
elements of a finite field form a multiplicative group. This group is cyclic, so all non-zero elements can be
expressed as powers of a single element called a primitive element of the field. (In general there will be several
primitive elements for a given field.)

The simplest examples of finite fields are the fields of prime order: for each prime number p , the prime field of
order p , , may be constructed as the integers modulo p , Z/pZ.

The elements of the prime field of order p may be represented by integers in the range 0, ..., p − 1 . The sum, the
difference and the product are the remainder of the division by p of the result of the corresponding integer
operation. The multiplicative inverse of an element may be computed by using the extended Euclidean algorithm
(see Extended Euclidean algorithm § Modular integers).

Let F be a finite field. For any element x in F and any integer n , denote by n ⋅ x the sum of n copies of x. The
least positive n such that n ⋅ 1 = 0 is the characteristic p of the field. This allows defining a multiplication
of an element k of GF(p) by an element x of F by choosing an integer representative for k. This
multiplication makes F into a GF(p)-vector space. It follows that the number of elements of F is p n for some
integer n .

The identity

(sometimes called the freshman's dream) is true in a field of characteristic p . This follows from the binomial
theorem, as each binomial coefficient of the expansion of (x + y)p, except the first and the last, is a multiple of p .

By Fermat's little theorem, if p is a prime number and x is in the field GF(p) then xp = x. This implies the
equality

for polynomials over GF(p). More generally, every element in GF(p n) satisfies the polynomial equation
n
xp − x = 0.

Any finite field extension of a finite field is separable and simple. That is, if E is a finite field and F is a subfield of
E, then E is obtained from F by adjoining a single element whose minimal polynomial is separable. To use a
jargon, finite fields are perfect.

A more general algebraic structure that satisfies all the other axioms of a field, but whose multiplication is not
required to be commutative, is called a division ring (or sometimes skew field). By Wedderburn's little theorem, any
finite division ring is commutative, and hence is a finite field.
Existence and uniqueness
Let q = p n be a prime power, and F be the splitting field of the polynomial

over the prime field GF(p). This means that F is a finite field of lowest order, in which P has q distinct roots (the
formal derivative of P is P ′ = −1 , implying that gcd(P, P ′) = 1 , which in general implies that the splitting field
is a separable extension of the original). The above identity shows that the sum and the product of two roots of P
are roots of P, as well as the multiplicative inverse of a root of P. In other words, the roots of P form a field of
order q , which is equal to F by the minimality of the splitting field.

The uniqueness up to isomorphism of splitting fields implies thus that all fields of order q are isomorphic. Also, if a
field F has a field of order q = p k as a subfield, its elements are the q roots of Xq − X, and F cannot contain
another subfield of order q .

In summary, we have the following classification theorem first proved in 1893 by E. H. Moore:[1]

The order of a finite field is a prime power. For every prime power q there are fields of order q , and
they are all isomorphic. In these fields, every element satisfies

and the polynomial Xq − X factors as

It follows that GF(p n) contains a subfield isomorphic to GF(p m) if and only if m is a divisor of n ; in that case,
m n
this subfield is unique. In fact, the polynomial Xp − X divides Xp − X if and only if m is a divisor of n .

Explicit construction

Non-prime fields

Given a prime power q = p n with p prime and n > 1 , the field GF(q) may be explicitly constructed in the
following way. One first chooses an irreducible polynomial P in GF(p)[X] of degree n (such an irreducible
polynomial always exists). Then the quotient ring

of the polynomial ring GF(p)[X] by the ideal generated by P is a field of order q .

More explicitly, the elements of GF(q) are the polynomials over GF(p) whose degree is strictly less than n . The
addition and the subtraction are those of polynomials over GF(p). The product of two elements is the remainder of
the Euclidean division by P of the product in GF(p)[X].
The multiplicative inverse of a non-zero element may be
computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm; see Extended Euclidean algorithm § Simple algebraic field
extensions.

