CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The unsteady state of power supply is really a major concern to all Nigerians. The cost of

acquiring a generator set and the need to supplement the irregular voltage supply by the

Electricity Distribution Companies of Nigeria make it essential for the construction of the

DC/AC power inverter. An Inverter is a device, which converts the DC supply of the battery into

AC power supply required by most of the electrical/electronic equipment. The process through

which the Inverter converts DC power supply to AC power supply is called INVERSION

(Zhang, et al, 2019).

This inversion process is the reverse of the rectifier process, where the AC is converted into DC

power supply. In the past, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) techniques were employed in voltage

and current source Inverter only. Availability of self commuted devices, such as power transistor,

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET), Insulated Gate Bipolar

Transistor (IGBT) and Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO), have made pulse width modulated

AC to DC converter also popular in many applications (Wu, et al, 2008). The steady state

and dynamic performance of Inverters, AC to DC converters, and DC and AC drives are

significantly dependent on the pulse width modulation techniques. There is therefore a growing

need for inverters to convert low voltage DC to high voltage AC which are of lower cost and

more efficient (Emadi, et al, 2006). .

These devices require electrical power for their operation; and most of these devices when not

supplied with the required quality power supply, are at risk of being damaged. In Nigeria, the

standard electrical/electronic equipment works on 220V/50HZ AC power supply. This power

supply should not contain spikes, noise etc which could lead to damage of the equipment (Koziy,

et al, 2013).

This project focuses on DC to AC power inverter whose aim is to efficiently convert a DC power

source to a high voltage AC source, similar to power that would be available at an electrical wall

outlet.

Inverters are used for many applications as in a situation where low voltage DC sources such as

batteries, solar panels or fuel cells must be converted so that devices can run on AC power. The

DC voltage can be obtained from solar power and DC batteries (Gibson, & Kelly, 2009).

The method, in which the low voltage DC power is inverted, is completed in two steps. The first

being the conversion of the low voltage DC power to a high voltage DC source, and the second

step being the conversion of the high DC source to an AC waveform using pulse width

modulation (Doucet, et al, 2007). Another method to complete the desired outcome would be to

first convert the low voltage DC power to AC, and then use a transformer to boost the voltage to

220 volts. This project focused on the second method described and specifically the

transformation of a high voltage DC source into an AC output

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION TO THE STUDY

The concept of renewable energy use grew over time with the advent of the inverter which helps

in the conversion of the energy from the dc form to a useable ac form (Ellabban, et al, 2014).

The consistent effort of researchers in developing and increasing the efficiency of photovoltaic

arrays up to the level we have today also added a lot to the progress of solar powered inverters.

Although the inverter generally gives out alternating current, the wave shape of the AC it

produces also matters a lot. Inductive loads generally require a pure sine wave ac supply for its

functionality, though there are different types of waves that can be produced by an inverter
which are: square wave, modified sine wave, and then the pure sine wave inverter. We also

added 40A Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller to the output of our solar

panels for optimization purposes and for charging our battery cells (Eldahab, et al, 2016). All

these components (solar panels, batteries, MPPT charge controllers, inverter, and MPPT

algorithms) together made up the core of the solar powered 5kVA inverter we designed for the

departmental use. It took a gradual but consistent progression for these components to emerge to

the level at which they are today in the world of technology.

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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Lack of incentives to invest in the aged and inefficient national grid, transmission and

distribution infrastructures, as well as the fact that energy from decentralized, renewable sources

is not well fashioned to work on the electricity grids in the country has led to incessant power

outage all over the country. Some of the solutions to this problem is an auxiliary AC power

generator, nuclear power plants, wind turbines, solar power etc., but the cost of fossil fuels

continues to increase rapidly and hence will not be cost effective in the future; while solar power

has some aesthetic, economic and technical drawbacks. A more effective and reliable alternative

is battery power back-up system which can be converted to AC power using power inverters.

