25 AGRICULTURAL LABOUR

Chapter

Agricultural workers constitute the most

neglected classified as an agricultural labour household. The Second
class in Indian rural structure. Their income is low and
employment irregular. Snce they possess no skill or training,
Agricultural Labour Enquiry Committee of 1956-57 took
a
broad view of agricultural activities to include those workers
thev have no alternative employment opportunities either. also who were engaged in allied activities like animal
Socially, a large number of agricultural workers belong to
husbandry, dairy, poultry, piggery, etc. The Second
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Therefore, they Committee submitted that to know whether a household is
are an oppressed class. They are not organised and cannot an agricultural labour household we must examine its
fight for their rights. Because of all these reasons, their sOurce of income. If 50 per cent or more of its income is
main
economic lot has failed to improve even after seven decades derived as wages for work rendered in agriculture, only
of Independence. It seems that (excepting pockets in Punjab, then it could be classified as agricultural labour household.
Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh) the planning process The changeover from work to income' seems more
has bypassed them. In this chapter we shall discuss: scientific. However, even this is not without flaws. It often
Definition of agricultural labour happens that the head of the houschold goes to a city to
work in the unorganised sector on a temporary basiS or
.Growth in the number of agricultural labourers and finds job in some public construction programme, whereas
the causes for this growth other members of his family remain in the village and
Conditions and problems of agricultural labourers continue to work in agriculture against payment of wages.
Measures undertaken by the government to improve Properly speaking, this household should be classified as an
the condition of agricultural labourers agricultural labour household even if it derives a major

Suggestions to improve the position of agricultural portion of its income from other occupations in somne
particular years.
Workers.
According to the National Labour Commission, a major
portion of income of agricultural workers is in the form of
DEFINITION OF AGRICULTURAL LABoUR wages obtained as a result of working on land. These workers
have nothing except their labour to earn livelihood. They
of are generally unskilled and unorganised. In the Census of
The First Agricultural Labour Enquiry Committee
who India 1961, all those workers were included in the category
9D0-5I regarded those people as agricultural workers
of wages. Since of agricultural workers who worked on the farms of others
wre engaged in raising crops on payment work against and received payment either in money or kind (or both). The
not
n l a , a large number of workers do 1971 Census excluded those people from agricultural
this definition was
Payment of wages all the year round, that labourers for whom working on the farms of others was a
Complete. Accordingly, the Committee laid down
workers secondary occupation.
people should be regarded as agricultural
WIO Worked for 50 per cent or more days on payment or This brief analysis is enough to prove that even the
under are not agreed upon the detinition of agricultural
were included experts
5.Therefore, even those people some labour. Accordingly, we must remain content witha working
Category of agricultural workers who possessed
50 per cent or definition. All those persons who derive a major part of
Or were rural artisans but who worked their income as paynent for workperformed on thefarms
of wages.
TLays on the land of others against payment workers. For
labour household. of others, can be designated as agricultural
mittee also defined an agricultural of a a major part of
the year they should work on the land of
head household
e opinion ofthe Committee, if the
or 50 agricultural others on wages.
PEr cent or more of the e a r n e r s report
should be
labour as heir main upation, that family

