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Muga silkworm, antheraea assamensis (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) - An


overview of distribution, biology and breeding

Article  in  European Journal of Entomology · April 2013


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Eur. J. Entomol. 110(2): 293–300, 2013
http://www.eje.cz/pdfs/110/2/293
ISSN 1210-5759 (print), 1802-8829 (online)

Muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)


– an overview of distribution, biology and breeding

AMALENDU TIKADER, KUNJUPILLAI VIJAYAN and BEERA SARATCHANDRA

Research Coordination Section, Central Silk Board, Bangalore-560 068, Karnataka, India; e-mail: atikader_csgrc@yahoo.co.in

Key words. Lepidoptera, Saturniidae, muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis, rearing, improvement, disease, grainage

Abstract. Muga silkworm (Antheraea assamensis Helfer) is endemic to Assam and adjoining areas in North-Eastern India, and natu-
rally produces golden silk. From time immemorial, many ethnic and tribal groups have produced muga silk. Muga silkworms are
mostly wild unlike the mulberry silkworm, which is completely domesticated. The muga silkworm is a single species with little
genetic variation among populations, survives harsh climatic conditions and is subject to various diseases, pests and predators. Due
to the high incidence of disease and natural enemies, and variations in climatic conditions, the production of muga silk has recently
declined dramatically. In order to improve the productivity of this silkworm it is important to have a better knowledge of both its
host plants and biology. Lack of knowledge of its genetics and host plants is a major bottleneck. This paper reviews various aspects
of muga silkworm culture, including the availability of different populations, and methods used to select for improvement in
survival, cocoon yield, disease resistance, conservation and egg production.

INTRODUCTION the family Saturniidae in the Northeastern states. These


Insects that are commercially used to produce silk are wild silkworms feed on different host plants and migrate
the mulberry silk moth (Bombyx mori) and non-mulberry from one area to another and breed continuously
silk moths (Antheraea spp. and Samia spp.). Nearly 80% throughout the year. Although a few of the above men-
of the silk produced in India comes from B. mori. tioned wild silkworms are recorded in surveys and by
Although the non-mulberry silkworms are mostly wild or expeditions (Thangavelu & Borah, 1986; Thangavelu et
semi-domesticated, they provide an important source of al., 1987, 1988; Kakati & Chutia, 2009), it is necessary to
employment and subsistence for the native population carry out systematic documentation of these silk moths
(tribal) in the forest regions of India, especially the North- and their host plant preferences in order to formulate a
Eastern region. Antheraea is one of the largest genera in comprehensive strategy for the improvement, conserva-
the family Saturniidae most species of which produce tion and sustainable utilization of these seri-genetic
valuable silk, but have not yet been domesticated for resources (Thangavelu, 1991; Tikader, 2001a, b, 2011,
commercial exploitation. Most of the species of 2012). One of these silkworms needs special mention, it
Antheraea are polyphagous and survive well on several is the muga silkworm (A. assamensis), which produces
species of plants. The life cycles, morphology, physiol- golden silk and is endemic to Northeast India (Fig. 2).
ogy, biochemistry and genetics of these silk moths are The muga silkworm has been exploited commercially for
very different. These insects belong to the order Lepido- several decades but there is little information on its distri-
ptera and two families, Bombycidae and Saturniidae, bution, genetic diversity, host plant preferences etc. In
which differ markedly in structure and colour. All the this article, we compile and construct a comprehensive
Saturniidae, but not all the Bombycidae, spin silk. overview of the current status of muga silkworm culture
According to Nässig et al. (1996), the 1200–1500 species in India and identify the major areas in need of more
in the family Saturniidae occur throughout the world. research.
Arora & Gupta (1979) report that there are as many as 40 DISTRIBUTION OF MUGA SILKWORM
species of silk moths in India, while Jolly et al. (1975)
report about 80 species in Asia and Africa that are used to Muga silkworm, A. assamensis, occurs in the Brahm-
produce silk commercially. These silk moths can be either putra valley in Assam, East, West and South Garo hills of
univoltine or multivoltine depending on the geo-climatic Meghalaya, Mokokchung, Tuensung, Kohima and Wokha
conditions (Reiger et al., 2008). districts of Nagaland, Lohit and Dibang valleys, Chanlang
The North-Eastern states of India, Sikkim, Assam, and Papumpare districts of Arunachal Pradesh, Tameng-
Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizo- long district of Manipur and Coochbehar district of West
ram and Manipur, are the main centers of wild silk culture Bengal (Fig. 1; Singh & Mishra, 2003). It also occurs in
(Fig. 1), using silk collected from muga (A. assamensis Northern Myanmar and the Kumaon and Kangra valleys
Helfer), eri (S. ricini Donovan), oak tasar (A. proylei in the western Himalayan hills, Sikkim, Himachal
Jolly), mulberry (B. mori L.) and tasar moths (A. mylitta Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Pondicherry, Bangla-
Drury). Singh & Chakravorty (2006) record 24 species of desh, Indonesia and Sri Lanka (Das et al., 2000).

