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EFFECT OF SUGARCANE PEEL ASH ON THE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
BY
YUSUF, Muideen Sholadoye

2012/1/41128EC
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
MINNA
NOVEMBER, 2017
EFFECT OF SUGARCANE PEEL ASH ON THE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
BY

2012/1/41128EC
A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY, FEDERAL
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA, NIGERIA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING (B.Eng) DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
NOVEMBER, 2017
DECLARATION
I YUSUF Muideen Sholadoye, hereby declare that this research work was solely carried out
by me, in the Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna
under the supervision of Engr. H. O Aminulai, and is a collection of my original research
work, and it has not been presented for any other qualification anywhere. Information
obtained from published and unpublished work of others have been duly referenced and
acknowledged.

_______________________
2012/1/41128EC SIGNATURE/DATE
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,
MINNA, NIGERIA.
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that YUSUF Muideen Sholadoye (2012/1/41128EC) carried out this project
work titled “Effect of sugarcane peel ash on the compressive strength of concrete” under the
supervision of Engr. H. O Aminulai and submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering of
the Federal University of Technology, Minna in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of a Bachelor of Engineering (B.ENG) degree in Civil Engineering.
Engr. H.O Aminulai ________________________
(Project Supervisor) Signature / Date
Engr. Dr. M. M Alhaji ________________________

(Head of Department) Signature / Date
External Examiner _________________________

Signature / Date
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to Almighty Allah, the beginning and the end of wisdom,
who has been there right from the beginning to this very point, and special dedication also
goes to my ever supportive parents, for their relentless support and compassion towards me
throughout my undergraduate study.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special greetings to the Dean, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology; Engr.
Prof. M.S Abubakar, Head of Department, Civil Engineering; Engr. Dr. M. M Alhaji, for his
support, The departmental project coordinator; Engr. Dr. S. S. Kolo, I am particularly
indebted to My supervisor, Engr. H.O. Aminulai, for his continuous guidance and
commitment throughout the research period and also for the wonderful role he played in my
project arrangement, I am also indebted to the entire staff of the civil engineering department
whose effort, constructive criticism, and solid teachings did a lot of positive work in making
me the person I am today.
I am grateful for the knowledge and wisdom they have impacted in me. my sincere gratitude
also goes to Engr. Prof. S. Sadiku, Engr. Prof. O.D. Jimoh, Engr. Dr. M. Abdullahi, Engr. Dr.
J.I. Aguwa, Engr. Dr. T. Y. Tsado, Dr. A.A. Amadi, Engr. Dr. S.M. Auta, Engr. Dr. M.
Saidu, Engr. Dr. M. Alhassan, Engr. Dr. A. R Adesiji, Dr. T.W.E Adejumo, Engr. Mrs. A. O.
Gbadebo, Dr. B. Alhaji, Engr. A. O. Ibrahim, Mr. O. James, also Engr. H.S. Abdulrahman,
Engr. I.O. Jimoh, Engr. M. Abubakar, Engr. A. Abdullahi, Engr. A. Yusuf, Mr. D. N. Kolo,
Mrs. R.A. Salako, Mrs F. Mohammed and other members of staff, also to the laboratory
technicians, Mr. A. Sanni, Mr. S. Iliyasu, Mr. A.A. Mohammed, Mr. D. Zango, Mr.S. Illyasu,
Mr. E. Agbese, and Mr. M. Umar, I say a big thank you.
I appreciate all those who were always ready to help me during my study period: my beloved
siblings; Mr. Aroyehun Abdulwasiu Oladayo, Mr. Yusuf Biliamin Adeola, Mr. Yusuf
Lukman Opeyemi, Mrs. Idayat Oluwakemi Salaudeen, and Miss Yusuf Nuratullahi
Modupeoluwa, and the entire family for your financial support and encouragement, I also like
to appreciate all my friends; Ajibade Sheriff, Bashir Jibril, Adigun Sulaiman, Shittu Mubarak,
Abidoye Oluwashina, Folorunsho Muqsit, Mustapha Habeeb, Mustapha Abdulqaudri,
Balogun Abubakar, Ilufoye Yusuf, Salaudeen Mubarak, Salako Lukman, Lawal Qaudri,
Kolawole Wasiu, Olaoti Jamiu, and others too numerous to mention who were there for me at
one point in time. May Almighty Allah bless you abundantly.
Finally, my profound gratitude goes to Almighty Allah for the gift of life and good health that
makes it possible for me to successfully complete my study. My unending gratitude goes to
my lovely parents, Alhaji AbdulGaniyu Aroyehun Yusuf and Hajia Aroyehun Sherifat
Adenike for their maximum support, love and care all through my life. May Almighty Allah
continue to provide for them.

ABSTRACT
This research work focused on the effect of sugarcane peel ash on the compressive strength
of concrete using a mix ratio of 1:2:4 and different percentages of (SCPA) as partial
replacement of cement. The objective of this paper is to enhance the reduction of agricultural
wastes and reduce the cost of concrete production by using locally available materials.
Chemical test was conducted on SCPA to evaluate its percentage composition. It was then
used to replace OPC by weight in ratio of 0.0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5%, 10.0%, and 12.5%. The
results of chemical test showed that SCPA has pozzolanic properties having met ASTM
specification C618-00 with total sum of silica, alumina and ferric composition of 78.8%. A
total of 54 concrete cubes of size (150 × 150 × 150) mm³ were cast. The specific gravity of
the SCPA was 1.78 The cubes were tested at 7, 14, and 28days of curing ages for density and
compressive strength respectively, from the result obtained from this research work, it was
noticed that the compressive strength of concrete increases with the days of curing. However,
test results showed that the use of SCPA as a partial replacement for cement in concrete will
enhance waste to wealth initiative. The values of compressive strength obtained were
25.93N/mm2 and 16.74 N/mm2 at 0% and 12.5 % SCPA replacement level respectively.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Page
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification ii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vii
Table of Contents viii
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiii
Appendix xiv
Notations xv
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 2
1.3 Justification of the study 3
1.4 Aims and Objectives of the study 3
1.4.1 Aim of the study 3
1.4.2 Objectives of the study 3
1.5 Scope of the study 4

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Cement 5
2.2 Steps and Operations involved in the Manufacture of Cement 6
2.3 Stages of Operations 7
2.4 Principal Compounds of Cement 9
2.5 Chemical Composition of Portland Cement 9
2.6 Types of Portland cement 10
2.7 Specialized Types of Cement 12
2.8 Manufacture of Cement and the Impacts on the Environment 15
2.9 Aggregates 16
2.10 Classification of aggregates 17
2.11 Concrete 19
2.12 Workability of concrete 19
2.13 Compressive strength of concrete 20
2.14 Pozzolans 21
2.15 Classification of pozzolans 23
2.16 Pozzolanic reaction 25
2.17 Sugarcane peel 26
2.18 Derivation of amorphous silica from sugarcane peel ash 27
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 29
3.1 Materials used for the study 29
3.2 Determination of physical properties of the constituent materials 29
3.3 Specific gravity test 29

3.4 Sieve Analysis Test 30
3.5 Bulk Density Test for aggregates (both fine and coarse) 31
3.6 Water Absorption Test for aggregates (both fine and coarse) 32
3.7 Mix Design 32
3.8 Methodology 35
3.9 Compressive Strength Test 37
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 38
4.1 Chemical Composition of Sugarcane peel ash 38
4.2 Sieve Analysis 39
4.3 Specific Gravity 41
4.4 Bulk Density 42
4.5 Water Absorption 43
4.6 Slump Test 43
4.7 Compressive Strength of concrete Cubes 43
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 49
5.1 Conclusion 49
5.2 Recommendations 50
REFERENCES 51
APPENDIX
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
2.1 Principal Compounds of Cement 9
2.2 General Composition Limits of Portland Cements 10
2.3 Types of Portland Cement 10
2.4 Classification of aggregates based on natural and artificial aggregates 18
2.5 Classes of Pozzolans 24
2.6 Physical properties of sugarcane peel ash 27
3.1 Mix Proportions 35
4.1 Chemical Composition of Sugarcane peel ash 38
4.2 Sieve Analysis for fine aggregates 39
4.3 Sieve Analysis for coarse aggregates 40
4.4 Specific gravity for fine aggregates 41
4.5 Specific gravity for coarse aggregates 41
4.6 Specific gravity table for sugarcane peel ash 41
4.7 Bulk density for fine aggregates 42
4.8 Bulk density for coarse aggregates 42
4.9 Water absorption for fine aggregates 43
4.10 Water absorption for coarse aggregates 43
4.11 Compressive Strength for concrete cubes at 7 days curing 44

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
2.1 Sugarcane peel 26
4.1 Sieve Analysis for fine aggregates 39
4.2 Sieve Analysis for coarse aggregates 40
4.3 Variation of compressive strength with % replacement 7 days curing 47