321
 322 Indian Economy

industries, transport and

Categories of Agricultural Labourers mix in manufacturing tertiary
industries is such that the capital-labour ratio is practically
The First Agricultural Labour Enquiry Committee Consequently, it is generall
fixed and unchanging. not
had classified agricultural workers into two categories: employment opportunitie
possible to provide increasing
() attached labourers, and (ii) casual labourers. In the situation in the agricultural
these sectors. However,
Indian context, this is the basic classification. Attached Not only the capital-labour ratio
is entirely different.
labourers are attached to some cultivator household on the ratio 1s variable. Therefore
even the land-labour
basis of a written or oral agreement. Their employment is population increases, people fall back upon agriculture tfor
permanent and regular. Accordingly whenever the master their livelihood (in the face of unexpanding employment
Wishes, they are ready to work on his land. Normally, they increase in
are not free to work at any other place. In many instances opportunities in other sectors). Inus, population
on
reasons of increase in the number o
attached labourers also do the task of domestic servants in is one of the major of
agricultural labourers.
addition to working on land. The hours of work are very
2. Decline of cottage industries and village
lengthy and in some cases, attached agricultural labourers
handicrafts. There was a rapid decline of cottage industries
have to work from dawn to dusk in the houses and farms of
and village handicrafts during the British period, but modem
their employers.
industries were not set up to take their place. The Britishers
All workers not falling in the category of attached had adopted various measures to destroy the traditional
labourers, constitute casual workers. They are free to work
industries of India and they were least interested in providing
on the farm of any farmer and payment is generally made to
alternative employment opportunities to the skilled and
them on a daily basis. There are broadly three types of
unskilled workers engaged in these industries. Not only
casual agricultural workers in India: (i) small farmers who
were the craftsmen working in such industrial cities as
have very small holdings and are thus forced to work on the
Dacca and Murshidabad rendered jobless, even craftsmen
farms of others to make both ends meet; (ii) tenants who
work on leased land but this is not their main source of engaged in small towns lost their jobs. These people were
forced to seek employment as agricultural workers in the
income (the main source of their income being work
performed on the land of others); and (ii) share-croppers countryside.
who besides sharing the produce of land cultivated by them, 3. Eviction of small farmers and tenants from land.
also work as labourers. In Ryotwari areas in South India, initially land belonged to
the farmers. However, with increase in the number of
the land started slipping out of the hands ot
intermediaries,
CAUSES OF GROWTH IN THE NUMBER OF
small farmers and they were forced either to adopt the status
AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS
of tenants work as agricultural labourers. After
or

Independence, the government adopted various measures o

The number of agricultural workers has continuously
land reforms. However, as discussed in the
increased during the planning period from 27.5 million
Land Reforms', under the cover of these reforms, zamindas
chapter 0
in 1951 to 55.4 million in 1981, 73.7 million in 1981 and
and big landlords evicted a number of tenants on the pretexi
144.3 million in 2011. Since the total number of workers in
2011 was 481.7 million while the number of agricultural
of personal cultivation'. A majority of these people hadtu
alternative but to seek employment as agricultural work
workers was 144.3 million, it means that 30 per cent of total
workers are employed as agricultural workers. This shows 4. Uneconomie holdings. The process of subdivis Ience

that more than one out ofeveryfour persons of the labour and fragmentation of holdings (which is mainly a consequet
of the law of inheritance and decline of stem)
jorce is an agricultural worker in India. joint family syst
has continued unabated for a
There are a number of factors responsible for the long period of time.
rendered a large number of
continuous and enormous increase in the number of holdings uneconom t
agricultural labourers in India. The more important ones are consequence, farmers working on these hola
arced
difficult to make both ends meet. Therefore, they
the following ar5 lords.
to work on the farms of zamindars and
1. Increase in population. The population of India
big 1a from
agricultural labourers to supplement their inco
has increased at a very rapid pace after 1921. However, land.
development has proceeded at a very slow rate and it has reas1ng

not been possible to provide employment to the increasing

5. Increase in
indebtedness. The nsble
indebtedness of small farmers in rural areas is alsor
population in areas other than agriculture. The technology The kers.
for increasing the number of
agricultural wor
 Agricultural Labour 323

onevlenders and mahajans often advance loans with the By advancing small loans to them, the zamindars and
urpose of grabbing the land of smal farmers. They adopt landlords often succeeded in trapping these poor people in
various malpractices like charging exorbitant rates of interest, their net and converted them into virtual slaves. This slaveryy
onanipulating accounts, etc., and once the small and marginal continued from generation to generation and forced the

farmers fall into

their
trap, it becomes very difficult for agricultural workers to lead a wretched existence of
them to get out. In an attempt to repay debts, these poor deprivation and oppression. The situation has improved in
farmers are forced to work as agricultural workers. Often the 70 years of Independence. Though even now the class of
workers is the poorest and resourceless class in
their land is also mortgaged with the moneylenders who agricultural
s0oner or grab it under the pretext of non-repayment of
later rural areas, it is no longer a victim of extreme forms of
continues. Even now
loans. Thus, the erstwhile farmers are reduced to the status oppression. But economic exploitation
their level of income is very low and highly insufficient
to
of agricultural labourers.
their
enable them to make both ends meet. Even now
6. Spread of the use of money and exchange system.
In the absence of
consumption standards are very low.
The rapid spread of the use of money and development of alternative sources of employment, they are forced to depend
the exchange system has changed the entire complexion of on landlords who consequently
dictate terms. The simple
Whereas, previously land was often given to the
agriculture. law of demand and supply operates. Since
their supply is
tenants to cultivate (from whom landlords obtained rent in excessive in relation to the demand for them, they
have to
is
the form of a portion of the produce), the present practice settle for extremely low wages. The alternative
is w o r s e -
do the job. These workers
to employ agricultural workers to
unemployment.
workers are now being 'detached' or
are paid wages. Thus, workers. The
assuming the 1. Marginalisation of agricultural
separated' from land and are increasingly workforce in agriculture (cultivators plus agricultural
role of wage-labourers. and this rose to 263.0
of multiplicity
labourers) was 97.2 million in 1951
a number of agricultural
7. Capitalist agriculture. Because million in 2011. As against this, the
the last few to 144.3 million in
of factors operating in this country during labourers rose from 27.5 million in 1951
has received a big boost. 2011.This implies that (7) the number of agricultural labourers
decades, capitalist agriculture
development in increased by more than five times v e r the period
1951 to
Abolition of intermediaries, technological
o