1.3 AIM AND OJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main aim of this project is to design and implement a 5kVA pure sine wave inverter with

48volts for the department of Computer Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro so as to convert

the DC output from the battery bank into an AC output useable at the home, offices, etc.

The specific objectives to achieve the aim are as follows:

 To design a working circuit diagram for the proposed pure sine wave inverter.

 To acquiring the required components for the realization of the project

  To provide a noiseless source of electricity generation.

 Soldering of the components into the 5KVA rated printed circuit board.

 Monitoring the display panel of the inverter to ensure concurrence with output.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The important of an inverter is that, it has the capability to convert the DC power into AC power

making it useful to operate equipment such as household items, computers, power tools and

much more, by simply plugging typical equipment into the inverter.

It is also important because it can deliver efficient power to run an electrical product with high

power requirement usually as electric utility heater, air conditioners with additional batteries

connected because of it high current it will draw.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This project work covers the design and installation of a 5kVA solar inverter that can power the

loads that are within its capacity. The design's focus will be in designing an inverter that will

power the department's first floor and be dependent on power from the mains or solar cells. The

battery bank is limited to 19,200 Watt-Hour (i.e. 48V x 400Ah) and can be charged by either the

mains power or the power from the array of solar modules. The design is capable of

automatically switching to mains or inverter mode when appropriate and features all forms of

protection techniques/schemes to guard the system and the connected appliances against any

form of danger that may arise during operation.

The design does not accommodate a high power surge beyond its stated capacity and hence

cannot be used to power high inductive loads like industrial electric motors and high power air

conditioners. It can be used to power very sensitive and life dependent devices/equipment like
medical equipment and servers because of the near absence of harmonic content in the final

power output of the design.

1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The design does not accommodate a high power surge beyond its stated capacity and hence

cannot be used to power high inductive loads like industrial electric motors and high power air

conditioners. It can be used to power very sensitive and life dependent devices/equipment like

medical equipment and servers because of the near absence of harmonic content in the final

power output of the design.

1.7 DEFINITION OF THE TERMS

Terms related to this work are defined as below:

1. Inverter unit: This unit converts a DC voltage into AC voltage with the help of the inverter

unit.

2. Automatic Control Unit: This provides all the required control needed to meet up the

objective of the whole system.

3. Battery Unit: This is a secondary cell unit, capable of storing enough DC voltage from either

sun or AC main, of which is later converted to AC voltage.

4. Inverter: electric energy converter that changes direct electric current to single-phase or

polyphase alternating current.

5. Direct current (DC): Electricity that flows in only one direction. Solar panels produce direct

current. Before it can be used in our homes it has to be converted into alternating current by an

inverter. Batteries can only be charged with direct current

6. Alternating current (AC): The type of current that is used in our homes and most

transmission lines.
7. Current: A flow of electricity.

8. Battery: A specially constructed case containing potential chemical energy. When a chemical

reaction occurs electricity is generated and can be used to do work. In disposable batteries the

chemical reaction cannot be easily reversed, so avoid using them. In rechargeable batteries the

chemical reaction can be reversed by supplying electrical energy.

9. Alternative energy: Sources of energy that are an alternative to using fossil fuels or nuclear

power. The big three are solar, wind, and hydroelectricity. Other types are geothermal, biomass,

tidal, and wave power.

10. Discharge rate: How rapidly a battery is discharged. This can be measured by C-rate.

11. Discharge: When a battery outputs electrical energy it discharges and the energy stored

inside it decreases. When a battery is fully discharged there is no usable energy left.

12. Charge: usually this refers to putting energy into a battery.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This work presents the theory, design, analysis and construction of an Inverter that converts a 12

volt DC to 220 Volts AC at a frequency of 50Hertz. Design is the application of science and

technology to the realization of a physical object to perform specific functions with optimum

economy and efficiency (Aurich, et al, 2006).

In this work, many components were used to achieve the design objective. Each component has a

function different from the other, and highly dependent on the others for the desired results.

