HARAR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

PHYSICS FOR GRADE-9

Temperature and heat Unit 7

7.1 Temperature and heat
What is heat?
Matter is made up of moving particles (molecules, atoms and ions). In solids these particles
are tightly bonded together and so they can only vibrate, whereas in fluids (liquids and gases)
the particles can move around more freely. Heat is one form of energy; it is therefore measured
in joules and is a scalar quantity. Heat is a flow of energy from hotter regions to colder ones.
Q = ΣE k+ ΣU
Q is the symbol used for heat energy. Ek is kinetic energy and U is potential energy. Remember,
Σ means sum of.
imagine two beakers of boiling water. Beaker A contains 1 kg of boiling water and beaker B
contains 0.5 kg of boiling water. They are both at the same temperature, 100 °C, but there are
more particles in beaker A and so there is more energy contained within it than with beaker B.
The particles of the substance gain kinetic energy and so move more rapidly. and/or
The bonds between the particles in the substance are broken and the potential energy of the
particles increases. When this happens, the substance changes state.
What is temperature?
Temperature is a measure of ‘hotness’. The higher the temperature, the hotter the object.
The temperature of a substance is a measurement of the average kinetic energy of the
particles within the substance. If the particles in a substance have a higher average kinetic
energy then the object is at a higher temperature. That is to say if the particles are, on average,
moving faster then the object is at a higher temperature.
The water molecules in a glass of water at 50 °C are, on average, moving faster than those in a
glass at 20 °C.
Temperature scales
Celsius scale(°C.) the freezing point of water is given as 0 °C , with the second fixed point being
the boiling point of water – the difference between the two fixed points is divided into 100
equal divisions so the boiling point of water is 100 °C.
The Kelvin scale uses absolute zero as one of its fixed points. This is the temperature at which a
substance will have no thermal energy and it is not possible to get a lower temperature (0 K or
–273.15 °C).
The Kelvin and the Celsius scales are often used together as they have the same scale division.
This means a change of 20 K is the same as a change of 20 °C.
Tc =5/9(TF-32) Tc = Tk – 273k
TF = 9/5(TC+32) Tk = Tc + 273
The Fahrenheit scale(°F) uses one fixed point as the temperature of an ice, water and
ammonium chloride mixture (0 °F) – the second fixed point is normal body temperature (98 °F).
What happens when a substance absorbs heat energy?
As a substance absorbs heat energy, the particles vibrate more (in a solid) or move faster (in a
liquid or gas) as the heat energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the particles as the
temperature rises. As the particles gain more energy, we can see that they move further apart
from each other, which means the substance will expand (increase in size).

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PHYSICS FOR GRADE-9

The expansion of substances on heating is called thermal expansion.

Thermal equilibrium
Heat energy flows from a hotter body to a colder body.
Imagine that we have two objects, A (at 90 °C) and B (at 50 °C). A and B are in thermal contact.
There will be a net flow of heat energy will flow from A to B. As heat energy is lost from A, the
particles in A will slow down. They have, on average, less kinetic energy and so the temperature
of A will decrease. The opposite happens at B. As B gains heat energy, the particles in B move
faster, their average kinetic energy will increase and so the temperature of B rises. This process
of heat loss from A and heat gain by B will go on until A and B both reach the same
temperature. At this point, thermal equilibrium is reached (heat loss from A will equal heat
gained by B so that there is no net movement of heat energy between the two bodies).
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, they will also be at the same temperature.
First law of thermodynamics
It is essentially the law of conservation of energy; that is, that energy cannot be created or
destroyed but can be transformed into other forms. Imagine a gas that has a certain internal
energy (the sum of the gas particles’ kinetic and potential energy). The increase in internal
energy of the gas, ∆U, will be equal to the heat energy it has gained, ∆Q, plus any work done on
the gas, ∆W(for example if it is compressed).
∆U = ∆Q + ∆W
∆U = change in internal energy in J
∆Q = heat energy added to system in J
∆W= work done on system in J
If no work is done (∆W= 0), the heat energy we add to the object will equal the increase in
internal energy. This means the temperature of the object will rise. In other words, energy has
not been created or destroyed, just transformed into other forms.
Second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics concerns the direction of heat flow between two bodies.
The second law of thermodynamics might be expressed as:
Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material at lower temperature to a material
at higher temperature.
Heat energy will not flow from a colder object to a hotter one spontaneously unless work is
done. Energy must be used to reverse the usual flow of heat energy. This principle is used in
refrigerators, freezers and air conditioning units. The contents of a fridge are cooled by a liquid
evaporating, but work has to be put in so as to condense the gas for further use.
Exercise - 1
1. What will be the key difference in the energy of the particles in iron at 250 K and 500 K?
2. Explain why a solid expands on heating.
3. Describe what happens, in terms of the movement of heat energy, when a hot object is in
thermal contact with a cold object. Explain how this process could be reversed.
4. Convert the following temperatures to the Kelvin scale:
a) –273.15 °C
b) 0.0 °C
c) 1000 °C.