Except in the construction of GF(4), there are several possible choices for P, which produce isomorphic results.
To simplify the Euclidean division, one commonly chooses for P a polynomial of the form

which make the needed Euclidean divisions very efficient. However, for some fields, typically in characteristic 2 ,
irreducible polynomials of the form Xn + aX + b may not exist. In characteristic 2 , if the polynomial
Xn + X + 1 is reducible, it is recommended to choose Xn + Xk + 1 with the lowest possible k that makes the
polynomial irreducible. If all these trinomials are reducible, one chooses "pentanomials"
Xn + Xa + Xb + Xc + 1, as polynomials of degree greater than 1, with an even number of terms, are never
irreducible in characteristic 2 , having 1 as a root.[3]

A possible choice for such a polynomial is given by Conway polynomials. They ensure a certain compatibility
between the representation of a field and the representations of its subfields.

In the next sections, we will show how the general construction method outlined above works for small finite
fields.

Field with four elements

The smallest non-prime field is the field with four elements, which is commonly denoted GF(4) or It consists
of the four elements such that and
for every the other operation results being easily deduced from the distributive
law. See below for the complete operation tables.

This may be deduced as follows from the results of the preceding section.

Over GF(2), there is only one irreducible polynomial of degree 2:

Therefore, for GF(4) the construction of the preceding section must involve this polynomial, and

Let α denote a root of this polynomial in GF(4). This implies that

α2 = 1 + α,
and that α and 1 + α are the elements of GF(4) that are not in GF(2). The tables of the operations in GF(4)
result from this, and are as follows:
 Addition x+y Multiplication x⋅y Division x/y

y y y
0 1 α 1+α 0 1 α 1+α 1 α 1+α
x x x
0 0 1 α 1+α 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1+α α 1 0 1 α 1+α 1 1 1+α α
α α 1+α 0 1 α 0 α 1+α 1 α α 1 1+α
1+α 1+α α 1 0 1+α 0 1+α 1 α 1+α 1+α α 1

A table for subtraction is not given, because subtraction is identical to addition, as is the case for every field of
characteristic 2.
In the third table, for the division of x by y, the values of x must be read in the left column, and the
values of y in the top row. (Because 0 ⋅ z = 0 for every z in every ring the division by 0 has to remain undefined.)

The map

is the non-trivial field automorphism, called Frobenius automorphism, which sends α into the second root 1 + α of
the above mentioned irreducible polynomial

GF(p 2) for an odd prime p

For applying the above general construction of finite fields in the case of GF(p 2), one has to find an irreducible
polynomial of degree 2. For p = 2 , this has been done in the preceding section. If p is an odd prime, there are
always irreducible polynomials of the form X2 − r, with r in GF(p).

More precisely, the polynomial X2 − r is irreducible over GF(p) if and only if r is a quadratic non-residue
p−1
modulo p (this is almost the definition of a quadratic non-residue). There are 2 quadratic non-residues modulo
p. For example, 2 is a quadratic non-residue for p = 3, 5, 11, 13, ..., and 3 is a quadratic non-residue for
p = 5, 7, 17, .... If p ≡ 3 mod 4, that is p = 3, 7, 11, 19, ..., one may choose −1 ≡ p − 1 as a quadratic
non-residue, which allows us to have a very simple irreducible polynomial X2 + 1 .

Having chosen a quadratic non-residue r, let α be a symbolic square root of r, that is a symbol which has the
property α2 = r, in the same way as the complex number i is a symbolic square root of −1 . Then, the elements of
GF(p2) are all the linear expressions

with a and b in GF(p). The operations on GF(p 2) are defined as follows (the operations between elements of
GF(p) represented by Latin letters are the operations in GF(p)):
GF(8) and GF(27)

The polynomial

is irreducible over GF(2) and GF(3), that is, it is irreducible modulo 2 and 3 (to show this, it suffices to show
that it has no root in GF(2) nor in GF(3)). It follows that the elements of GF(8) and GF(27) may be
represented by expressions

where a, b, c are elements of GF(2) or GF(3) (respectively), and is a symbol such that