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF 5KVA SOLAR SYSTEM

5KVA Solar systems can be classified based on the end-use application of the technology. There

are two main types of solar 5KVA systems:

 Grid – connected (or grid-tied).

 Off-grid (or stand-alone or autonomous).

 Hybrid

Grid-connected or utility-interactive 5KVA systems are designed to operate in parallel with and

interconnected with the electric utility grid. The primary component in grid-connected 5KVA

systems is the inverter, or power conditioning unit (PCU) (Mortezaei, et al, 2018). The PCU

converts the DC power produced by the 5KVA array into AC power consistent with the voltage

and power quality requirements of the utility grid, and automatically stops supplying power to

the grid when the utility grid is not energized. A bi-directional interface is made between the

5KVA system AC output circuits and the electric utility network, typically at an on-site

distribution panel or service entrance. This safety feature is required in all grid-connected 5KVA
systems, and ensures that the 5KVA system will not continue to operate and feed back into the

utility grid when the grid is down for service or repair.

figure 2.1: Block Diagram of Grid-connected 5KVA system.

2.1.1 STAND ALONE SYSTEM

Stand-alone 5KVA systems are designed to operate independent of the electric utility grid, and

are generally designed and sized to supply certain DC and/or AC electrical loads (Tazvinga., &

Hove, 2010). For certain loads such as positive-displacement water pumps, a type of electronic

DC-DC converter, called a maximum power point tracker (MPPT), and is used between the array

and load to help better utilize the available array maximum power output.

Figure 2.2: Direct coupled 5KVA system

In many stand-alone PV systems, batteries are used for energy storage. Figure 2.3 shows a

diagram of a typical stand-alone PV system powering DC and AC loads.

Figure 2.3: Diagram of stand-alone PV system with battery storage powering DC and AC loads

2.1.2 HYBRID SYSTEM

Hybrid photovoltaic system combines elements of both grid-connected and stand-alone systems.

They are grid-connected and enable excess energy to be sold. Hybrid system architectures

include energy storage as well as the ability to disconnect from the grid, but still supply energy to

the home during outages (Eltawil & Zhao, 2010).

Figure 2.4: Block Diagram of hybrid PV system

2.2 REVIEW OF THE EXISTING THEORY IN HYBRID PV POWER SYSTEM

A hybrid photovoltaic system is a power system designed to source power from both PV cells

(solar energy) and the grid (PHCN). It consists of an arrangement of several components,

including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, the charge controller to

control the amount of charge going into the battery bank, a solar inverter to change the electric
current from DC to AC, the battery bank that stores the energy from the solar panels, as well as

mounting, cabling and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also use a

solar tracking system to improve the system's overall performance and include an integrated

battery solution.

2.3 REVIEW OF THE THEORY OF THE SUBSYSTEMS OF A PV SYSTEM

Basic components of grid-connected PV systems with and without batteries are:

• Solar photovoltaic modules

• Array mounting racks

• Grounding equipment

• Combiner box

• Surge protection (often part of the combiner box)

• Inverter

• Meters – system meter and kilowatt-hour meter

• Disconnects:

- Array DC disconnect

- Inverter DC disconnect

- Inverter AC disconnect

- Exterior AC disconnect

If the system includes batteries, it will also require:

• Battery bank with cabling and housing structure

• Charge controller

• Battery disconnect
2.3.1 Solar Modules

The heart of a photovoltaic system is the solar module. Many photovoltaic cells are wired

together by the manufacturer to produce a solar module. When installed at a site, solar modules

are wired together in series to form strings. Strings of modules are connected in parallel to form

an array as shown in fig 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Several types of solar modules

2.3.2 Array mounting racks

Arrays are most commonly mounted on roofs or on steel poles set in concrete. In certain

applications, they may be mounted at ground level or on building walls. Solar modules can also

be mounted to serve as part or all of a shade structure such as a patio cover. On roof-mounted

systems, the PV array is typically mounted on fixed racks (as shown in fig 2.6), parallel to the

roof for aesthetic reasons and stood off several inches above the roof surface to allow airflow

that will keep them as cool as practical.