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PHYSICS FOR GRADE-9

7.2 Expansion of solids, liquids and gases

The expansion of solids
when a solid is heated, its particles move further apart and hence the solid expands (increases
in size).From the ball and ring experiment the cold metal ball easily passes through the ring.
After heating, the metal ball expands and it is no longer able to pass through the ring. How
much a solid expands on heating will depends on the substance and how much its temperature
increases.
Linear expansion of solids
When a metal rod is heated it expands and increases in length. This expansion is referred to as
linear expansion.
The rod’s temperature has increased by ∆T. It increases in length on heating; the increase in
length, ∆l, is the difference between the length before heating, lc , and the length after heating,
lh .This could be written as:∆l = lh– lc, fractional increase = ∆l/lc
The fractional increase in length per unit of temperature (°C or K) increase is given the symbol
α. It is found by dividing the fractional increase by the increase in temperature, ∆T.
α = ∆l /lc /∆T , ∆l = αlc ∆T
α is also known as the coefficient of linear expansion for the solid. It represents the increase in
the length of a 1 m rod of a given substance when its temperature increases by 1 K. It is
measured in /K or K–1
Surface (area) expansion of solids
As the plate is heated to cause an increase in temperature, ∆T, it expands in width and height
such that the surface area when heated, Ah, is larger than the original surface area, Ac So:
∆A = Ah– Ac
The fractional increase in surface area, β, per unit rise in temperature (°C or K) is given by:
β = ∆A / Ac ∆T , ∆A = βAc ∆T
β, the surface expansion coefficient,
What is the relationship between α and β for a given substance?
β, the surface expansion coefficient, means and rewriting the expression:
β = ∆A / Ac ∆T
β = Ah – Ac/ Ac ∆T
β Ac ∆T = Ah – Ac
Ah= β Ac ∆T + Ac
Ah = Ac(1 + β∆T)– this expression will be of use later.
Consequently, the surface area of the heated body, is give by Ah= l2h lh, the length of each side
of the heated body is related to lc
lh = lc+ αlc∆T
Ah= lh2= (lc+ αlc∆T)2= lc2(1 + α∆T)2= lc2(1+ 2α∆T + α2∆T2)
Ah= lc2(1 + 2α∆T + α2∆T2)
lc2= Ac
Ah= Ac(1 + 2α∆T + α2∆T2)
As α is a very small number, α2∆T2will be very small compared to 2α∆Tand so we will make an
approximation and not include this small term in the final expression. In other words, α2∆T2
is approximately zero, so:

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HARAR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
PHYSICS FOR GRADE-9

Ah= Ac(1 + 2α∆T)