cooperative credit, expansion of

marketing of workforce in agriculture,
agriculture, cheap have all
2011; and (ii) as a proportion
of the government, labourers increased from 28 per cent in 1951 to
Tacilities and the pricing policy agricultural
Created favourable conditions
for the development ofcapitalist 55 per cent in 2011. These facts
indicate the fast pace of
has
agriculture workforce in agriculture in India.
agriculture. More specifically, capitalist Western
casualisation of
Haryana and Moreover, the share of agriculture
and allied activities in
entrenched itself deeply in Punjab, of these over the years
declined
Utar Pradesh. The farmers
turned entrepreneurs GDP at factor cost has consistently
scale and 13.9 per cent in 2013-
farming on a large from 53.1 per cent in 1950-51 to
have adopted capitalist
-

areas far-off share of agriculture and allied

workers from 14 (at 2004-05 prices). The
agricultural
1ave started attractingcannot be ruled out that in the future, activities in GVA (gross value added) at basic prices (2011-
places. The possibility may force
m o r e and
more
12 series) was 15.2 per
cent in 2016-17 and 14.8 per cent
uevelopment of capitalist farming The implication is that the
start working
as agricultural
in 2017-18 at 2011-12 prices.
to leave land and
ants gap per
worker GDP in agriculture and that in non-agriculture
labourers. widened markedly over the post-Independence
decades. "The
considered in the context of casualisation of
OF widening gap,
PROBLEMS
mentioned above, appears to provide
CONDITIONS AND workforce in agriculture
AGRICULTURAL LABOURERSS

a clear
indication of the marginalisation process operating
in agriculture."1
most
labourers
is the
and family
class of agricultural hierarchy. Betore 2. Wages and income. Agricultural wages
he in rural that of workers are very low in India. The
and oppressed clas better than incomes of agricultural
Oed w a s nothing Labour Enquiry reported that the per
Indep
pendence, their
position
sorts of begar
on
First Agricultural
perform all capita annual income
of agricultural labour families was a
serfs. They were quired to
domestic
servants

the master's land and house,

work a s
that the meagre 104 in 1950-51, the average annual income of the
and everything social household being R 447. The Second Agricultural Labour
anything
from dawn to dusk and do victims of
deterioration in the condition of
Enquiry reported a further
were

zamindars demanded of them. They

exploitation.
If they 1a tortured.
aoricultural workers. Thus, per capita annual income declined
uscrimination and economic beaten up
and
were
tow t i n e s of the master, they
 324 Indian Economy