APPENDIX
Appendix
Page
A: A Chemical Analysis Result 54

NOTATIONS
SCPA Sugarcane Peel Ash
OPC Ordinary Portland cement
SG Specific Gravity
ASTM American Standard for Testing Material
Specific Gravity of Sand
Specific Gravity of Granite
Specific Gravity of Cement
kg weight in kilograms
g weight in grams
BS British Standard method

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
Concrete is the most commonly used man-made construction material in which aggregates
both fine and coarse are bonded together by cement when mixed with water. The selection of
the respective amounts of cement, water and aggregate is called mix design (Charles, 2016).
Concrete cannot be formed without cement, water, and aggregates. The requirements in mix
design can be summarized into; strength, workability, durability and economy. Concrete is a
combination of two components aggregate and cement paste. The paste of cement and water
binds the aggregates into a stony mass as paste hardens because of chemical reaction of
cement and water.
Any material that can be made plastic and that gradually hardens to form an artificial rock-
like substance is called a cementitious material (Irving, 2010). Cement being the most high-
priced and main active constituent of the ingredients of concrete, needs a detailed study to
find out the optimum requirements. On the odd occasion when things go wrong and strength
does not develop as expected, rightly or wrongly the cement usually gets the blame. In most
cases, cement contributes directly to the problem maybe one time in three, although it’s
mostly one of several contributing factors (Nicholas, 2014).
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient
of concrete, mortar, and plaster (Pihlajavaara, 2003). The high cost of building materials has
been one major hindrance to housing ownership. One way of bringing down the cost is by
finding alternative construction materials to conventional ones. Such alternative material is
sugarcane peel ash. A large number of researches have been directed towards the utilization
of waste materials, for the construction industry, the development and use of blended cements
is growing rapidly. Since their uses generally improve the properties of the blended cement
concrete and particularly sugarcane peel ash has been used as a highly reactive pozzolanic
material to improve the microstructure of the interfacial transition zone between the cement
paste and the aggregate in high-performance concrete. Sugarcane peel ash improves the
properties of concrete or cement paste due to the pozzolanic reaction and its role as a micro-
filler. It is often thought that the first function (pozzolanic reaction) is most important.
The partial replacement of cement by Sugarcane peel ash in cement paste and mortar would
provide micro-structure improvement, pore filling effects, and better packing characteristics
of the mix (Yusak et al., 2016). The workability of the blended cement paste and mortar is
greatly modified due to the finer Pozzolana particles such as Sugarcane peel ash, fly ash,
silica fume etc. This addition depends both on the quality of Sugarcane peel ash and the
stipulated requirements of strength and durability. Presently, Sugarcane peel ash and cement
contents in a mix are determined by laboratory trials (Musbau et al., 2012).
The first requirement to be met is usually the workability of the mixture, which is controlled
by the water cement ratio. To decide upon the extent to which Sugarcane peel ash can be used
at the lowest possible water cement ratio, workability test was carried out to optimize the
proportion of Sugarcane peel ash.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Portland cement and related building materials are expensive, thus making them unaffordable
to majority of Nigerian population. The high cost of cement is mainly associated with the
high-energy demand for its production. The sugarcane peel, an agricultural waste found
within the region, can be used as partial replacement of ordinary Portland cement. The
resultant ash, when mixed with cement, may provide an alternative affordable cementitious
material.
1.3 Justification of the study
The demand for a high quality sustainable material has increased and encouraged the
researchers to find new alternatives. Sugarcane peel from sugarcane plantations poses a major
problem of disposal, therefore using sugarcane peel ash as a partial replacement for cement
will reduce the volume of agricultural waste generated from the sector as well as the cost of
disposal. Also, cost of concrete production will be greatly reduced. The usage of pozzolanic
materials to reduce the carbon dioxide emitted per tonne of mortar produced are being
investigated and utilized.
1.4 Aim and objectives of the study
1.4.1 Aim of the study
The aim of this work is to determine the effect of sugarcane peel ash on the compressive
strength of concrete.
1.4.2 Objectives of the study
In an effort to gain improved understanding of the above-mentioned phenomena, this study
was undertaken with the broad objective of investigating the effect of partial replacement of
cement with sugarcane peel ash. The followings are the main objectives of this study:
1. To determine the chemical properties of sugarcane peel ash in order to know its potential
for use as a pozzolana.
2. To conduct preliminary tests to determine the physical properties of aggregates via;
specific gravity, sieve analysis, bulk density, and water absorption test.
3. To determine the workability of fresh concrete via slump test.
4. To determine the compressive strength of concrete produced from partial replacement of
cement with sugarcane peel ash by the varying intervals of; 0.0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5%, 10.0%,
and 12.5% replacements.

1.5 Scope of the study
The scope of this research work is to determine the physical properties of aggregates and
sugarcane peel ash (specific gravity, sieve analysis, bulk density, and water absorption, for
aggregates and also specific gravity for sugarcane peel ash) with the production of concrete
from the partial replacement of cement with sugarcane peel ash, properties of fresh concrete
(workability via slump test) and the compressive strength test would be carried out on the
concrete cube cast.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 CEMENT
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens as it dries, and it also reacts with carbon
dioxide in the air dependently, and can bind other materials together. Cement is a material
with both adhesive and cohesive properties which makes it capable of binding mineral
fragments into a compact whole. The word "cement" can be deciphered to the Romans, who
used the term "opus caementicium" to describe masonry similar to modern concrete that was
made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
powdered brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, resulting to a hydraulic
binder, were later referred to as "cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement". In modern
times, organic polymers are sometimes used as cements in concrete
(https://en.wikipedia.org).
The term cement is commonly used to refer to powdered materials which develop strong
adhesive qualities when mixed with water. These materials are more properly known as
hydraulic cements. Gypsum plaster, common limestone, natural pozzolana, and Portland
cements are the more common hydraulic cements, with Portland cement being the most
important in construction. Gypsum plays a very important role in controlling the rate of
hardening of the cement. If Gypsum is not added, the cement will set immediately after
mixing of water leaving no time for concrete placing (Charles, 2016).
Cement was first invented by the Egyptians and it was later recreated by the Greeks and the
Babylonians who made their mortar out of lime. Later, the Romans produced cement from
pozzolana, an ash found in all of the volcanic areas of Italy, by mixing the ash with lime.
Cement is a fine greyish powder which, when mixed with water, forms a thick paste. When
this paste is mixed with sand and allowed to dry it is called mortar. About ninety-nine percent
of all cement used today is Portland cement. The name Portland cement is not a brand name.
This name was given to the cement by Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England who obtained a
patent for his product in 1824. The mortar made from the cement resembled the colour of the
natural limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland in the English Channel.
The balance of cement used today consists of masonry cement, which is fifty percent
Portland cement and fifty percent ground lime rock. Natural cements in more recent years
were produced by burning a limestone high in clay minerals and magnesia to drive off the
carbonic acid and then grinding the resultant clinker into a fine powder. In comparison to
Portland cement, natural cement possesses lower tensile strength, gains strength more slowly,
and its properties are less uniform. Portland cement is obtained from finely pulverized clinker
produced by calcining to incipient fusion properly proportioned argillaceous and calcareous
materials. The final constituents and properties of Portland cement are very carefully
controlled during manufacturing (Irving, 2010).
The use of cement is a huge contributor to greenhouse gases, especially Carbon IV Oxide and
the resultant associated global warming. Carbon IV Oxide is produced during manufacturing
of cement (As Limestone is used), its transportation by trucks and during usage.
Unfortunately, cement’s huge contribution to air pollution is overlooked by the general
public. This research aims at investigating usage of sugarcane peel ash as partial replacement
of cement in concrete production.
2.2 Steps and Operations involved in the Manufacture of Cement
The following steps are fundamental in the manufacture of cement;
i. The quarrying of the raw material and stock piling at the factory.
ii. The mixing of the raw materials in pre-determined quantities.

iii. Grinding of the materials into fine powder, a process generally known as raw
mealing.
iv. Homogenising of the raw meal.
v. Clinkering i.e. a process whereby the raw meal is burned at a high temperature to
produce hard pellets known as clinkers.
vi. Finally, the clinker together with any other additive is grind to produce the desired
cement.
Grinding of the clinker to powder (fine particles) greatly helps in enhancing the strength of
concrete (Hewlett, 2012). Homogenising of the raw meal can be achieved by mixing in water
(wet process) or by mixing in dry conditions (dry process). The wet process normally
requires a considerably large amount of energy to dry the raw meal before burning, but
minimises dust emissions. Advanced technology, however incorporates efficient dust
arrestors encouraging the use of dry process and rendering the wet process obsolete.
2.3 Stages of Operations
There are stages of operations which raw materials and additives pass through are stated as
follows; giving the order in which one operation precedes the other; raw mealing, clinkering,
grinding, and packaging operations.
i. Raw Mealing Operation
This is the process of making raw meal. Pre-determined quantities of raw materials are mixed
together and ground into fine powder known as “raw meal”. After this the raw meal is led to
a silo where it is homogenized through thorough mixing. Homogenization is vital in that it
enhances the combination of oxides during combustion. Regular tests are employed as quality
control measures in the chemical composition and fineness of the raw meal.
ii. Clinkering Operation