The addition, additive inverse and multiplication on GF(8) and GF(27) may thus be defined as follows; in
following formulas, the operations between elements of GF(2) or GF(3), represented by Latin letters, are the
operations in GF(2) or GF(3), respectively:

GF(16)

The polynomial

is irreducible over GF(2), that is, it is irreducible modulo 2 . It follows that the elements of GF(16) may be
represented by expressions

where a, b, c, d are either 0 or 1 (elements of GF(2)), and α is a symbol such that

(that is, α is defined as a root of the given irreducible polynomial). As the characteristic of GF(2) is 2 , each
element is its additive inverse in GF(16). The addition and multiplication on GF(16) may be defined as follows;
in following formulas, the operations between elements of GF(2), represented by Latin letters are the operations in
GF(2).

The field GF(16) has eight primitive elements (the elements that have all nonzero elements of GF(16) as integer
powers). These elements are the four roots of and their multiplicative inverses. In particular, α is a
primitive element, and the primitive elements are with m less than and coprime with 15 (that is, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8,
11, 13, 14).
Multiplicative structure
The set of non-zero elements in GF(q) is an abelian group under the multiplication, of order q – 1 . By
Lagrange's theorem, there exists a divisor k of q – 1 such that xk = 1 for every non-zero x in GF(q). As the
equation xk = 1 has at most k solutions in any field, q – 1 is the lowest possible value for k.
The structure
theorem of finite abelian groups implies that this multiplicative group is cyclic, that is, all non-zero elements are
powers of a single element. In summary:

The multiplicative group of the non-zero elements in GF(q) is cyclic, and there exists an element a , such that
the q – 1 non-zero elements of GF(q) are a, a 2, ..., a q−2, a q−1 = 1 .

Such an element a is called a primitive element. Unless q = 2, 3 , the primitive element is not unique. The number
of primitive elements is φ(q − 1) where φ is Euler's totient function.

The result above implies that xq = x for every x in GF(q). The particular case where q is prime is Fermat's little
theorem.

Discrete logarithm

If a is a primitive element in GF(q), then for any non-zero element x in F, there is a unique integer n with
0 ≤ n ≤ q − 2 such that

x = an.
This integer n is called the discrete logarithm of x to the base a .

While a n can be computed very quickly, for example using exponentiation by squaring, there is no known efficient
algorithm for computing the inverse operation, the discrete logarithm. This has been used in various cryptographic
protocols, see Discrete logarithm for details.

When the nonzero elements of GF(q) are represented by their discrete logarithms, multiplication and division are
easy, as they reduce to addition and subtraction modulo q – 1 . However, addition amounts to computing the
discrete logarithm of a m + a n. The identity

am + an = an(am−n + 1)

allows one to solve this problem by constructing the table of the discrete logarithms of a n + 1 , called Zech's
logarithms, for n = 0, ..., q − 2 (it is convenient to define the discrete logarithm of zero as being −∞ ).

Zech's logarithms are useful for large computations, such as linear algebra over medium-sized fields, that is, fields
that are sufficiently large for making natural algorithms inefficient, but not too large, as one has to pre-compute a
table of the same size as the order of the field.

Roots of unity

Every nonzero element of a finite field is a root of unity, as xq−1 = 1 for every nonzero element of GF(q).

If n is a positive integer, an n -th primitive root of unity is a solution of the equation xn = 1 that is not a solution
of the equation xm = 1 for any positive integer m < n . If a is a n th primitive root of unity in a field F, then F
contains all the n roots of unity, which are 1, a, a 2, ..., a n−1.
The field GF(q) contains a n th primitive root of unity if and only if n is a divisor of q − 1 ; if n is a divisor of
q − 1, then the number of primitive nth roots of unity in GF(q) is φ(n) (Euler's totient function). The number of
nth roots of unity in GF(q) is gcd(n, q − 1).
In a field of characteristic p , every (np)th root of unity is also a n th root of unity. It follows that primitive (np)th
roots of unity never exist in a field of characteristic p .