 Figure 2.6: Array mounting racks

2.3.3 Grounding equipment

Grounding equipment provides a well-defined, low-resistance path from your system to the

ground to protect your system from current surges from lightning strikes or equipment

malfunctions. Grounding also stabilizes voltages and provides a common reference point. The

grounding harness is usually located on the roof.

Figure 2.7: PV Grounding System

2.3.4 Combiner box

Wires from individual PV modules or strings are run to the combiner box, typically located on

the roof. These wires may be single conductor pigtails with connectors that are pre-wired onto

the PV modules. The output of the combiner box is one larger two wire conductor in conduit. A

combiner box typically includes a safety fuse or breaker for each string and may include a surge

protector.

2.3.5 Surge protection

Surge protectors (shown in fig 2.8) help to protect systems from power surges that may occur if

the PV system or nearby power lines are struck by lightning. A power surge is an increase in

voltage significantly above the design voltage.

Figure 2.8: PV Surge protector

2.436 Inverter

Inverters take care of four basic tasks of power conditioning:

• Converting the DC power coming from the PV modules or battery bank to AC power

• Ensuring that the frequency of the AC cycles is 50 cycles per second

• Reducing voltage fluctuations

• Ensuring that the shape of the AC wave is appropriate for the application, i.e. a pure sine wave

for grid-connected systems.

Figure 2.9: PV inverter

2.3.7 Meters

Essentially two types of meters are used in PV systems:

• Utility Kilowatt-hour Meter

• System Meter

Utility Kilowatt-Hour Meter – The utility kilowatt-hour meter measures energy delivered to or

from the grid. On homes with solar electric systems, utilities typically install bidirectional meters

with a digital display that keeps separate track of energy in both directions. Some utilities will

allow you to use a conventional meter that can spin in reverse. In this case, the utility meter spins

forward when you are drawing electricity from the grid and backwards when your system is

feeding or “pushing” electricity onto the grid.

System Meter – The system meter measures and displays system performance and status.

Monitored points may include power production by modules, electricity used, and battery

charge. It is possible to operate a system without a system meter, though meters are strongly
recommended. Modern charge controllers incorporate system monitoring functions and so a

separate system meter may not be necessary.

Figure 2.10: PV Smart meter

2.3.8 Disconnect

Automatic and manual safety disconnects protect the wiring and components from power surges

and other equipment malfunctions. They also ensure the system can be safely shut down and

system components can be removed for maintenance and repair. For grid-connected systems,

safety disconnects ensure that the generating equipment is isolated from the grid, which is

important for the safety of utility personnel. In general, disconnect is needed for each source of

power or energy storage device in the system.

2.3.9 Charge controller

A charge controller, sometimes referred to as a photovoltaic controller or battery charger, is only

necessary in systems with battery back-up. The primary function of a charge controller is to

prevent overcharging of the batteries. Most also include a low voltage disconnect that prevents

over-discharging batteries. In addition, charge controllers prevent charge from draining back to
solar modules at night. Some modern charge controllers incorporate maximum power point

tracking, which optimizes the PV array’s output, increasing the energy it produces.

2.4 REVIEW OF INVERTER SYSTEMS

PV systems have evolved over the years mostly due to modern discoveries in the field of

semiconductors and power electronics. Today, electronics hobbyists can even design their own

power electronic devices like power inverters/UPSs, charge. In the course of this development,

many people have done some good job in developing their own PV systems by designing their

own power inverters/UPSs and charge controllers at cheaper rate and yet fairly efficient.

Hobbyists in their designs generally make use of the components that they can lay their hands on

and using the knowledge they have acquired from school and research works.