This is the process of burning raw meal to produce clinker. The raw meal is fed into a pre-
heating chamber where hot air is blown over it to dry it and make it easy to burn. The raw
meal is then led into a rotary kiln with temperature ranging from 900oC at the inlet to 1450oC
at the hottest end. The kiln is inclined downwards at about 5o and rotated so that raw meal
moves slowly towards the hotter end.
Powdered coal and industrial oil are the major fuels used to provide heat. Between the
temperature ranges of 900oC-950oC, the calcium carbonate in limestone or chalk breaks down
to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide by the equation shown below:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 (2.1)
It is noteworthy to mention that this process of calcining is a big contributor to the carbon
dioxide that forms a key pollutant in the cement manufacturing process.
Between 1250oC and 1450oC, the oxides combine and fuse into hard pellets known as
clinkers. The clinker is then cooled by blowing cold air over it and is then led into a shed for
storage. The air used to cool the clinker heats up and is used to preheat the raw meal before
burning.
iii. Grinding Operation
This is the process of crushing clinker to produce cement. The chemical composition and
fineness of cement is closely monitored at all times during the grinding process.
iv. Packaging Operation
After grinding is complete, the cement produced can be stored in silos or fed into specialized
cement trucks for immediate delivery. The other option is to package the cement into bags of
50kg with the details of the cement type printed on the bags.
2.4 Principal Compounds of Cement
Ordinary cement contains four major compounds and several minor compounds as listed in
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Principal Compounds of Cement
Rate of
Chemical Industry Code Percentage
Compound Reaction With
Formula (Abbreviation) Amount (range)
water
Tricalcium
3CaO.SiO2 C3S 35-65 Medium
Silicate
Dicalcium
2CaO.SiO2 C2S 15-40 Slow
Silicate
Tricalcium
3CaO.Al2O3 C3A 0-15 Fast
Aluminate
Tetracalcium
4CaO.Al2O3.FeO3 C4AF 6-20 Medium
Aluminoferrite
(Neville, 2010)
2.5 Chemical Composition of Portland Cement.
Generally, the actual proportions of various compounds of Portland cement vary significantly
due to different manufacturers. A general composition of Portland cement can be obtained
from Table 2.2, which illustrates the oxide composition limits of Portland cements.
Table 2.2: General Composition Limits of Portland Cements
Symbol
Oxide Raw Material Source Content (%)
Designation
CaO Lime C Limestone/Chalk 60 - 67
SiO2 Silica S Shale/Clay 17-25
Al2O3 Alumina A Bauxite/Shale 3-8
Fe2O3 Iron oxide F Iron ore 0.5-6.0
MgO M 0.5-4.0
Na2O N 0.3-1.2
SO3 S* 2.0-3.5
(Neville, 2012)
2.6 Types of Portland cement
The ASTM C150, Specification for Portland cement, provides for the following types of
Portland cement:
Table 2.3: Types of Portland Cement
Type I General Portland Cement
Type II Moderate-sulphate–resistant cement
Type III High-early-strength cement
Type IV Low–heat-of-hydration cement
Type V High-sulphate-resistant cement

Have same composition as Type I, II and III
Type IA, Type IIA and Type IIIA
respectively but contain air-entraining agent
(ASTM C 150)
i. Type I Portland cement: This is a general purpose cement, and is the most
conventionally used Portland cement. It is utilised when special characteristics from
other cement types are considered.
ii. (ii)Type II Portland cement: This type of cement is utilized when moderate sulphate
resistance or moderate heat of hydration is required. It has better resistance to
deterioration from sulphate attack than the Type I cement. And it is appropriate for
use in locations where concentration of sulphate is higher than normal but not
excessive. The relatively low C3A content in Type II cement make it liberates lower
heat of hydration than that of Type I. It is therefore suitable for mass concrete
constructions such as piers and heavy footings.
iii. Type III Portland cement: This type of Portland cement is generally applicable if
high early strength is required, it possesses more C3A content than any other type of
Portland cement, it particles are finer, making the cement to set and harden rapidly. It
is applicable when formwork is to be removed as early and soon and as fast as
structure is to be brought into completion within shorter period of time. Furthermore,
it may be used for urgent construction and repairs as well as gate installations.
iv. Type IV Portland cement: This type of Portland cement is normally used when the
heat of hydration must be minimised. In all the types of Portland cement, Type IV
cement has reduced compositions of C3A and C3S, which are the compounds that
generate the most heat of hydration. It is generally employed for construction of large
structures, such as dams and massive substructures, in which the temperature gradient
within the cross-section must be carefully regulated.
v. Type V Portland cement: This type of Portland cement is mostly applicable if higher
sulphate resistance is needed, it has a very low content of C3A, and it is applicable
when the structure is in direct contact with alkali soil. It is generally recommended for
construction below ground, flood prone and waterlogged areas, inland water and
seawater, and around sewage disposal sites.
2.7 Specialized Types of Cement
In recent years, specialized types of cements have been manufactured which have specialized
characteristics. This has been achieved by the use of admixtures. Admixtures are additives to
mortar other than the usual cement, water and fine aggregate. The admixtures are added
before, during or after the mix. The main aim of the admixtures is to reduce the cost of mortar
and the other uses are listed below:
i. To modify the properties of hardened mortar.
ii. To ensure the quality of mortar during mixing, and curing.
iii. To overcome emergent situations during mortar use and application.
Nowadays, concrete is being used for wide varieties of purpose to make it suitable in
different condition. In these condition ordinary concrete may fail to exhibit the required
quality performance or durability. In such cases admixture is used to modify the properties of
ordinary concrete so as to make it more suitable for any situation. It also reduces water
cement ratio. The wide variety of materials options and mix proportion possible in concrete
allows it to be customized for a wide range of application and placement and service
environments.
Even though previous studies on sugarcane peel ash have been done, a gap still exists in the
investigation of the effect of sugarcane peel ash on the compressive strength of concrete. The
cost of cement is also on the rising trend, due to increased demand and rising mining levies
and a solution to this increase in prices would be a relief to the consumers of cement in the
construction industry. The significance of this work is to reduce the cost of buying chemical
admixture if it is required in a particular construction.
However, the cementitious materials and chemical admixtures are all chemically complex
and this complexity can lead to problems when they don’t work together properly. The
problems addressed above; strength, mobility, toughness and cost of cement, among others,
have prompted researchers to try and find appropriate methods of making cement paste with
several admixtures, to try and solve them. Admixtures are materials other than cement water
and aggregates that are used as an ingredient of concrete and added to batch immediately
before and after or during mixing.
Anything other than this, if added in concrete either before or during mixing to alter the
properties to our desired requirement are termed as admixtures (Stella, 1996). A
contemporary popular way has been the use of fly-ash from the steel manufacturing
industries as a cement replacing material. Admixtures like fly-ash come in categories of
mineral admixture that are added in concrete to improve resistance to thermal cracking and
alkali aggregates reaction.

A lot of research has been put into the study of ash from steel manufacturing industries and
this has provided a lot of information and positive steps into the replacement of cement with
fly ash from the steel manufacturing industries. However, much remains to be researched as
pertaining to the optimal use of sugarcane peel ash as a cement replacement alternative. The
classification of admixtures is done according to the purpose of the admixtures. As far as
chemical admixtures are concerned, there are five distinct kinds of admixtures: air-entraining,
water-reducing, retarding, accelerating and plasticizers.
There is another special category of admixtures into which all the other admixtures fall. This
group has admixtures with a number of functions such as corrosion inhibition, reduction of
shrinkage, workability enhancement, bonding, damp proofing and colouring (Portland
Cement Association, 2013).
1. Retarding Admixtures
These slow down the setting of mortar and are used especially in the hot regions. This in turn
eases up placing and finishing which would otherwise be hard to achieve in the hot regions.
Thus the mortar is made workable during placement. Many retarding admixtures also serve as
water reducers and may entrain some air in the mortar.
2. Accelerating Admixtures
Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of early strength attainment in mortar. They work
in the opposite way that the retarding admixtures work and are used in the cold weather. They
assist in reducing the time required for proper curing and protection.
3. Super Plasticizers
These are high range water reducers. They reduce water required by 12 to 30 percent
(Portland Cement Association, 2013). The effect of the plasticizer lasts for 30 to 60 minutes,
depending on the brand and the dosage rate and this is followed by rapid reduction in
workability. For this reason and coupled with the fact that plasticizers result in slump loss,
they are usually added at the jobsite.
4. Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures
These fall in the special admixture category and are added to slow down the corrosion of
reinforcement steel in mortar. They are used as a defensive strategy in marine structures,
highways and parking garages and anywhere else where the concentration of chloride is
expected to be high.
2.8 Manufacture of Cement and the Impacts on the Environment
In all stages of its manufacture, Portland cement causes pollution of the environment. These
include emission of airborne pollution in the form of dust and gases which are the foremost
pollutants. The other forms of pollution arise due to the vibration of the blasting equipment,
release of CO2, consumption of large portions of fossil fuels and the damage of land masses
due to quarrying. The amount of CO2 produced in mortar is directly proportional to the
amount of cement used in the mortar mix. 900 kg of CO2 are produced for the fabrication of
every ton of cement (Mahasenan et al., 2003). Of all the pollutants in the cement
manufacturing industry, CO2 gas emission is the most prevalent.
This particular pollutant is produced in three distinct processes:
i. Primary source: CO2 produced by the de-carbonation of limestone in the calcining
process (US Department of Energy, 2006).
ii. Secondary source: CO2 produced by the kiln fuel combustion.
iii. Tertiary source: CO2 produced by the vehicles in the cement manufacturing plant
and that produced by the vehicles used in the distribution of the already
manufactured cement (The Cement Sustainability Initiative, 2007).