On the other hand, if n is coprime to p , the roots of the n th cyclotomic polynomial are distinct in every field of
characteristic p , as this polynomial is a divisor of Xn − 1 , whose discriminant is nonzero modulo p . It follows
that the n th cyclotomic polynomial factors over GF(p) into distinct irreducible polynomials that have all the same
degree, say d , and that GF(p d) is the smallest field of characteristic p that contains the n th primitive roots of unity.

Example: GF(64)

The field GF(64) has several interesting properties that smaller fields do not share: it has two subfields such that
neither is contained in the other; not all generators (elements with minimal polynomial of degree 6 over GF(2))
are primitive elements; and the primitive elements are not all conjugate under the Galois group.

The order of this field being 2 6, and the divisors of 6 being 1, 2, 3, 6 , the subfields of GF(64) are GF(2),
GF(22) = GF(4), GF(23) = GF(8), and GF(64) itself. As 2 and 3 are coprime, the intersection of GF(4)
and GF(8) in GF(64) is the prime field GF(2).

The union of GF(4) and GF(8) has thus 10 elements. The remaining 54 elements of GF(64) generate
GF(64) in the sense that no other subfield contains any of them. It follows that they are roots of irreducible
54
polynomials of degree 6 over GF(2). This implies that, over GF(2), there are exactly 9 =
6 irreducible monic
polynomials of degree 6 . This may be verified by factoring X64 − X over GF(2).

The elements of GF(64) are primitive n th roots of unity for some n dividing 63 . As the 3rd and the 7th roots of
unity belong to GF(4) and GF(8), respectively, the 54 generators are primitive n th roots of unity for some n in
{9, 21, 63}. Euler's totient function shows that there are 6 primitive 9th roots of unity, 12 primitive 21st roots
of unity, and 36 primitive 63 rd roots of unity. Summing these numbers, one finds again 54 elements.

By factoring the cyclotomic polynomials over GF(2), one finds that:

The six primitive 9 th roots of unity are roots of

and are all conjugate under the action of the Galois group.
The twelve primitive 21 st roots of unity are roots of

They form two orbits under the action of the Galois group. As the two factors are reciprocal to each
other, a root and its (multiplicative) inverse do not belong to the same orbit.
The 36 primitive elements of GF(64) are the roots of

They split into six orbits of six elements each under the action of the Galois group.

This shows that the best choice to construct GF(64) is to define it as GF(2)[X] / (X6 + X + 1). In fact, this
generator is a primitive element, and this polynomial is the irreducible polynomial that produces the easiest
Euclidean division.
Frobenius automorphism and Galois theory
In this section, p is a prime number, and q = p n is a power of p .

In GF(q), the identity (x + y)p = xp + yp implies that the map

is a GF(p)-linear endomorphism and a field automorphism of GF(q), which fixes every element of the subfield
GF(p). It is called the Frobenius automorphism, after Ferdinand Georg Frobenius.

Denoting by φ k the composition of φ with itself k times, we have

It has been shown in the preceding section that φ n is the identity. For 0 < k < n , the automorphism φ k is not the
identity, as, otherwise, the polynomial

would have more than p k roots.

There are no other GF(p)-automorphisms of GF(q). In other words, GF(p n) has exactly n GF(p)-
automorphisms, which are

In terms of Galois theory, this means that GF(p n) is a Galois extension of GF(p), which has a cyclic Galois
group.

The fact that the Frobenius map is surjective implies that every finite field is perfect.

Polynomial factorization
If F is a finite field, a non-constant monic polynomial with coefficients in F is irreducible over F, if it is not the
product of two non-constant monic polynomials, with coefficients in F.

As every polynomial ring over a field is a unique factorization domain, every monic polynomial over a finite field
may be factored in a unique way (up to the order of the factors) into a product of irreducible monic polynomials.

There are efficient algorithms for testing polynomial irreducibility and factoring polynomials over finite field. They
are a key step for factoring polynomials over the integers or the rational numbers. At least for this reason, every
computer algebra system has functions for factoring polynomials over finite fields, or, at least, over finite prime
fields.