to 99.4 in 1956-57 and male-female earnings ratio indicates that gender dis
average annual income of the
agricultural labour households to 437. wages in the Indian countryside
are widening 5 0es in
With the advent of the In a study published in 2009, Mukesh Eswaran
green revolution, money
wage rates started increasing. Kotwal, Bharat Ramaswami and Wilima Wadhu 1aok
However, as prices also
increased considerably, the real
wage rates did not increase that at the all-India level, weekly average wages grew found
much. From his per cent between 1983 and 2004-05. This translates by 68
study on "Agricultural Wages in India"
spanning the period 1970-71 to 1984-85, A.V. Jose concluded into a
that "In fact,
annualised rate of growth of 2.5
per cent per year, T
stagnation or decline in real wages during the average daily earnings grew taster-14 per cent
greater part of our period of analysis appears to have been 1983 and 2004-05 o r an annualised rate of3.33 petetween
ce
the characteristic feature in
a number of Indian The rates of growth were higher in the first decade- 1q
Increases in output did lead to increase in States".
real wages in to 1993-94- with annualised rates of 3.3 per cent f
some States but "such
spurt in real wages has been of a weekly earnings and 3.2 per cent for daily earnings. Bo
short duration and there is
to maintain sustained
hardly any State which managed these rates slowed down appreciably in the next decade
increase in wages over a period of 1993 to 2004-05-to 1.8 per cent and 2.3 per cent per year.
three decades from the mid-1960s
onwards." Jeemol Unni's respectively. And in the last five years 1999 to 2004
study on "Agricultural Labourers in Rural Labour these rates slowed down further to 1.l per cent (weekly
Households, 1956-57 to 1977-78" also shows that between earnings) and 0.6 per cent (daily earnings).°
1964-65 and 1974-75 daily real
wage earnings of adult In a recent study, Amit Basola has studied long-run
males actually declined at the all India level and in most of
the States (excepting trends in rural wages covering the period 1998 to 2017.
Karnataka, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh). This period has been divided into three sub-periods: 1999 to
G. Parthasarathy had estimated the
in 1984-85 to lie
daily money wages 2010, 2010 to 2014 and the period after 2014. While national
broadly between 6 and 11 (excepting income cotinued to grow in real terms at the rate of 7
Punjab, Haryana and Kerala where they were higher). As cent
per
against this, the minimum wage required to maintain a basic per annum over all these three periods, this growth
minimum standard of living was 22
translated into improvements in rural wages at
per day." As is clear, a commensurate rate only for the middle period, when wage
this was considerably higher than the
money wages actually growth was over 8 per cent. In the first period (1999-2010),
prevailing at that time (even in Punjab, Haryana and Kerala).
wage rates grew on average at only 0.33 per cent per
In a nutshell, the living conditions of
agricultural labourers annum (i.e., a virtual
stagnation), while in the third period
were truly pathetic.
In their study on agricultural wages in India
(after 2014), they grew at 1.7 per cent per annum. According
(covering to Amit Basola, the fast increase in rural
the period 1964-65 to 1999-2000), Pallavi Chavan and wages in the mdle
period (2010-2014) could be due to increases in agricultural
Rajshree Bedamatta arrived at the following conclusions:
(iThere was a striking rise in the growth of daily real
productivity, increased activity in the construction sector
and the MGNREGS, falling labour
earnings across all States between 1983 and 1987-88.
women, well as general urbanisation. The
as
force participation or
Between 1987-88 and 1993-94, and further between 1993- collapse
wage rates post-2014 may be due to the failure of tne
94 and 1999-2000, there was a distinct slowdown in the rate
of growth of real earnings for both male and female
government to systematically index the MGNREGS Wag
to the minimum
agricultural labourers across a majority of the States; (i) wages. In some States, the rural wag
increased at a pace far slower than inflation
There was a rising trend in the variations in real (in exuru
wages cases, by a rupee per year). Himanshu also observes a
across districts in the 1990s. There was also a rise in the Sla
deceleration in real wages since 2013-14.
inter-State variations in male and female real earnings between According
him, real wages of casual workers in were

1987-88 and 1993-94 and then, between 1993-94 and 1999- agriculture
increasing at the rate of 7 per cent per annum between 2007
2000 in contrast to the decline in variation that occurred 08 and 2012-13. As
between 1983 and 1987-88; (ii) The differences between the against this, real wages
agriculture slowed down to merely 1 per cent per a
average wages of male and female agricultural labourers between 2013-14 and 2016-17.8
have widened over the years (particularly after 1987-88); and
3.
Employment and working conditions*of
(iv) While daily wages of agricultural male labourers exceeded
the minimum wage levels in most States, the daily wages of
agricultural labourers have to face the proble
part
female agricultural labourers were below the minimum wage
unemployment and underemployment. For a substanuer
of the year, they have to remain
levels in most States. This fact, combined with the rising unemployed becaument
is no work on the farms and alternative
sources ofempi
 Agricultural Labour 325