Of all the three sources, the primary source is fairly constant with an average production of
about 0.5 kg of CO2 produced for every kg of Portland cement produced. It is this source that
makes the cement manufacturing process dirty as far as pollution of the environment is
concerned.
The secondary source is dependent upon the efficiency of the manufacturing plant and the
mitigating measures that the plant has in place. The low efficiency wet process (which has
since been done away with) results in the production of CO2 at the rate of about 0.65 kg per
kg of cement produced. The amount of CO2 that results from the modern practices average
about 0.30kg per kg of cement produced while the amount of overall gases produced by the
kiln would average as high as twice the amount of cement produced (Hewlett, 2012).
The installation of filters in the kilns also helps greatly in the reduction of the amount of the
CO2 produced in the kiln fuel production process (Peray, 1998). The tertiary source is
relatively insignificant when compared with the former two. It results to about 0.08 kg of
CO2 produced with every kg of finished cement.
2.9 AGGREGATES
Aggregates generally occupy 70-80% of the volume of concrete and can therefore be
expected to have an important influence on its properties. They are granular materials derived
from natural rocks, crushed stones or natural gravels and sand. Although, synthetic materials
such as slag and expanded shale or clay, for example, are used to some extent, mostly in
lightweight concretes. In addition to their use as economical filler, aggregates generally
provide concrete with better dimensional stability and wear resistance. A good aggregate
should produce the desired properties in both fresh and hardened concrete (Jackson, 1984).
Fine aggregates are natural sand and are graded from particles 5mm in size down to the
fineness particle. While coarse aggregates are generally natural gravel or crushed stone
usually larger than 5mm (Oladapo, 1981). Aggregates are classified on the basis of specific
gravity. They should be hard and strong and free of undesirable impurities. Soft, porous rocks
can limit strength and wear resistance. Therefore, aggregates that contain a significant
proportion of friable and weak material or impurities, silts, clay, dirt or organic matter should
be avoided because if they coat the surface of the aggregate they will interfere with cement
aggregate bond. Silt and clay materials will increase the water requirement of the concrete.
(Sidney and Young, 1981).
Coarse aggregates
A coarse aggregate is that portion of the total percentage of aggregates that are predominantly
retained on the 5.00mm standard sieve sizes. Coarse aggregates are mainly retained on a
5.00mm sieve and contains no finer material than the ones permitted for the various sizes in
this specification. Coarse aggregates may be described as uncrushed gravel (Coarse aggregate
resulting from the natural disintegration of rock), crushed gravel (Coarse aggregate produced
by crushing gravel) or partially crushed gravel (Coarse aggregate produced from a mixture of
crushed and uncrushed gravel).
Fine aggregates
These are aggregates almost entirely passing 5.00mm test sieve and containing no coarser
material than the ones permitted for the various grading in this specification. Sand may be
described as uncrushed (sand resulting from the natural disintegration of rock), as crushed
gravel sand (sand produced by crushing gravel) as crushed stone sand (sand produced from
crushing hard stone).
2.10Classification of aggregates
Normal weight aggregates: The most commonly used types of aggregates with specific
gravity ranging from 2.0 to 3.0. They are usually obtained from weathering of natural rock
e.g. gravel, sand and crushed rocks, lime stones, granites, and also by draining river beds or
mining. Concrete made with normal-weight fine and coarse aggregates generally have
concrete density of 2000-3000kg/m3. It can also be classified as natural aggregates and
artificial aggregates (Shetty, 2007).
Table 2.4: Classification of aggregates based on natural and artificial aggregates
Natural Artificial
Sand, gravel, crushed Broken bricks
Rock (granite) Air-cooled slag
Quartzite, Basalt, Sintered fly ash
sand stone Bloated clay
(Neville, 2010)
Heavy aggregates: these includes magnetite (Fe3 O4), hematite (Fe2 O3), iron shots etc.
These aggregates have specific gravity of 4 and above. Heavy weight aggregates contain
aggregates that are natural or synthetic which typically weigh more than 2080kg/m3 and can
range up to 4485kg/m3. Heavy weight aggregate is the most commonly used for radiation
shielding, counterweights and other applications where a high mass-to-volume ratio is
desired.
Light weight aggregates: these aggregates are either in natural or artificial form. Natural
forms such as scoria, volcanic cinders, turf, pumice etc. while artificial forms include furnace
clinker, expanded clay etc. The light weight is due to cellular or high internal porous
microstructure which gives this type of aggregate a low bulk specific gravity. The most
important aspect of light weight aggregates is its porosity. They have a high absorption value
which requires a modification approach for proportioning. Waste from agriculture such as
sugarcane peel ash, locust bean pod ash, sawdust etc. are embedded in this categories and it
produces concrete density less than 1920kg/m3. (Lydon, 1982).
2.11 CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material consisting of coarse granular material (the aggregate or
filler) embedded in a hard matrix material (the cement or binder) that fills the space between
the aggregate particles and binds them together. We can also consider concrete as a
composite material that consists essentially of a building medium within which are embedded
fragments of aggregates. There are many different kinds of concrete according to the type of
binder used. For example, Portland cement concrete, asphalt concrete etc. In concrete
construction, the Portland cement concrete is the most utilized. Thus, in the course of this
project, the term concrete usually refers to Portland cement concrete. (Shetty, and Chand,
2015).
2.12 WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
Workability is the ability of a fresh, plastic concrete mix to properly fill a mould with the
desired vibration, and without reducing the concrete's quality. The term workability is used to
describe the ease at which the concrete can be placed and consolidated without segregation or
separation. Workability is mainly affected by the water content, aggregates type and grading,
aggregate/cement ratio, fineness of cement and presence of admixtures. The amount of large
aggregate as well as the water content will greatly influence the workability of the concrete.
The use of smooth and rounded rather than irregular shaped and rough aggregate also
increases workability. However, these factors also determine the final strength of the
concrete. So for this reason there is need to add an admixture which increases the workability
of concrete without decreasing the strength. It takes a greater effort to achieve a uniform and
dense mass of concrete. Workability is assessed by how the concrete can be compacted to
remove air space, how easily it can flow in mould and around the reinforcements, and also
the ability of concrete to remain stable and coherent during handling and vibration.
Workable concrete is the one which overcomes the frictional resistance offered by the
formwork surface or reinforcement contained in the concrete with just the compacting efforts
forthcoming (Suresh, 2015). Another alternative to improve the workability of concrete is by
using admixtures. To increase the workability of concrete there is necessity to increase the
water content in the concrete. It results in decreasing the strength of concrete. Higher water
content dilutes the cement paste (Shetty, 2000).
2.13 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
The compressive strength of concrete is the most common performance measure used by
engineers in designing buildings and other structures. Compressive strength is the capacity of
a material or structure to withstand axially directed pushing forces. The compressive strength
of concrete is considered to be one of the most important properties in the hardened stage and
the design of concrete structures based primarily to resists compressive stresses. However,
the strength performance and the life span of concrete in service can be inhibited by its
exposure state.
The strength of concrete to resist abrasion, chemical attacks, weathering actions or other
means of deterioration is referred to as durability. The strength of concrete cured in water at a
prescribed temperature is assumed to majorly depend on two factors which are the water
cement ratio and the degree of compaction. When concrete is fully compacted, its strength is
taken to be inversely proportional to the water cement ratio. The water cement ratio is one of
the factors that determines the porosity of the hardened cement paste and also affects the
volume of voids in concrete. (Neville, 2008).