Fig. 2.11: 600Watts Pure Sine wave Inverter

In another work titled “DC-AC/DC Inverter shown in Fig. 2.14 below was carried out by a team

of five personnel; Matthew Brown, Henry Brown, John Martinez, Dylan Paiton and Matthew

Paiz. Their design, “An intelligent DCDC/AC converter system” was designed and implemented

in the spring of 2010 for New Mexico Tech’s Junior Design Class. The intelligent converter

draws power from two energy harvesters; a 400W-12V Sunforce Wind Generator and a 60W-

12V Sunforce Solar PV kit. The power is stored in an Optima 12V sealed lead acid battery. The
inverter comprised of five major subsystems: smart battery charger, inverter, measurement

system, data logger and internet interface. Components were selected through decision matrices

and purchased. Circuits were designed in Protel 99SE and created from etching and milling

processes. Data was sent via HTTP to the EE server on the NMT campus and displayed real time

information on a web page. Operation of each subsystem was demonstrated independently and in

whole.

Figure 2.12: Intelligent DC/AC Converter system

Unlike the other designs, this work included an intelligent subsystem; the data logger which is

used to transmit real-time information on the voltage and current status/values of the various

parts of the entire system as well as the voltage and current characteristics being delivered to the

loads and that of the batteries and energy harvesters over the internet to the monitoring unit.

2.5 INVERTER

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC)

power to alternating current (AC) power. It is simply a DC-AC power converter that takes power

from a DC power source and converts it to an AC power source. The input voltage, output
voltage and frequency, and overall power handling capability of an inverter depend on the design

of the specific device or circuitry.

An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave, pulse width

modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on circuit design. The two dominant

commercialized waveform types of inverters as of 2007 are modified sine wave and sine wave.

There are two basic designs for producing household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC

source, the first of which uses a switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC and

then converts to AC (Gomathy, et al, 2018). The second method converts DC to AC at battery

level and uses a line-frequency transformer to create the output voltage.

2.5.1 Square wave

This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is useful for some

applications. They can run simple appliances without problems but not much else. Square wave

voltage can be easily generated using a simple oscillator. With the help of a transformer, the

generated square wave voltage can be transformed into a value of 230 volt AC or higher. The

Graph in Fig. 2.15 below shows a typical square waveform.

Figure 2.13: Square Waveform

 2.5.2 Sine wave

A power inverter device which produces a multiple step or smooth sinusoidal AC waveform is

referred to as a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters with outputs of

much less distortion than the "modified sine wave" (three step) inverter designs, the

manufacturers often use the phrase pure sine wave inverter (Thakur, et al, 2019). Almost all

consumer grade inverters that are sold as a "pure sine wave inverter" do not produce a smooth

sine wave output at all, just a less choppy output than the square wave (one step) and modified

sine wave (three step) inverters. In this sense, the phrases "Pure sine wave" or "sine wave

inverter" are misleading to the consumer. However, this is not critical for most electronics as

they deal with the output quite well. Pure sine wave inverters are able to simulate precisely the

AC power that is delivered by a wall outlet. Usually sine wave inverters are more expensive then

modified sine wave generators due to the added circuitry. This cost, however, is made up for in

its ability to provide power to all AC electronic devices, allow inductive loads to run faster and

quieter, and reduce the audible and electric noise in audio equipment, TV’s and fluorescent

lights.

Figure 2.14: Pure Sine waveform

.
2.5.3 Areas of Application

Below are some of the areas where an inverter can be useful:

i. As DC Power Source Utilization: An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such

as batteries or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in

particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC

at any desired voltage.

ii. As an Uninterruptable Power Supplies: An uninterruptable power supply (UPS) uses

batteries and inverter to supply AC power when main power is not available. When main power

is restored, a rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.

iii. As Electric Motor Speed Control: Inverter circuits designed to produce a variable output

voltage range are often used within motor speed controllers. The DC power for the inverter

section can be derived from a normal AC wall outlet or some other source. Control and feedback

circuitry is used to adjust the final output of the inverter section which will ultimately determine

the speed of the motor operating under its mechanical load. Motor speed control needs are

numerous and include things like; industrial motor driven equipment, electric vehicles, rail

transport systems, and power tools.

iv. As Power Grid: Grid-tied inverters are designed to feed into the electric power distribution

system. They transfer synchronously with the line and have as little harmonic content as

possible. They also need a means of detecting the presence of utility power for safety reasons, so

as not to continue to dangerously feed power to the grid during a power outage.