Irreducible polynomials of a given degree

The polynomial
factors into linear factors over a field of order q . More precisely, this polynomial is the product of all monic
polynomials of degree one over a field of order q .

This implies that, if q = p n then Xq − X is the product of all monic irreducible polynomials over GF(p), whose
degree divides n . In fact, if P is an irreducible factor over GF(p) of Xq − X, its degree divides n , as its splitting
field is contained in GF(p n). Conversely, if P is an irreducible monic polynomial over GF(p) of degree d
dividing n , it defines a field extension of degree d , which is contained in GF(p n), and all roots of P belong to
GF(pn), and are roots of Xq − X; thus P divides Xq − X. As Xq − X does not have any multiple factor, it is
thus the product of all the irreducible monic polynomials that divide it.

This property is used to compute the product of the irreducible factors of each degree of polynomials over GF(p);
see Distinct degree factorization.

Number of monic irreducible polynomials of a given degree over a finite field

The number N(q, n) of monic irreducible polynomials of degree n over GF(q) is given by[4]

where μ is the Möbius function. This formula is almost a direct consequence of above property of Xq − X.

By the above formula, the number of irreducible (not necessarily monic) polynomials of degree n over GF(q) is
(q − 1)N(q, n).
A (slightly simpler) lower bound for N(q, n) is

One may easily deduce that, for every q and every n , there is at least one irreducible polynomial of degree n over
GF(q). This lower bound is sharp for q = n = 2.

Applications
In cryptography, the difficulty of the discrete logarithm problem in finite fields or in elliptic curves is the basis of
several widely used protocols, such as the Diffie–Hellman protocol. For example, in 2014, a secure internet
connection to Wikipedia involved the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman protocol (ECDHE) over a large finite field.[5]
In coding theory, many codes are constructed as subspaces of vector spaces over finite fields.

Finite fields are used by many error correction codes, such as Reed–Solomon error correction code or BCH code.
The finite field almost always has characteristic of 2, since computer data is stored in binary. For example, a byte of
data can be interpreted as an element of . One exception is PDF417 bar code, which is . Some
CPUs have special instructions that can be useful for finite fields of characteristic 2, generally variations of carry-
less product.

Finite fields are widely used in number theory, as many problems over the integers may be solved by reducing
them modulo one or several prime numbers. For example, the fastest known algorithms for polynomial
factorization and linear algebra over the field of rational numbers proceed by reduction modulo one or several
primes, and then reconstruction of the solution by using Chinese remainder theorem, Hensel lifting or the LLL
algorithm.

Similarly many theoretical problems in number theory can be solved by considering their reductions modulo some
or all prime numbers. See, for example, Hasse principle. Many recent developments of algebraic geometry were
motivated by the need to enlarge the power of these modular methods. Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is an
example of a deep result involving many mathematical tools, including finite fields.

The Weil conjectures concern the number of points on algebraic varieties over finite fields and the theory has many
applications including exponential and character sum estimates.

Finite fields have widespread application in combinatorics, two well known examples being the definition of Paley
Graphs and the related construction for Hadamard Matrices. In arithmetic combinatorics finite fields[6] and finite
field models[7][8] are used extensively, such as in Szemerédi's theorem on arithmetic progressions.

Extensions

Algebraic closure

A finite field F is not algebraically closed: the polynomial

has no roots in F, since f (α) = 1 for all α in F.

Fix an algebraic closure of . The map sending each x to xq is called the q th power Frobenius
n
automorphism. The subfield of fixed by the n th iterate of is the set of zeros of the polynomial xq − x,
which has distinct roots since its derivative in is −1 , which is never zero. Therefore that subfield has q n
elements, so it is the unique copy of in . Every finite extension of in is this for some n , so

The absolute Galois group of is the profinite group

Like any infinite Galois group, may be equipped with the Krull topology, and then the isomorphisms
just given are isomorphisms of topological groups.
The image of in the group is the
generator 1 , so corresponds to . It follows that has infinite order and generates a dense subgroup of
, not the whole group, because the element has infinite order and generates the dense subgroup
One says that is a topological generator of .