2.14 POZZOLANS
In ancient Rome it was discovered that certain finely divided siliceous materials, when added
to lime, produced cements having extraordinary physical properties. These cements were
often used in the construction of bridges, public buildings, many structures of which have
resisted deterioration for about 2,000 years (Gill, 2013). However, there are several types of
cements in the market today. The one of interest in this thesis is the pozzolanic type. This is
cement that results from addition of Pozzolans into Portland cement. Pozzolan is a siliceous
material that can be used as a low cost substitute for cement in mortar.
Some forms of it occur naturally and others are manmade. Pozzolan participates in a
cementitious reaction with calcium hydroxide (i.e., lime) and other alkalis. The use of
pozzolan with lime in masonry construction dates back to prehistoric antiquity. Pozzolans are
effective at lowering the mortar’s heat of hydration, which improves its workability and
durability. It also resists both sulphate and alkali-silica reactions, which makes it beneficial to
use in large concrete projects such as bridges and dams (Gibbons, 1997).
There are various sources of pozzolan. Naturally occurring pozzolan deposits, an ash like
product of volcanic activity, can be found in Europe and the Middle East, among other
regions. This type of pozzolan is very suitable for use in concrete in wet conditions. Pozzolan
also can be derived from fired and crushed clay, such as bricks, and this variety is more
durable than volcanic pozzolan. Furnace slag from industrial processes such manufacturing
steel can also take the form of a pozzolan, and this type is currently used as a concrete
admixture.
Another type is organic ash, produced by burning coal or lime, but it is weaker than the other
varieties and is generally not suitable for brick-and-mortar construction. Finally, some
pozzolans have been produced by crushing rock and sand, and these have been used in
mortars throughout history but are not commonly used today (Gibbons, 1997). Most
pozzolans are plentiful and, because current uses for them are limited, they represent a
potential source of inexpensive construction material. Some pozzolans can be processed into
a material with characteristics similar to Portland cement, so it is feasible that a significant
portion of cement in a concrete mixture may be replaced by pozzolan. This study explored
the properties of concrete mixes after the addition of various pozzolan specimens.
Pozzolan is a powdery form of essential silica that when partially substituted for cement,
usually adds to the quality of concrete. It possesses little cementations but in finely divided
form and in presence of moisture, it reacts chemically with lime (liberated by hydrating
Portland cement) at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementations
properties (Ghassan et al., 2011).
These cements normally gain strength slowly and therefore requires curing over a
comparatively long period, but the long term strength is high. The benefit of this is that they
normally have slow hydration and therefore low rate of heat development, this is because
they rely on the spin-off of hydration for them to act.
Advantages of using pozzolans as partial replacements of cement.
i. Ordinarily pozzolans cost less than an equal weight of Portland cement.
ii. Pozzolans normally improve workability of concrete because of their round shapes
that allow water to move in them faster.
iii. Segregation of aggregates and bleeding of water in concrete slurries are reduced. This
helps to give a more uniform concrete instead of a hardened concrete where the
"fines" are near the top and the coarse material near the bottom.
iv. Permeability of hard concrete is greatly reduced because of the extra C-S-H formed,
when silica reacts with calcium hydroxide. This increases durability of structures
made using these cements.
v. Resistance to attack by sulphate bearing water is increased and subsequent reduction
in alkali silica reactions, because pore-water volume is reduced.
vi. Compressive strengths are usually improved and are often better than those of
concretes made with straight cement because of the extra C-S-H formed when silica
reacts with calcium hydroxide.
vii. Heat of hydration is lower and maximum rate of heat development is reached at an
early time during the curing process.
Disadvantages of using pozzolans as partial replacements of cement
The main disadvantage of using pozzolanic cement is the slow rate of strength gain. As
defined earlier, this is because the silica from pozzolans has to wait for the spin-off of
hydration for them to react.
2.15 Classification of Pozzolans
Classification system for pozzolans is a precursor to the development of indicators reactivity
and verification of suitability of pozzolans for various applications. A few classification
systems have been proposed, one of them is the ASTM Standard C618-00. It classifies
pozzolans into three types- Type N, Type F and Type C.

Table 2.5: Classes of Pozzolans
Class Description Applications
N Raw or calcined natural pozzolan To improve permeability and durability in
low-heat applications; in hydraulic
structures; to improve sulphate resistance
and alkali- aggregate reaction.
F Fly ash, bituminous origin To have high later-age strength; to improve
sulphate resistance and alkali-aggregate
reaction.
C Fly ash, lignite ash, or subbituminous In high-strength concrete; to improve water
origin tightness; in shotcrete
(ASTM C618-00)
Class N pozzolans are raw or calcined natural pozzolans that comply to the requirements as
stated in ASTM C618-00. Some examples are opalinecherts, shales and some diatomaceous
earths and volcanic ashes. It also includes some other materials such as clays and shales
which require calcination to induce satisfactory properties (ASTM C618, 2003).
Class F pozzolans possess pozzolanic characteristics. The pozzolans in this class include fly
ash which conventionally derived through combustion of anthracite or bituminous coal at the
same time satisfy the requirements stated (ASTM C618, 2003).
Class C pozzolans consists of fly ash which normally produced from lignite or subbituminous
coal. This class of fly ash, besides possessing pozzolanic properties, also exhibits some
cementitious quality (ASTM C618, 2003).

Besides, Mehta (2006) established a classification system of pozzolans according to their
cementitious characteristics. It contains a description of mineralogical compositions and
particle characteristics. The categorizes of pozzolans are as follows;
i. Weak pozzolans
ii. Highly active pozzolans
iii. Cementitious and pozzolanic
iv. Cementitious
v. Normal pozzolans
2.16 Pozzolanic Reaction
The calcium silicates (C3S and C2S) react with water to generate calcium silicate hydrate (C-
S-H) gel and calcium hydroxide (CH). Calcium hydroxide is not a desirable hydration
product as it has no cementitious properties and does not contribute to strength. CH also
enhances the susceptibility of hardened concrete or mortar to chemical attacks.
2C3S + 6H C3H2S3 + 3CH (2.1)
2C2S + 4H C3H2S3 + CH (2.2)
The pozzolanic reaction mainly involves reaction between amorphous siliceous materials and
slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). This leads to formation of calcium silicate hydrate. The
fundamental of pozzolanic reaction is a simple acid- base reaction between silicic acid,
H4SiO4 or Si(OH)4 and calcium hydroxide (Porlandite), Ca(OH)2. The reaction can be
represented as follows:
Ca (OH )2 + H4SiO4Ca2+ + H2SiO42- H2OCaH2SiO4.H2O (2.3)
CH+SH CSH (2.4)

2.17 SUGARCANE PEEL
Sugarcane peel is a lateral product of sugarcane that despite their several uses in industries
and as manure on farms, lack of proper usage has let it to be an agricultural waste, causing
environmental pollution and consequently energy waste. Most of the sugarcane peel were
disposed by open burning system, and this activity could contribute to air pollution and affect
human health (Rajeev and Rajvanshi, 1997). Otherwise, improper treatment of the sugarcane
peel also could be major environmental problems. Due to the presence of amorphous silica in
its chemical composition, this waste of the sugar industry can be used as a mineral admixture
in cement paste, mortar and concrete. In order to enhance the pozzolanic activity of this
residual ash it is quite necessary to increase the fineness of the material.
Basically, after harvesting sugarcane and transporting it to the industry, followed by its
washing and processing. Sugarcane peel results when sugarcane is ground to produce juice.
Sugarcane peel is a light yellow material, with chemical composition of cellulous fibres,
water, and some solid soluble material and it is shown below;
Figure
2.1: Sugarcane peel

2.18 DERIVATION OF AMORPHOUS SILICA FROM SUGARCANE PEEL ASH
Sugarcane peel ash is a rich source of amorphous silica. Amorphous silica is usually
contained in the green leaves. There are several other sources of silicon dioxide which is in
the rice husk ash, potatoes, milk, drinking water and mineral water. Since sugarcane is
abundantly available, this is due to the climatic factors that is suitable for its large cultivation,
the sugarcane peel can be taken as one of the source of the amorphous silica (Farook and
Anwar, 2011). For the past few years, the amorphous silica was produced using various types
of material and also various methods. For instance, the previous researcher produces
amorphous silica from rice husk by using sol-gel method (Junqi et al., 2011). If sugarcane
peel is burnt at appropriate temperature (about 7500C) the ash produced is amorphous and
pozzolanic and can be used to replace cement partially in concrete production.
It is highly recommended for use in the production of lightweight concrete as its density
decreases with increasing quantity of ash replacement. It is also used when low stress is
required at reduced cost (Daneji, 2014). A good way of utilizing this material is to use it for
making high performance concrete which means high workability and very high early
strengths, and long term durability of the concrete (Fayyaah et al., 2009).
Table 2.6: Physical properties of sugarcane peel ash
S/No Physical properties Sugarcane peel ash
1 Colour Greyish-black
2 Specific Gravity 1.80
(Amin et al., 2010)

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
This research work involves mostly practical, which is aimed at determining the compressive
strength of concrete using sugarcane peel ash as a partial replacement for cement. Different
tests were carried out on the materials to determine their physical and chemical properties.
3.1 Materials used for the study
i. Ordinary Portland cement
The cement used is the Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with a specific gravity of
3.15. The cement was purchased from local cement vendors at Gidan Kwano, Minna.
ii. Fine aggregates
Aggregates most of which passes B.S sieve 5.00mm was used. The fine aggregate
(sand) was sourced from a river in Minna, Niger State.
iii. Coarse aggregates
Aggregates retained on B.S sieve 5.00mm, the coarse aggregate (granite) used for the
analysis was obtained from a nearby building materials vendors.
iv. Water
In this project, the water used was sourced from borehole and it is free from
contaminants.
v. Sugarcane peel ash
Sugarcane peel was burnt for approximately 48hrs to about 7500C in an oven under a
controlled burning process. The ash collected were sieved through BS standard sieve
size 0.075mm and its colour is grey. The chemical analysis of the sugarcane peel ash
was conducted in chemistry department laboratory, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria
using Minerals (2) method.