2.5.4 Stages of Operation

This project write-up gives a step-by-step account of how the project was carried out. This

includes the design and construction with given specifications.

To obtain the AC power from the inverter, the DC power from the battery has to pass through

different units that make up the inverter.

Figure 2.15: Block diagram of 5kVA inverter

2.5.4a Battery Charger Unit

This unit receives alternating current (AC) and converts it to Direct Current (DC). It function is

to automatically charging the DC battery that supply the inverter circuit.

2.5.4b Oscillatory Unit

The oscillator is an electronic circuit which converts direct current or DC energy into AC energy

at a very high frequency. The PIC16F876A is used in the oscillation section of the inverter. The

IC also keeps the inverter output to a constant 220V AC. It keeps producing an output signal as

long as a DC power source is connected.

2.5.4c Switching Unit

The unit has to do with cascaded IRF4110 MOSFETs connected in the proper order for a

switching operation. The two drains of the cascaded MOSFETs are connected to the two outer

coils of the primary winding, while the source is connected to the ground of the system. The
MOSFET is used for switching instead of the BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) because of its

high frequency, its ability to withstand higher peak current and its high input impedance amongst

other things.

2.5.4d Transformer Unit

The alternating signal from the output of the switching unit is fed into the primary of the

transformer which raises or steps it up to the desired value or level at the secondary end of the

transformer, at a constant frequency, and then delivers it to the load.

2.6 Battery

A battery is a combination of several electrochemical cells either in parallel, series or a

combination of both that is capable of providing a direct current electricity using a chemical

process between two electrodes and a chemical compound (Winter & Brodd., 2004). A battery is

an electrical storage device. Batteries generally do not produce electricity; they only store and

release electricity and are rated according to their voltage (V) and capacity to store electric

charge (Q = It in Amp-hours (Ah)). The voltage rating of a battery indicates the maximum

electromotive force (E.M.F in Volts) the battery can supply whereas the capacity indicates the

quantity of electricity (in Coulombs (C)) that the battery can give out under standard conditions.

Batteries are generally classified into two types: Primary cell (non-rechargeable) and Secondary

cell (rechargeable) batteries. The chemical energy in primary batteries cannot be replenished

ones they are used up but that of secondary batteries can be replenished after they used up by

passing a direct current to the battery (i.e. Recharging the rechargeable battery). Rechargeable

batteries are mostly used in long term applications and for flexibility: allowing the reuse of the

battery for a repeated number of times during its useful life.

Nearly all large rechargeable batteries in common use are Lead-Acid type. In lead acid batteries,

the acid is typically 30% Sulphuric acid and 70% water at full charge. Lead acid batteries are

generally classified based on maintainability, application and construction. In stand-alone PV

systems, maintenance-free (valve regulated) AGM deep cycle batteries are used.

2.6.1 Battery lifespan

The lifespan of a deep cycle battery will vary considerably with how it is used, how it is

maintained and charged, temperature, and other factors. In extreme cases, it can vary to

extremes. Below are some typical (minimum - maximum) typical expectations for batteries if

used in deep cycle service. There are so many variables, such as depth of discharge,

maintenance, temperature, how often and how deep cycled, etc. that it is almost impossible to

give a fixed number.

Starting: 3-12 months

Marine: 1-6 years

Golf cart: 2-7 years

AGM deep cycle: 4-8 years

Gelled deep cycle: 2-5 years

Deep cycle (L-16 type etc.): 4-8 years

Rolls-Surrette premium deep cycle: 7-15 years

Industrial deep cycle (Crown and Rolls 4KS series): 10-20+ years.

NiFe (alkaline): 5-35 years NiCad: 1-20 year.

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