Quasi-algebraic closure
Although finite fields are not algebraically closed, they are quasi-algebraically closed, which means that every
homogeneous polynomial over a finite field has a non-trivial zero whose components are in the field if the number
of its variables is more than its degree. This was a conjecture of Artin and Dickson proved by Chevalley (see
Chevalley–Warning theorem).

Wedderburn's little theorem

A division ring is a generalization of field. Division rings are not assumed to be commutative. There are no non-
commutative finite division rings: Wedderburn's little theorem states that all finite division rings are commutative,
and hence are finite fields. This result holds even if we relax the associativity axiom to alternativity, that is, all finite
alternative division rings are finite fields, by the Artin–Zorn theorem.[9]

See also
Quasi-finite field
Field with one element
Finite field arithmetic
Finite ring
Finite group
Elementary abelian group
Hamming space

Notes
1. Moore, E. H. (1896), "A doubly-infinite system of simple groups", in E. H. Moore; et al. (eds.),
Mathematical Papers Read at the International Mathematics Congress Held in Connection with the
World's Columbian Exposition, Macmillan & Co., pp. 208–242
2. This latter notation was introduced by E. H. Moore in an address given in 1893 at the International
Mathematical Congress held in Chicago Mullen & Panario 2013, p. 10.
3. Recommended Elliptic Curves for Government Use (http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/document
s/dss/NISTReCur.pdf) (PDF), National Institute of Standards and Technology, July 1999, p. 3
4. Jacobson 2009, §4.13
5. This can be verified by looking at the information on the page provided by the browser.
6. Shparlinski, Igor E. (2013), "Additive Combinatorics over Finite Fields: New Results and
Applications", Finite Fields and Their Applications, DE GRUYTER, pp. 233–272,
doi:10.1515/9783110283600.233 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110283600.233),
ISBN 9783110283600
7. Green, Ben (2005), "Finite field models in additive combinatorics", Surveys in Combinatorics 2005,
Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–28, arXiv:math/0409420 (https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0409420),
doi:10.1017/cbo9780511734885.002 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511734885.002),
ISBN 9780511734885, S2CID 28297089 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28297089)
8. Wolf, J. (March 2015). "Finite field models in arithmetic combinatorics – ten years on" (https://doi.or
g/10.1016%2Fj.ffa.2014.11.003). Finite Fields and Their Applications. 32: 233–274.
doi:10.1016/j.ffa.2014.11.003 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ffa.2014.11.003). ISSN 1071-5797 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/1071-5797).
9. Shult, Ernest E. (2011). Points and lines. Characterizing the classical geometries. Universitext.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 123. ISBN 978-3-642-15626-7. Zbl 1213.51001 (https://zbmath.org/?form
at=complete&q=an:1213.51001).

References
 W. H. Bussey (1905) "Galois field tables for pn ≤ 169", Bulletin of the American Mathematical
Society 12(1): 22–38, doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1905-01284-2 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-9
904-1905-01284-2)
W. H. Bussey (1910) "Tables of Galois fields of order < 1000", Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society 16(4): 188–206, doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1910-01888-7 (https://doi.org/10.1
090%2FS0002-9904-1910-01888-7)
Jacobson, Nathan (2009) [1985], Basic algebra I (Second ed.), Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-
486-47189-1
Mullen, Gary L.; Mummert, Carl (2007), Finite Fields and Applications I, Student Mathematical
Library (AMS), ISBN 978-0-8218-4418-2
Mullen, Gary L.; Panario, Daniel (2013), Handbook of Finite Fields, CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-4398-
7378-6
Lidl, Rudolf; Niederreiter, Harald (1997), Finite Fields (https://archive.org/details/finitefields0000lidl
_a8r3) (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39231-4
Skopin, A. I. (2001) [1994], "Galois field" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Galo
is_field), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press

External links
Finite Fields (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FiniteField.html) at Wolfram research.

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