3.2 Determination of Physical Properties of the Constituent Materials.
The physical properties of the aggregates were determined by conducting several tests, which
includes;
i. Specific gravity test
ii. Sieve analysis test
iii. Bulk density test
iv. Water absorption test
The physical property of sugarcane peel ash was carried out by conducting specific gravity
test.
3.3 Specific gravity test
Specific gravity is the ratio of mass of a unit volume of material to the mass of the same
volume of water at the same temperature. The specific gravity of material depends on the
amount of voids and the specific gravity of materials of which it is composed. It is used in
calculating the quantities of materials.
The specific gravity was calculated using;
Specific gravity = (3.1)
Where;
A = weight of surfaced dried aggregate
B = weight of vessel plus water plus sample
C = weight of vessel plus water only
D = weight of oven dried sample

Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregate
This test was conducted in accordance to BS 812: part 2: (1975). Apparatus used include
Pycnometer, Cylindrical bottle (1000ml), digital weighing balance, rubber stopper (cork),
oven and dried sample of sand. The specific gravity results were presented in Table 4.4
Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate
This test was conducted in accordance to BS 812: part 2: (1975). Apparatus used include
Pycnometer, Cylindrical bottle (1000ml), digital weighing balance, rubber stopper (cork),
oven and dried sample of granite. The specific gravity results are shown in Table 4.5
Specific Gravity of Sugarcane peel ash
The specific gravity test was carried out on the sugarcane peel ash. Apparatus used in this
experiment are same as above.
3.4 Sieve Analysis Test
Sieve analysis is the process of dividing a sample of aggregate into fractions of same particle
size, its purpose is to determine the grading or size distribution of the aggregate. A sample of
air-dried aggregate is graded by shaking or vibrating a nest of stacked sieves, with the largest
sieve at the top, for a specified time so that the material retained on each sieve represents the
fraction coarser than the sieve in question but finer than the sieve above.
Sieve Analysis of Sand (Fine Aggregate)
Apparatus used includes; set of sieve sizes, electronic weighing balance, brush, sample tray,
mechanical sieve shaker and pan. The sample retained in each sieve was weighed, measured
and recorded. As shown in Table 4.7
Procedure
The sieve analysis test for fine aggregates was carried out in accordance with BS 812: part 1:
1975
Sieve Analysis of Granite Stone (Coarse Aggregate)
Apparatus used includes; set of sieve sizes, electrical weighing balance, brush, granite stone,
mechanical sieve shaker. The sample retained in each sieve was weighed, measured and
recorded. As shown in Table 4.8
Procedure
The sieve analysis test for coarse aggregates was carried out in accordance with BS 812: part
1: 1975
3.5 Bulk Density Test for aggregates (both fine and coarse)
The bulk density is the actual mass of sample that would fill a container of unit volume, and
this density is used to convert quantities by mass to quantities by volume. Bulk density can
change depending on how the material is handled. The bulk density depends on how densely
the particle is packed and, consequently, on the size distribution and shape of the particles.
The apparatus used for this test are weighing balance, compaction mould, measuring ruler,
and tamping rod. The bulk density was calculated using;
Bulk density =
(3.2)
Where;
W1 = Weight of empty mould (kg)
W2 = Weight of mould + sample (kg)
V = l x b x h (m3)
l = length of sample divider (m)
b = breadth (m)
d = depth (m)
Procedure
The above procedure was repeated two times and the average bulk density was determined.
The procedure used was in accordance with BS 812: part 2: 1975. The results obtained for the
bulk densities of both fine and coarse aggregates are as shown in tables 4.7 and 4.8
respectively.
3.6 Water Absorption Test for aggregates (both fine and coarse)
Water absorption can be obtained by measuring the decrease in mass of saturated and surface
dry aggregates after oven drying for 24 hours and weighed. The sample was oven dried for 24
hours and weighed. The ratio of the decrease in mass to the mass of the dry sample,
expressed as a percentage, is termed absorption. The apparatus used for this test includes;
weighing balance, measuring can, and oven.
Procedure
The test procedure used is as prescribed in BS 812: part 109: 1990. The results obtained for
the water absorption of both fine and coarse aggregates are as shown in tables 4.9 and 4.10
respectively.
3.7 Mix Design
This is the process by which the proportions of various constituents of concrete are
determined with the objective of producing concrete with the required fresh and hardened
properties. It is important to note that in mix design, the following are the general
requirements;
i. The fresh concrete must be workable and economical in production.
ii. The hardened concrete must be strong enough to carry the load imposed on it.
iii. The hardened concrete must be able to withstand the expected service conditions.
Mix design is normally influenced by compressive strength, workability, type and grading of
aggregates, aggregates and cement ratio, maximum size of aggregates and durability
requirements. The compressive strength test was carried out using a mix ratio of 1:2:4. The
mix proportion of 1: 2: 4 (cement: sand: granite) by mass was adopted for the sugarcane peel
ash-free mix (control mix) and a water/cement ratio of 0.5 was maintained for all mix
proportions. Cement was partially replaced with sugarcane peel ash as a pozzolana at varying
interval of 2.5:97.5%, 5:95%, 7.5:92.5%, 10:90%, 12.5:87.5%. Nine concrete cubes were
prepared for each of the six mix proportions. The compressive strengths of 3 concrete cubes
were tested for each mix proportion, at curing periods of 7 days, 14 days and 28 days
respectively. A total of 54 concrete cubes were prepared and tested in this study.
Volume of 1 concrete cube = Length Breadth Height

= 0.15 0.15 0.15
= 3.375 10-3 m3
Volume of 9 concrete cubes = 9 3.375 10-3

= 0.030375 m3
Allowance for 10% wastage = (0.030375 0.1) + 0.030375

= 0.0334125 m3
Hence, 0.0334125 m3 concrete is required for 9 cubes of size; (150 150 150)mm3
Specific gravity of materials:
i. Specific gravity of water: 1.00

ii. Specific gravity of cement: 3.15
iii. Specific gravity of sand (fine aggregate): 2.60
iv. Specific gravity of granite (coarse aggregate): 2.65
0:100% (control mix)
Water (W)/cement (C) ratio is 0.5;
; W = 0.5C (3.3)
Sand (S)/cement (C) ratio is 2;

; S = 2C (3.4)
Granite (G)/cement (C) ratio is 4;
4; G = 4C (3.5)
Using Absolute Volume Method;
5 10-4 C + 3.1746 10-4 C + 7.69 10-4 C + 1.5094 10-3 C = 0.98

C = 316.55 Kg
316.55 Kg of cement is required to produce 1 m3 of concrete.
316.55 x 0.0334125 = 10.58 Kg of cement is required to produce 0.0334125 m3 of concrete.
Mass of water (W) by ratio;

W = 0.5 10.58
= 5.29 Kg
Mass of sand (S) by ratio;
S=2 10.58
= 21.16 Kg
Mass of granite (G) by ratio;
G=4 10.58
= 42.32 Kg
Table 3.1: Mix Proportions
Required Required Binder
Mass of Mass of
Required Required Required
Trial Granite Sand
Mass of mass of mass of
Description (Coarse (Fine
Water (kg) Scpa cement
Aggregate) Aggregate)
(kg) (kg)
(kg) (kg)
0:100 5.29 42.32 21.16 0.00 10.58
2.5:97.5 5.29 42.32 21.16 0.26 10.32
5.0:95.0 5.29 42.32 21.16 0.53 10.05
7.5:92.5 5.29 42.32 21.16 0.79 9.79
10.0:90.0 5.29 42.32 21.16 1.06 9.52
12.5:87.5 5.29 42.32 21.16 1.32 9.26
Total 31.74 253.92 126.96 3.96 59.52
3.8 Methodology
The test samples used for this work are concrete cubes made from Ordinary Portland cement,
fine aggregates (sand), coarse aggregates, water, and sugarcane peel ash. Each concrete cube
was 150mm long, 150mm wide and 150mm thick. All the concrete cubes varied in ratio of
partial replacement of cement with sugarcane peel ash.
i. Mixing
The purpose of mixing is to produce consistent and homogeneous concrete paste; the mixing
was done manually. Since the mixing was done by hand, the concrete paste was mixed
properly and continuously, materials were mixed by turning it over from one end of the heap
to another and cutting with shovel until its shows that uniform mix had been achieved. The
mixture was uniform in colour and texture. As soon as uniformity was achieved, and slump
test was carried out on the fresh concrete.