Ah= Ac(1 + β∆T)
Now we can see that β∆T= 2α∆T and therefore β = 2α.
Volume expansion of solids
The expansion of a solid in three dimensions, where the length, breadth and height of the
substance all increase on heating .As the block is heated to cause an increase in temperature,
∆T, it expands in width, height and breadth such that the volume when heated, Vh, is larger
than the original volume, Vc So:
∆V = Vh– Vc
The fractional increase in volume, γ, per unit rise temperature (°C or K) is given by:
γ= ∆V / Vc ∆T
∆V =γVc∆T , where γ is coefficient volume of expansion
γ = ∆V / Vc ∆T
γ = Vh – Vc/ Vc ∆T
Vh= γVc∆T + Vc
Vh= γVc∆T + Vc – this expression will be of use later.
Consequently, the volume of the heated body, is give by Vh= lh3 lh the length of each side of
the heated body is related to lc
lh= lc+ αlc∆T
Vh= lh3= (lc+ αlc∆T)3= lc3(1+ α∆T)3= lc3(1+ 3α∆T + 3α2∆T2+ α3∆T3)
Vh= lc3(1+ 3α∆T + 3α2∆T2+ α3∆T3)
lc3= Vc
Vh= Vc(1 + 3α∆T + 3α2∆T2+ α3∆T3)
As α is a very small number, α2∆T2and α3∆T3 will be very small compared to 3α∆T, and so we
will make an approximation and not include these small terms in the final expression. In other
words, α2∆T2 and α3∆T3 are approximately zero, so:
Vh= Vc(1 + 3α∆T)
Vh = Vc(1 + γ∆T)
Now we can see that γ∆T= 3α∆T and therefore γ = 3α.
1D, 2D and 3D expansion summary
Linear expansion
Δl /lc= αΔT
Area expansion
ΔA /Ac= 2αΔT
Volume expansion
ΔV /Vc= 3αΔT
Problems and applications of thermal expansion
The e thermal expansion of objects can be a problem. Engineers have to allow for the
expansion of concrete and iron on a hot day when building a bridge by constructing an
expansion gap to allow for the expanding materials. Railway tracks also have expansion gaps
and sections of pipelines in hot countries are linked by flexible pipe, which can accommodate
the expanding pipe.

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HARAR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
PHYSICS FOR GRADE-9

The bimetallic strip

A bimetallic strip is made out of two metals, for example iron and brass bonded together. The
coefficient of linear expansion (α) of iron (1.1 × 10–5K–1) is less than that of brass (1.9 × 10–5K–1).
When the strip is heated, the brass expands more than the iron and the strip bends.
The bimetallic strip is used in a thermostat.
Liquid in glass thermometers
Mercury in glass and alcohol in glass thermometers use the expansion of a liquid up a narrow
glass tube. The higher the temperature, the more the mercury or alcohol expands and the
further the liquids move up the capillary tube.
Expansion of liquids
Liquids require a container and consequently it only really makes sense to discuss the volume
expansion of a liquid. Liquids will tend to expand more than solids for a given increase in
temperature but volume expansion coefficients can also apply to liquids.
∆V= γVc∆T
∆V = change in volume.
∆T = change in temperature.
Vc = starting volume.
γ = volume expansion coefficient.
The expansion of liquids is made more complex, however, by the need for a container. On
warming, the container itself will also expand.
The expansion of a vessel holding a liquid means the actual or real expansion of the liquid is not
actually observed. Instead, only an apparent expansion of the liquid is observed.
The apparent expansion) is less than its actual expansion (real expansion). It is possible to
allow for the expansion of the vessel in calculations:
γreal =γapparent + γvessel so:
γapparent = γreal – γvessel
Expansion of solids, liquids and gases
For a given change in temperature, ∆T, liquids will tend to expand significantly more than
solids.
γliquid > γsolid
Notice that there are no volume expansion coefficients for gases.
The relationship between the volume of a gas and its temperature can be shown using the ideal
gas equation:
pV = nRT
p = pressure of gas in Pa
V = volume of gas in m3
n = number of moles of gas in mol
R = universal gas constant (8.314 J/K/mol)
T = absolute temperature in K
Notice that there is no constant in the equation relating to the nature of the gas. The equation
applies to all “ideal gases” and is a good approximation for most gases. If the pressure and
the amount of gas are constant, we notice that the volume is proportional to the absolute
temperature: V ∝T

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HARAR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
PHYSICS FOR GRADE-9