Since they
Since they aro
are not organised, they cannot fight
exist. With the help of advances of money by the recruiting agents
not wages either. There is also no provision for
do inimum and while on migratory work the time is spent on keeping
for m of hours of work. At the time of sowing and
ination
them alive until they return to their village."
arvesting, the agricultura workers have to work on the
8. The landlord-labourer relationship. The
from dawn to dusk. Since they are employed on a
farms
there is. tion of any leave or other benefits relationship between the landlord and the labourer is not
dailybasis, uniform throughout the country. There are substantial
for them. Though bonded labour has been abolished in the differences not only among different States but even among
yet news about the existence of this system in rural
country different villages of the same State as regards the period of
pouring in from different parts of the country. of payment, freedom of
India keep employment, mode and time-period
4. [ndebtedness. Because of the low level of their etc.
movement, bargaining power vis-à-vis landlords, begar,
vorkers have to seek debts off and and
incomes, agricultu
Broadly speaking, the relationship between landlords
(owever, because of their extreme poverty, they are agricultural labourers is of two types: In the first category
on
nof in a position to provide any security. Therefore, are those labourers who are free. Therefore, they can, if they
zamindar
atitutional agencies are reluctant to provide loans to them. so wish, refuse to work for a particular landlord or
and
Accordingly, they have to seek credit from non-institutional at the prevailing wage rate. They can leave their village
curces like private moneylenders who charge a high rate the second category are
go to some other places for work. In
attached
of interest and exploit them in a number of other ways as included those agricultural labourers who work as
and
well. In fact, the debt of agricultural labourers passes from labour. They have to work on the field of their masters

generation to generation and is never fully paid up. have to accept whatever wages are offered to them. They
have been deprived of their freedom in a number of ways.
5. Feminisation of agricultural labour with low burden
workers are generally forced to Social customs, oppression and forcible subjugation,
wages. Female agricultural of indebtedness, etc. have all contributed to strengthen the
work harder and are paid less than their male counterparts.
chains of their serfdom.
Such bias against female workers exists in most of the
dryland areas. At many places, wages paid to female workers
are even less than the minimum wages. MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE
GOVERNMENT
6. High incidence of child labour. Incidence of child
labour is high in India and the estimated number varies from Measures adopted by the government to improve the
the
17.5 million to 44 million. It is estimated that one-third of
number of conditions of agricultural labourers can be considered under
child workers in Asia are in India. The largest
child workers are in agriculture. Child employment benetits the following headings:
1. Minimum wages. The Minimum Wages Act was
affects the poor as a class although
the employer but adversely of the household supplying
passed as long back as in 1948 and since then the necessity
t may supplement the income worse-off as employment of
of applying it to agriculture has been constantly felt. However,
ld labour. The poor are made levels. Moreover, children because of a number of ditficulties it was not found possible
ALITen brings down the wage education. As a result, to fix minimum wages for agricultural labour in most of the
upioyed as workers are deprived of States up to 1974. The main dificulties were low productivity
their future potential income remains low.
revolution
of agricultural labour, small size of holdings ofmany farmers
Increase in migrant labour. Green
1. and their consequent incapability of paying more wages,
gnicantly increased remunerative wage employment areas while
determination of wages by traditional methods and opposition
opportuniS pockets of assured irrigation
in of any changes from the landlords, lack of organisation
in the vast rainted
yent opportunities nearly stagnated flow of
among rural workers, excessive labour supply in many areas,
mi-arid areas. erefore, there has been a large number
prevalence of widely different conditions of employment,
migrant labour from thellatter to the former areas. The to etc. Some changes have occurred during the planning period.
is estimated be
-State distress rural migrant workers labour supply, Agricultural production in most of the States has increased.
ound 10 million. Even a r e a s of abundant The resulting prosperity of farmers has induced agricultural
of the greater
mployers prefer rural ugrant workers
because
without regard
workers in some places to demand more wages. Moreover,
Control that can be ercised on such labour
sketch
changes accompanying land reforms also increased the
to Sankaran draws a graphic
any social responsibility. aspirations of agricultural labourers. In this changing
labour in these
the miserable pligh of inter-State migrant environment, the government has initiated a number of
Words: "the time is aimed at
they spend in their own village often
steps to fix minimum wages for agricultural labourers. At
Keeping them alive until the next recruiting
season,
 326
Indian Economy

present, excepting Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland and 4. Provision of housing sites. Laws have been
Sikkim, legislations have been passed in all the States fixing in several States for providing house sites in villa ast
the minimum
wages. However, on account of practical agricultural workers. A number of steps were undert
difficulties and excessive supply of during the Second Plan to provide house sites free
these
labour, benefits from
legislations have been very limited. Because of the During Fourth Plan scheme was
subsidised basis.
lack of bargaining introduc
power, agricultural workers do not press under which financial assistance was given to the States f
for minimum wages. or
provision of house sites with an area of 91 square metree to
2.
Abolition of bonded labour. After cover, where necessary, the cost of acquisition
attempts have been made to abolish the evil Independence, development of house sites. During the Seventh Plan. t
and
of bonded
labour because it is e