ii. Slump test
This test was used to determine the workability of the fresh concrete. The mould of slump
test is a frustum of a cone, 30.5mm in height and with a base of 20.3mm in diameter.
Apparatus used for this test includes; Slump cone, Meter rule, Tamping rod, Hand trowel
Procedure: The slump cone was cleaned and held firmly on a smooth surface with the small
opening at the top. Slump cone was filled with concrete in three layers and each layer tamped
25 times with 16mm tamping rod. The top surface of the slump cone was finished with hand
trowel and the cone lifted gently. The reduction in the height of the unsupported concrete was
measured and recorded as the slump.
iii. Casting
The freshly mixed concrete was scooped into the oiled 150mm×150mm×150mm mould in
three layers, while the placing was in progress soon after which compaction commences.
iv. Compaction
Compaction was done to obtain a dense homogenous mass and to remove all entrapped air
voids. Hand compaction was considered here because the mould used was made of metal.
After the concrete cubes were cast, each layer was tamped 25 times with tamping rod. they
were kept in a laboratory for 24 hours and were removed from the mould and then placed in
the curing tank for different hydration for a period of 7, 14 and 28 days.
v. Curing
Curing was done after placing and compacting, the mortar was allowed to set and hardened
for an approximate period under controlled humidity and temperature. The curing of the
concrete cubes was done for the following reasons:

1. To ensure that the moisture is available to hydrate the mortar.
2. To minimize the rate at which initial drying shrinkage occurs.
3. In order to reduce the effect of cracking.
4. To reduce permeability thereby increase durability of the mortar.
The period over which the curing was done is obviously important. In this case, the mortar
cubes were de-moulded after 24 hours and the top was marked for identification and then
immersed into small curing bucket, it was cured for 7 days, 14 days, and 28 days
respectively.
3.9 Compressive Strength Test
The concrete cubes to be tested were removed from curing tank, and wiped dry using a tissue
paper, after which the cubes were weighed. The cubes were placed in the crushing machine
with its two sides in contact with machine plate. The machine pointer was set to zero and the
machine was loaded. During crushing, the machine pointer rose gradually until it drops
indicating failure. The reading at this point was noted and recorded. The compressive
strength in (N/mm²) would be calculated by the failure load divided by the cross sectional
area of the cube resisting the load. The compressive strength of the concrete was calculated
from the expression below;
(3.6)
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The results of the laboratory work carried out on chemical composition of sugarcane peel ash,
specific gravity, water absorption, bulk density of aggregates, sieve analysis of aggregates,
and compressive strength after 7, 14, and 28 days of curing period are represented in tables:
and graphically represented in figures below:
4.1 Chemical Composition of Sugarcane peel ash
Table 4.1: Chemical Composition of Sugarcane peel ash
Element Concentration
Na2O 0.747 Wt %
MgO 2.827 Wt %
Al2O3 8.460 Wt %
SiO2 64.727 Wt %
P2O5 4.010 Wt %
SO3 1.217 Wt %
Cl 0.356 Wt %
K2O 4.019 Wt %
CaO 6.707 Wt %
TiO2 1.004 Wt %
Cr2O3 0.007 Wt %
Mn2O3 0.209 Wt %
Fe2O3 5.574 Wt %
ZnO 0.084 Wt %
SrO 0.050 Wt %
From the chemical analysis result, it was found that the sugarcane peel ash is a highly
pozzolanic material with SiO3+Al2O3+Fe2O3 value of 78.8%, because the sum of the oxides
is greater than 70% according to ASTM specification C618-00.

4.2 Sieve Analysis
Table 4.2: Sieve Analysis for fine aggregates
BS Sieve Weight retained Percentage weight Cumulative Cumulative
sizes (mm) (g) retained (%) Percentage weight Percentage weight
retained (%) passing (%)
5.00 3.10 0.62 0.62 99.38
3.35 5.20 1.04 1.66 98.34
2.36 9.60 1.92 3.58 96.42
2.00 6.70 1.34 4.92 95.08
1.18 50.80 10.16 15.08 84.92
0.85 58.70 11.74 26.82 73.18
0.60 97.0 19.40 46.22 53.78
0.425 107.0 21.40 67.62 32.38
0.300 91.50 18.30 85.92 14.08
0.150 65.10 13.02 98.94 1.06
0.075 4.10 0.82 99.76 0.24
Pan 1.20 0.24 100.00 0.00
100
90
80
70
Percentage Passing ( %)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Sieve Sizes (mm)
Figure 4.1 Sieve Analysis graph for fine aggregates

Table 4.3: Sieve Analysis for coarse aggregates
BS Sieves Weight retained Percentage weight Cumulative Cumulative

(mm) (g) retained (%) Percentage weight Percentage
retained (%) weight passing
(%)
28.00 80.00 8.00 8.00 92.00
20.00 440.00 44.00 52.00 48.00
14.00 430.00 43.00 95.00 5.00
10.00 50.00 5.00 100.00 0.00
6.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pan 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00
100
90
80
70
Percentage Passing ( %)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 10
Sieve Sizes (mm)
Figure 4.2: Sieve Analysis graph for coarse aggregates
From the graphs plotted in figures 4.1 and 4.2 for sieve analysis based on the data obtained
from tables 4.2 and 4.3, for fine aggregates and coarse aggregates respectively, it can be
deduced that up to a reasonable extent; the particles are uniformly graded.

4.3 Specific gravity
Trials 1 2
Weight of cylinder (g) 127.0 97.7
Weight of cylinder + sample (g) 185.8 130.0
Weight of cylinder + sample + water (g) 411.8 404.6
Weight of cylinder + water (g) 375.5 384.8
Specific gravity 2.61 2.58
Average specific gravity 2.60
Table 4.4: Specific gravity for fine aggregates
Trials 1 2 a
Weight of cylinder + sample (g) 185.0 174.8 b
l
Specific gravity 2.68 2.61 e
4.5: Specific gravity for coarse aggregates
A range of 2.6 – 2.7 for specific gravity is specified by Neville A.M (2002) and the results
realized from the study were (2.60 and 2.65) for fine aggregates and coarse aggregates
respectively. This result is satisfactory for both fine and coarse aggregates
Table 4.6: Specific gravity for sugarcane peel ash
Trials 1 2
Weight of cylinder + sample (g) 171.3 140.5
Specific gravity 1.53 2.02
Table 4.6 above is the detailed calculation of the specific gravity of the SCPA used; the
average value obtained was 1.78. This indicates that the ratio of the weight of the volume of
SCPA to the weight of an equal volume of water is 1.78 indicating that SCPA is a light
material.
4.4 Bulk density
Table 4.7: Bulk density for fine aggregates
Weight Uncompacted Compacted

Measurement Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 1 Trial 2
Weight of empty mould W1 (kg) 1.09 1.08 1.09 1.08
Weight of mould + sample W2 (kg) 3.66 3.69 3.88 3.89
Weight of sample (W2 – W1) (kg) 2.57 2.61 2.79 2.81
Volume of mould V x10-3 (m3) 1.73 1.73 1.73 1.73
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1486 1509 1613 1624
Average bulk density (kg/m3) 1498 1619
Uncompacted Compacted
Measurement Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 1 Trial 2
Weight of empty mould W1 (kg) 1.09 1.08 1.09 1.08
Weight of mould + sample W2 (kg) 3.58 3.63 3.87 3.85
Weight of sample (W2 – W1) (kg) 2.49 2.55 2.78 2.77
Volume of mould V x10-3 (m3) 1.73 1.73 1.73 1.73
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1439 1474 1607 1601
Average bulk density (kg/m3) 1457 1604
Table 4.8: Bulk density for coarse aggregates
According to Neville A. M (1987) which specified that the ratio of uncompacted to
compacted bulk density should fall within the range of 0.87 – 0.96, the result obtained for
uncompacted sand and granite, were (1498 and 1457) kg/m3 and the corresponding
compacted values were (1619, 1604) kg/m3. This gives the respective ratio values as (0.93
and 0.91). The above results of sand and granite agree appreciably with Neville A.M. (1987)
specifications and this implies that the aggregates are well-packed and densely composed.
4.5 Water Absorption
Trial Number 1 2
Weight of can (g) 24.2 24.5
Weight of can + wet sample (g) 73.4 71.0
Weight of can + dry sample (g) 62.0 60.2
Increase in mass (g) 11.4 10.8
Absorption 0.23 0.23
Average 0.23
Table 4.9: Water absorption for fine aggregates
Trial Number 1 2
Weight of can (g) 25.0 25.3
Weight of can + wet sample (g) 127.9 114.0
Weight of can + dry sample (g) 125.5 111.8
Increase in mass (g) 2.4 2.2
Absorption 0.023 0.025
Average 0.024
Table 4.10: Water absorption for coarse aggregates
The water absorption for the fine aggregate was found to be 0.23 while that of the crushed
stone was 0.024.
4.6 Slump Test
The slump height obtained for 0% replacement of cement is 14mm; 2.5% replacement of
cement is 17mm; 5.0% replacement of cement is 23mm; 7.5% replacement of cement is
28mm, 10.0% replacement of cement is 33mm, and 12.5% replacement of cement is 35mm.
Slump is affected by the water/cement ratio and based on these above listed values, the
concrete is workable as there was no collapse of the slump. This shows that sugarcane peel
ash absorbed more water than cement.