So, if the absolute temperature of a given quantity of gas is doubled at constant pressure, the
volume doubles. Gases will consequently tend to expand more for a given temperature rise
than liquids, which in turn expand more than solids.
The unusual behavior of water
when a liquid is frozen, the solid formed will have a lower volume than the initial liquid. In a
solid, the particles are closer together than they are in a liquid.
Hence, for a given mass of substance, the solid usually has a lower volume and a higher density
than its liquid state. Water though is an exception. When it gets cold, water in pipes can
freeze, expand and then break the pipe.
Exercise-2
1. Explain why solids expand on heating.
2. Calculate the increase in length of a 2 m brass rod that is heated from 0 °C to 150 °C.
αbrass= 1.9 × 10–5K–1
3. Calculate the surface area of an iron drain cover with a surface area of 0.67 m 2at 10 °C,
when it is heated to a temperature of 105 °C. βiron= 2.2 × 10–5K–1
4. Show that, for a given material, the surface expansion coefficient (β) is about twice the
linear expansion coefficient (α).
5. Calculate the increase in the volume of a 0.1 m3 sample of water at 10.00 °C, when it is
heated to a temperature of 80.00 °C. γ water= 2.1 × 10–4K–1.
6. Explain what is meant by the apparent thermal expansion of a liquid and compare its
magnitude with the real thermal expansion of the same liquid under the same conditions.
7. Explain why water expands on freezing.
7.3 Quantity of heat, specific heat capacity and heat capacity
What are the units of energy?
The scientific unit of energy is the joule (J).
Unit of energy called the calorie (cal).
One calorie is the quantity of heat energy required to increase the temperature of 1 g of water
by 1 °C. The amount of energy in joules required to increase the temperature of 1 g of water by
1 °C is 4.18 J and so:
1 cal = 4.2 J
What is meant by the term specific heat capacity?
If we were heating a substance to raise its temperature, the amount of heat energy required
would depend on three things:
1. The substance being heated. A given mass of aluminum will require more energy to raise its
temperature by 1 K than the same mass of wood.
2. The mass of the substance. The greater the mass of the substance, the more heat energy will
be required to raise its temperature.
3. The temperature rise required. For a given mass of a particular substance, a large
temperature increase will require a larger amount of heat energy than a small
increase in temperature. Each substance has a specific heat capacity(c), which is
defined as:
The heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a given substance by 1 K.
The units of specific heat capacity are J/kg K

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HARAR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
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From the definition of specific heat capacity, the quantity heat energy required (Q) to increase
the temperature of a substance is found using the equation below:
c = Q /m∆T
This is usually written as:
Q = mc∆T
m = mass of substance (kg)
c = specific capacity of substance (J/kg K)
∆T = change in temperature (K). Remember, a change in temperature of 1 °C is the same as a
change in temperature of 1 K. So, in this case °C or K may be used.
How can we find the specific heat capacity of a substance?
The specific heat capacity of a substance, but remember that to calculate this value we will
always need to know the mass of the substance, the amount of heat energy supplied to it as
well as its starting temperature and final temperature.
Heat energy lost by hotter body = heat energy gained by colder body
To prevent heat loss to the surroundings using insulation. The experimental approach of
measuring heat capacities and the heat changes during chemical and physical processes is
called calorimetry. A calorimeter is a polished metal can.
Electrical heating
This method can be used to find the specific heat capacity of a solid or a liquid .
Example
The electrical heater has a power rating of 200 W. It caused the water to increase in
temperature from 25 °C to 74 °C after running for 5 minutes.
Mass of water = 200 g
Mass of aluminum calorimeter and stirrer = 400 g
Specific heat capacity of aluminum = 910 J/kg K
Heat energy supplied = heat energy + heat energy received
by heater (Qh) received water (Qw) by aluminum calorimeter (Qc)
Heat supplied by heater (Qh)
E = P× t
Heat energy received by calorimeter and stirrer (Qc)
Qc = mc∆T
Heat energy received by water (Qw)
Qw = Qh – Qc
Specific heat capacity of water:
c= Qw/m ∆T
Method of mixtures
This method can be adapted to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid .
Reading assignment methods of mixture from your text book page – 196
What is the heat capacity of a body?
The heat capacity of a body is the defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of
the given body by 1 K; the mass of the body is not considered, only the energy required to raise
its temperature by 1 K.

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HARAR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
PHYSICS FOR GRADE-9