all norms
exploitative, inhuman and violative of
of social justice. In the
scheme was included in the State sector as a part of Minimum
chapter on Fundamental Needs Programme (MNP). This Scheme has two components
Rights in the Constitution it has been stated that trading in -

provision of free House Sites and construction assistane

humans and forcing them to do continued in the Eighth Plan also.
invite punishment under law.
begar is prohibited and can The scheme was Specifo
However, measures suggested in the Eighth Plan were: ()
practice of bonded labour has continued indespite this, the Construction
the country. It assistance (subsidy component) should preferably be given
was only in October
1975 that the in kind; (ii) All schemes should have loan and
notification abolishing this government issued a beneficiary
practice. Later on, a legislation contribution to self-help; (ii) This programme should be
was
passed known as the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) tied with that of building centres so as to promote low-cost
Act, 1976. Under this Act which extends to the whole housing; and (iv) Innovative housing finance system should
country, the bonded labour system was abolished and be set up in rural areas to facilitate
every bonded labourer was freed and supply of credit and
discharged from mobilise rural savings.
any obligation to render bonded labour.
contracts for bonded labour, attachment Accordingly,
all 5. Special schemes for
for recovery of providing employment.
A number of schemes have been initiated
bonded debt, etc., were declared null and in the planning
void. period for providing employment to rural poor, the important
However, even after the passing of the Act complaints ones being the Rural Works
of bonded labour are often heard from
different parts of the Scheme for Rural
Programme (RWP), Crash
country. Moneylenders and large landowners are often able Employment (CSRE), Employment
Guarantee Scheme (EGS) initiated in
to force agricultural workers into bonds
because of a number for Work Programme Maharashtra, Food
of factors. Firstly, many (FWP), National Rural Employment
agricultural labourers are not aware Programme (NREP) and Rural Landless Employment
of the existence of such an Act.
Secondly, because of their Guarantee Programme
(RLEGP). NREP was launched in
extreme poverty and economic the Sixth Five Year Plan.
compulsions some agricultural RLEGP was introduced in August
labourers voluntarily enter into bonds while in the case of 1983 specifically with the
some others,
moneylenders taking advantage of the situation to the rural landless.
object of providing employment
This was a 100
compel agricultural workers to enter into bonds. funded programme. NREP and per cent centrally
3. Providing land to landless form the Jawahar
RLEGP were merged to
labourers. The Rozgar Yojana
government has distributed land to landless labourers with was in existence till (JRY) 1989-90. JKI
in
1998-99. With effect
a view to
improving their economic position. The First Plan 1999, JRY was restructured and from April
streamlined and
Samridhi Yojana (JGSY). The renameu
made a provision of 7 1.5 crore for the as Jawahar Gram
was
resettlement of
landless labourers on newly reclaimed land as well as of the Yojana were creation of demand-driven objectives
culturable wasteland. In September 1957, the National infrastructure including durable assets vilag
for
Development Council proposed that lands obtained as a opportunities for sustained employment, andincreasing
result of enforcing
ceiling laws and those donated in Bhoodan supplementary employment for the unemployed generation o
in
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) rura
and Gramdan should be areas. An
primarily devoted to the settlement
of landless labourers.
Priority in thedistribution of land is launched on October 2, 1993 in was
accorded to landless labourers belonging to Scheduled Castes blocks situated in 1,772 identified backwaru
and Scheduled Tribes. Approximately 70 lakh hectares of EAS was drought-prone, desert, tribal and hill areas
restructured as a
single
land has been distributed among landless labourers so far. programme from April 1999 with a fixedwage employ
However, most of the land made available to these labourers annual outlay.
programme covered all the 5,448 rural blocks. The
is not fit for cultivation. Thóugh it has satistfied their hunger objective of the EAS was creation of prima
for land, it has not ben able to improve their economic lot. additional
employment opportunities during the period of acute waS
shortag
 Agricultural Labour 327

employment through manual work for the rural

wage MEASURES FOR IMPROVEMENT
of

oor
living
the
below the poverty line. The secondary objective
he
creation ofdurable community, social and economic The problems of agricultural workers can be tackled
sustain future employment and development.
sets to
aaorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) was launched only whena two-pronged strategy of providing land to the
agricultural labourers (by strictly enforcing land ceilings
fromSeptember 2001 to provide wage
with effect and distributing surplus land to agricultural labourers)
loymentinrural areas as also food security, alongwith and providing alternative avenues of employment
reation ofdurable community, social and economic and village
the (by promoting small and cottage industries
/ith effect fromApril 1, 2002, EAS and JGSY were can be
assets.