4.7 Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes
Volume of cube = (0.15 x 0.15 x 0.15) m3 = 3.375 x 10-3 m3
Area of cube = (150 x 150) mm2 = 22500 mm2 = 2.25 x 10-2 m2
Table 4.11 Compressive strength for concrete cubes at 7 days curing

Sample Percentage Weight Density Average Crushing Compressive Average
Number replacement of cube of
of Density load Strength Compressive
33 2
(%) (kg) cube (kg/m ) (KN) (N/mm ) Strength
3
(kg/m ) (N/mm2)
1 0 8.55
8.82 2613
2533 530
580 23.56
25.78
2 8.74
8.62 2590
2554 2574
2543 520
480 23.11
21.33 24.30
22.52
3 8.58
8.50 2519
2542 510
540 22.67
24.00
1 2.5 8.51
8.65 2563
2521 430
500 19.11
22.22
2 8.55
8.60 2548
2533 2522
2555 470
480 20.89
21.33 19.85
22.07
3 8.62
8.48 2554
2512 510
440 22.67
19.56
1 5.0 8.38
8.25 2483
2444 450
430 20.00
19.11
2 8.31
8.40 2489
2462 2467
2473 400
492 17.78
21.87 18.37
20.62
3 8.26
8.42 2447
2495 450
410 20.00
18.22
1 7.5 8.38
8.30 2483
2459 440
420 19.56
18.67
2 8.30
8.35 2474
2459 2457
2488 370
480 16.44
21.33 16.89
19.85
3 8.28
8.46 2507
2453 350
420 15.56
18.67
1 10.0 8.33
8.40 2468
2489 370
300 16.44
13.33
2 8.21
8.52 2524
2433 2474
2501 320
410 14.22
18.22 14.52
16.74
3 8.44
8.48 2513
2501 360
350 16.00
15.56
1 12.5 8.32
8.30 2465
2459 360
280 16.00
12.44
2 8.20
8.66 2566
2430 2444
2493 330 14.67 13.63
15.85
3 8.25
8.26 2447
2444 310
380 13.78
16.89

Sample Percentage Weight Density Average Crushing Compressive Average

Number replacement of cube of Density load Strength Compressive
(%) (kg) cube (kg/m3) (KN) (N/mm2) Strength
(kg/m3) (N/mm2)
1 0 8.60 2548 580 25.78
2 8.67 2569 2546 610 27.11 25.93
3 8.51 2521 560 24.89
1 2.5 8.57 2359 570 25.33
2 8.60 2548 2451 530 23.56 25.20
3 8.26 2447 600 26.68
1 5.0 8.61 2551 540 24.00
2 8.74 2590 2558 510 22.67 23.70
3 8.55 2533 550 24.44
1 7.5 8.32 2465 460 20.44
2 8.58 2542 2491 490 21.78 20.30
3 8.32 2465 420 18.67
1 10.0 8.63 2565 410 18.22
2 8.26 2557 2552 440 19.56 18.96
3 8.55 2533 430 19.11
1 12.5 8.48 2513 380 16.89
2 8.51 2521 2513 400 17.78 16.74
3 8.46 2507 350 15.56

40
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
30
20 y = -0.7077x + 22.053
R² = 0.985
10
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
Percentage Replacement (%)
Figure 4.3: Variation of compressive strength with % replacement 7 days curing
40
30
20
y = -0.6744x + 24.12
R² = 0.9758
10
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15

40
30
20
y = -0.7779x + 26.667
R² = 0.9713
10
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
In accordance with BS 4550 part 3, the standard maximum strength requirement for ordinary
Portland cement for concrete is about 25 N/mm2 to 29 N/mm2 for 28days curing period. The
28days compressive strength of the 1:2:4 varies from 25.20 N/mm2 for 2.5 % sugarcane peel
ash replacement to 16.74 N/mm2 for 12.5 % sugarcane peel ash replacements. From the
curves in figures 4.5 for different percentage replacement, it is observed that the compressive
strength reduces from 0% to 2.5%, there was a slight increase from 2.5% to 5% followed by a
rapid decrease in strength from 7.5% to 12.5%.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The partial replacement of cement with sugarcane peel ash in concrete production has gained
considerable importance because of the requirements of environmental safety and more
durable construction in future. The use of this ash as partial replacement of cement in mortar
and concrete has extensively been investigated. Based on the experimental results, the
following conclusion and recommendations can be drawn:
5.1 Conclusion
i. Sugarcane peel ash is highly pozzolanic, based on the chemical composition
obtained, with a SiO3 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 content of 78.8% and it was found to be
similar to class N fly ash according to ASTM specification C618-00; (Appendix
A).
ii. Workability of concrete increases by increasing the percentage of replacement of
SCPA in concrete with 12.5% replacement giving the highest workable concrete
of 35mm compared with the other replacements respectively for the sugarcane
peel ash.
iii. The compressive strength of concrete is increased at 2.5% replacement of cement
with SCPA. This is particularly the case at longer times of curing the concrete.
Further increase in percentage of SCPA results in decrease in compressive
strength.
iv. Concrete mix containing not more than 5% of sugarcane peel ash showed a little
reduction in the final strength (less than 10%), they can still be used for major
construction work. The 10% replacement can be used for light weight concrete for
blinding and German floor.

v. Grinding of sugarcane peel ash improves the performance of concrete ground
sugarcane peel ash gave concrete with the highest 28th day compressive strengths.
vi. The physical properties of concrete made from partial replacement of cement with
sugarcane peel ash improved with increase in time of curing.
5.2 Recommendations
The following recommendations are made for further studies:
i. Investigation into the water absorption capacity of concrete made with different
content of sugarcane peel ash.
ii. Sugarcane peel ash is a pozzolan and can be recommended for use as partial
replacement of cement in concrete production at a percentage up to 20%. For
environmental sustainability, sugarcane peel ash can be utilized for the production of
lightweight, durable and cheap concrete. Since it is available in significant quantities
across the country.
iii. Effect of controlled burning of sugarcane peel ash at different temperatures.
iv. Effect of different fineness of sugarcane peels ash.

REFERENCES
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APPENDIX A: Chemical Analysis Result
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EFFECT OF SUGARCANE PEEL ASH ON THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

Thesis · September 2018

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

YUSUF, Muideen Sholadoye

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

YUSUF, Muideen Sholadoye

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

by me, in the Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna

under the supervision of Engr. H. O Aminulai, and is a collection of my original research

YUSUF, Muideen Sholadoye

supervision of Engr. H. O Aminulai and submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering of

award of a Bachelor of Engineering (B.ENG) degree in Civil Engineering.

Engr. H.O Aminulai ________________________

(Project Supervisor) Signature / Date

Engr. Dr. M. M Alhaji ________________________

External Examiner _________________________

throughout my undergraduate study.

support, The departmental project coordinator; Engr. Dr. S. S. Kolo, I am particularly

me the person I am today.

Mr. E. Agbese, and Mr. M. Umar, I say a big thank you.

Abidoye Oluwashina, Folorunsho Muqsit, Mustapha Habeeb, Mustapha Abdulqaudri,

one point in time. May Almighty Allah bless you abundantly.

makes it possible for me to successfully complete my study. My unending gratitude goes to

continue to provide for them.

Table of Contents viii

List of Tables xii

List of Figures xiii

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 2

1.3 Justification of the study 3

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the study 3

1.4.1 Aim of the study 3

1.4.2 Objectives of the study 3

1.5 Scope of the study 4

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.2 Steps and Operations involved in the Manufacture of Cement 6

2.3 Stages of Operations 7

2.4 Principal Compounds of Cement 9

2.5 Chemical Composition of Portland Cement 9

2.6 Types of Portland cement 10

2.7 Specialized Types of Cement 12

2.8 Manufacture of Cement and the Impacts on the Environment 15

2.10 Classification of aggregates 17

2.12 Workability of concrete 19

2.13 Compressive strength of concrete 20

2.15 Classification of pozzolans 23

2.16 Pozzolanic reaction 25

2.17 Sugarcane peel 26

2.18 Derivation of amorphous silica from sugarcane peel ash 27

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 29

3.1 Materials used for the study 29

3.2 Determination of physical properties of the constituent materials 29

3.3 Specific gravity test 29

3.7 Mix Design 32

3.9 Compressive Strength Test 37

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 38

4.1 Chemical Composition of Sugarcane peel ash 38