heat capacity = Q /∆T

Specific heat capacity = heat capacity of body / mass of body
Why is the high specific heat capacity of water so important?
If a substance has a high specific heat capacity, it means that a large amount of heat energy is
required to bring about a rise in temperature of 1 kg water by 1K. This is important when we
remember that water is widely used in industry and in internal combustion engines for cooling.
Exercise-3
1. Define the term “specific heat capacity of water”.
2. A metal bar of mass 100 g is warmed from 20 °C to 80 °C. How much heat is absorbed by the
metal bar if the specific heat capacity of this metal is 450 J/kg K.
3. In an experiment to calculate the specific heat capacity of a metal, the following results
were obtained:
Mass of metal = 300 g.
Start temperature = 20 °C.
End temperature = 75 °C.
Power rating of electrical heater = 100 W.
Time of heating = 150 s. Use this data to calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal.
4. A hot metal block is placed into 50 g of water in an insulated container. The water increases
in temperature from 20 °C to 32 °C. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg K. Calculate
the quantity of heat energy supplied to the water from the metal block.
7.4 Changes of state
Heating and cooling curves
If we heat a solid, its particles gain energy and begin to vibrate faster and move further apart as
its temperature increases. This continues until the solid melts. Even though the solid is
continuously heated as it melts, its temperature will not increase until the entire solid has
melted. If the heat energy the substance gains is not used to increase the average kinetic
energy of its particles (the temperature does not change)
cooling curve a graph showing the temperature of a substance against time as it loses heat
energy and changes state.
heating curve a graph showing the temperature of a substance against time as heat energy is
applied and it changes state.

Reading assignment Specific latent

Heat from your text book from page 201 – 204

Exercise - 4
1. Calculate the heat energy required to melt 10 g of copper at its melting point.(L f for copper
= 209 000 J/kg).
2. Calculate the heat energy required to melt 1.2 kg of gold at its melting point.(L f for gold = 63
700 J/kg).
3. Calculate the heat energy liberated when 75 g of iron freezes at its freezing point.(L f for iron
= 245 000 J/kg).

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HARAR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
PHYSICS FOR GRADE-9

4. Define the term specific latent heat of fusion of magnesium.

5. Calculate the heat energy required to increase the temperature of 0.1 kg of water from 10
°C to 150 °C.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K.
Specific heat capacity of steam = 2080 J/kg K.
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2 500 000 J/kg.
Assignment - 4
1. Write a paragraph explaining the difference between the heat energy in a substance and
the substances’ temperature.
2. Explain, with reference to the appropriate laws of thermodynamics and particle movement,
what happens when a cold object is in thermal contact with hot object.
3. Calculate the increase in length of an iron pipeline that is 30.00 m long at 20 °C when it is
warmed to 45 °C. αiron = 1.1 × 10–5K–1
4. Calculate the increase in volume of ethanol that has a volume of 2.5 × 10 –4m3
at 25 °C when it is warmed to 45 °C. Explain why the apparent expansion will be less than this
calculated real expansion. γethanol = 75 × 10–5K–1
5. In an experiment to calculate the specific heat capacity of a metal, the following data were
obtained. Use the data to calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal.
Mass of metal = 200 g.
Start temperature = 20 °C.
End temperature = 105 °C.
Heat energy supplied by electrical heating = 2000 J.
6. A metal block increases in temperature from 15 °C to 60 °C when supplied with 13 500 J of
heat energy.
a) Calculate the heat capacity of the metal.
b) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal, if this sample has a mass of 0.75 kg.
7. 20 g of water at 42 °C was placed in a well-insulated copper calorimeter with a mass of 27 g
at a temperature of 20 °C. Use the specific heat capacities of water (4200 J/kg K) and copper
(420 J/kg K) to determine the final temperature of the water.
8. Calculate the heat energy required to increase the temperature of 10.0 kg of water from 25
°C to 115 °C.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K.
Specific heat capacity of steam = 2080 J/kg K.
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2 500 000 J/kg.
9. Sketch a cooling curve for bromine as bromine vapor is cooled from 100 °C to –20 °C.
Bromine has a melting point = –7 °C and a boiling point of 59 °C. Mark clearly on your graph the
melting and boiling point.
10. In an experiment to determine the latent heat of fusion of ice, 0.5 kg of ice at –5 °C was
placed into 1.5 kg of water in a copper calorimeter of mass (including stirrer) of 0.2 kg with both
water and calorimeter at 61 °C. The final temperature, when all the ice had melted, was 25.0 °C.
Use the data to calculate the latent heat of fusion of ice.

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Mass of calorimeter = 0.20 kg.

Mass of water = 1.50 kg.
Mass of ice added = 0.50 kg.
Start temperature of ice = –5.0 °C.
Start temperature of water = 61 °C.
Final temperature of water = 25.0 °C.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K.
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 J/kg K.
Specific heat capacity of copper = 420 J/kg K.

Please refer more examples and necessary figures

from your text book which is related to the above
questions and short notes .

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