eotated with SGRY. In November 2004, National Food handicrafts) is adopted. The former measure
is
implemented even in short-term provided the government
forWork Programme (NFFWP) was launched in the 150 really serious about it. The latter measure,
on the other
districts of the country to generate additional considerable resources
most backward hand, is a long-term process involving
Supplementary wage employment with food security. SGRY and carefully chalked out long-range planning.
and NFFWP have now been subsumed under the most Following suggestions can be made
for improving the
ambitious wage employment programme "Mahatma Gandhi workers:
Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme plight of agricultural
National 1. Better implementation of legislative
measures.

(MGNREGs) launched in February 2006. MGNREGS aims Though the Minimum Wages
Act was passed as far back as
at providing 100 days of guaranteed unskilled wage in 1948, yet its implementation leaves
much to be desired.
to each rural household opting for it.
employment Because of the excessive supply of agricultural workers
6. Special agencies for development. The Special offered very low wages.
and lack of organisation they are
Small Famers Development Agency (SFDA) There is no administrative machinery
worth the name to
agencies- Labourers
and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural implement effectively the provisions of the Minimum Wages
created in 1970-71 minimum wages in an era
Development Agency (MFAL) w e r e Act. Even otherwise, fixation of
pruned down to carries no
with an outlay of 115 crore (subsequently farmers with land
of continuous and exorbitant
rise in prices
of agricultural workers.
103 crore). Under the MFAL scheme, consolation for the starved masses

defined as marginal farmers Therefore, it is necessary to provide

for periodical revision
holdings below 2.5 acres were trends in
and rural households deriving
more than 50 per cent of their of minimum wages keeping the changing price
designated as agricultural
income from agriculture were
view.
different districts all over efforts
labourers. A total of 41 projects in 2. Improving the bargaining position. Special
Fourth Five
the were under MFAL in the
adopted should be directed towards organising agricultural
workers.
country included under
important schemes can improve their bargaining
Year Plan. Some of the It is only such organisation that
land levelling, soil ensure better wages and
better conditions of
the programme w e r e irrigation, power and
Conservation, dairy development,
poultry breeding, piggery work for them. This is not easy
because the large farmers
abolished the distinction
development,etc. The Fifth Plan and big landlords are economically and socially very
into a single unlimited power, they have
Detween SFDA and MFAL
and merged them powerful. Because of their
whatever little attempts were
programme. succeeded in pinning down
themselves in
addition to these agencies, a special programme
made by agricultural workers to organise
In as the Drought have not refrained from the
areas known some parts of the country. They
initiated for drought prone Plan. In this end.
was the Fourth
use of force and
violent methods to accomplish
FTone Areas Programme (DPAP) during also sought to workers is possible
this programme Therefore, organisation of agricultural
ddition to other objectives, of and support from the government.
workers. Programmes only under the protection
employment to agricultural
POde available included 3. Resettlement of agricultural workers. The surplus
to be made
such employnment was water of the implementation of
Ch afforestation, drinking land obtained as a consequence
soil conservation,
gation, land ceiling laws should be distributed amongst agricultural
Supply, construction of roads, etc. reclaimed land should be allotted
Various other
adopted
measures workers. Similarly, newly
7. Other measures.
directly or only to agricultural
workers. However, there are physical
time have either
government from time to this programme. The supply of land is very
ne condition of agricultural limitations to
improve the to the supply ofagricultural workers.
CTectly sought to small and cottage much limited in relation
promotion of can be taken to set up
OTkers. For example, handicrafts and development of To cope with this problem, steps
ndustries and village created job
opportunities
estates in rural areas have
CUStrial
for agricultural workers.
 328
Indian Economy

cooperative farms or State farms amenities of rural life like health centres, maternits.
here employment at fain ity
wages can be provided the
agricultural labourers.
to youth clubs, sport facilities,
etc.
Special programmewards,for
4. Creating alternative vocational and technical training of agricultural
sources of
employment. ral workers
From a long-term point of view can also be arranged.
to create ample
perhaps, the best policy 1s
employment opportunities outside the field 8. Social security. Unlike industrial labour, agricu
of agriculture. Because of the labour has no social security, no earned leave, no sink
pressure on land and increasing
population it is becoming more and more difficult to absorb and no pension or gratuity. Substantial efforts oh bee
additional labour on farms and unless other sectors of the directed in this field. Since these labourers are not
economy create ample employment opportunities it will permanently attached to any employer, the task of providine
not be possible to solve the of problems agricultural workers. social security is indeed a complex one. Therefore ding
this
Perhaps the best
strategy is to promote labour-intensive responsibility has to be borne by the State. The State must
industries, especially small and cottage industries, in rural provide compulsory insurance on marginal contribution or
areas. For this
purpose, facilities of power, finance and no contribution and institute old age pension schemes so
training rural youth (especially those belonging to agricultural that the agricultural workers do not have to starve or depend
labour households) should be
provided in the villages. This on others in their old age.
will reduce the dependence of
agricultural workers on land These measures can go a long way in solving most of
and increase their incomes.
the problems of agricultural workers. As stated earlier, the
5.
Improving the working conditions. It is necessary basic task is to distribute surplus land amongst agricultural
to improve the working conditions of agricultural workers. workers and provide additional employment opportunities
Their hours of work should be statutorily fixed and in villages through the development of small and cottage
strictly
enforced. In case of work beyond the stipulated hours, industries. General improvement in the working conditions,
overtime payments should be made. Child labour should be enforcement of legislative measures, provision of social
totally banned. security, etc., are all secondary to the above two measures.
6. Public works programmes. A major problem of
many agricultural workers is that they are employed only
for a part of the year, for example, during sowing and NOTESS
harvesting. For the remaining part of the year, they remain 1. V.M. Rao and P.D. Jeromi, Modernising Indian Agriculture: Priority
unemployed. The period of inactivity may vary from three Tasks and Critical Policies, published by Development Research
months to six months. During this period, it is necessary to Group, Department of Economic Analysis and Policy, Reserve Bank
organise rural works programmes like construction of roads, of India (Study No. 21, 2000), pp. 47-48.
2.
school buildings, digging of canals, wells, etc., so that A.V. Jose, "Agricultural Wages in India", Economic and Politicu
Weekly, June 25, 1988, Review of Agriculture, p. A-53.
employment can be provided to agricultural workers all the
3.
year round. Of course, the ultimate solution is the creation Jeemol Uni, "Agricultural Labourers in Rural Labour Households,
1956-57 to 1977-78", Economic and Political Weekly, June 2,
of employment opportunities in sectors other than agriculture 1988, Review of Agriculture, p. A-64.
but till such opportunities are created in an ample measure, 4. G. Parthasarathy, "Changes in the Incidence of Rural PoverY
Presidential Address delivered at the 46th Annual Conference of the
public works programmes can be entrusted with the task of Indian Society of Agricultural Economics: Reprinted in Agricultura
providing employment. Development in India: The Next Stage (Himalaya Publishing House,
Raising the standard of living. The State can, if
7. 1988), p. 16
Pallavi Chavan and Rajshree Bedamatta, "Trends in
itwishes, organise special programmes to improve the Agricultural
Wages in India, 1964-65 to 1999-2000", Economic and Politica
standard of living of agricultural large
workers. Since a
Weekly, September 23, 2006, p. 4050.
of such workers belong to Scheduled Castes,
oroportion 6. Mukesh Eswaran, Ashok Kotwal, Bharat Ramaswami and Wm
wells. State
hey are not allowed to take water from village Wadhwa, "Sectoral Labour Flows and Agricultural Wages in Inol

an arrange for drinking water

for them. State can also 1983-2004: Has Growth Trickled Down?", Economic and
Poline
workers so that they Weekly, January 10, 2009, Tables 4 and 5, p. 48.
rovide housing sites to agricultural 7. Amit Basola, "Long-Run Trends in Rural Wages", Mint, October
State can organise fair price shops
o not remain homeless. 2017, p. 15.
agricultural workers from the 8. Himanshu, "What Does Wage Data Say about the Economy?", M
rural areas to savetraders who generally sell goods at September 19, 2017, p. 19.
ploitation of village socio-economic environment 9. Quoted in R. Radhakrishna, "Agricultural Growth, Employment
nd

the
gh prices. To improve labourers work, State can provide
Poverty", BEconomic and Political Weekly, January 19, 2002, P: a*

which agricultural