293
conditions and hybridized in order to determine whether
their offspring show hybrid vigour. The biotypes were
collected from Bhaktapara in lower Assam and Senchoa,
Kamarbandha and Titabar in upper Assam, and wild
muga silkworms, which diapause during winter, from a
few areas in northeastern India. Chaudhury (1981) reports
three biotypes of muga silkworm namely Sarubhagia,
Barbhagia and Bor or Lebang. Different colour forms
were also collected from farmer’s fields. A survey was
conducted in the foothills of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Meghalaya and Nagaland and the muga silkworms col-
lected grouped into five biotypes (Type-W1: 24,
Type-W2: 16, Type-W3: 12, Type-W4: 10 and Type-W5:
81). Other Antheraea species were also collected during
this survey from northeastern and central India (A.
assamensis, A. mylitta, A. frithii, A. pernyi and A. roylei).
Recently during surveys in different districts of Assam
(Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, North Cachar
Hills, Kamrup, Goalpara, Nalbari, Bongaigaon and Kok-
rajhar, Karbianglong), Meghalaya (East, West and South
Garo hills, East Khasi and West Khasi hills), Manipur
(East and West Imphal, Churchandpur, Tamenglong and
Chandal), Mizoram, Nagaland (Wokha, Mokokchung,
Zunhebotto, Tuensung, Kohima), Arunchal Pradesh
(Changlang, Lohit, Debang Valley, Papumpari) valuable
wild silkworm biotypes were collected and are being
maintained at Regional Muga Research Station (RMRS,
Boko) and CMER&TI, Lahdoigarh, Jorhat, Assam.
Fig. 1. Distribution of muga silkworm (A. assamensis) in
India. CHARACTERIZATION AND EVALUATION OF MUGA
SILKWORM
SURVEYS AND THE COLLECTION OF BIOTYPES OF
The muga silkworm has been characterized in different
MUGA SILKWORM
ways. Arora & Gupta (1979) used wing expansion while
Although muga silkworm has not been successfully Chaudhury (1981) used features of cocoons, moths, eggs
domesticated, attempts have recently been made to main- and larval traits. The haploid number of chromosomes of
tain it under semi-domesticated conditions and improve this species is 15 (Sengupta et al., 1975). Sahu (2005)
its economic traits (Thangavelu & Sahu, 1983). The main cites a set of descriptors for the systematic characteriza-
reason for this is the marked inbreeding and their hiber- tion of muga silkworm (Table 1). In order to conserve the
nating over winter. In particular different biotypes have genetic diversity available in different populations, efforts
been collected from various locations and maintained in are being made to develop a germplasm at Central Muga
culture. Some muga biotypes, like Halflong green, yellow and Eri Research and Training Institute, Lahadoigarh.
mutant, Kokrapohia green and wild hibernating type, Recent findings indicate that there is significant genetic
were collected from different areas and kept in off-site erosion occurring in wild populations and therefore there

Fig. 2. Male and female moths of muga silkworm (A. assamensis).

294
TABLE 1. Morphometric characters of muga silkworm (A. assamensis).
Sl Characters Wild stocks Cultivated (semi-domesticated)
1 Voltinism Bivoltine / Multivoltine Mutivoltine
2 Number of moults 4/3 4
3 Food plant Soalu / Dighloti Som / Soalu
4 Incubation period (days) 8–12 8–10
4 Body colour Black with yellow streak, Green Black with yellow streak, Green
5 Head colour Light black Brown
6 Egg size (L × B) mm 2.5–3.0 × 2.0–2.5 2.1–2.8 × 2.0–2.4
7 Egg weight (mg) 8.36–9.33 5.83–9.83
8 Larval duration (days) 22–50 22–45
9 Mature worm weight (g) 9.0–14.0 8.5–13.5
10 Cocoon colour Light golden Light golden
11 Cocoon shape Elliptical Elliptical
12 Cocoon weight (g) 4.5–8.55 2.90–7.70
13 Shell weight (g) 0.60–0.96 0.18–0.65
14 Filament length (m) 410–506 126–398
15 Filament fineness (denier) 4–6 4–6
16 Percentage of silk reelable 40–46 37–63
17 Silk recovery (%) 42–55 40–42
18 Fecundity (number of eggs) 235 173
Source: Sahu (2005); Tikader (2012).

is an important need to conserve germplasm. However, MAINTENANCE OF STOCKS OF MUGA SILKWORM


due to its monophyletic nature and lack of information on Unlike domesticated B. mori it is not easy to rear the
the genetic structure of the different populations of muga muga silkworm in captivity. In the wild this silkworm is
silkworm, there has been little progress. Nonetheless, found on som (Persea bombycina), soalu (Litsea mono-
eight biotypes collected from Assam, Meghalaya, petala) and dighloti (Litsea salicifolia) trees. Of these
Manipur and Nagaland are currently in culture and are trees, soalu is semi-deciduous and sheds most of its
being reared to assess their performance. The economic leaves during winter. Thus, in the field muga silkworm
parameters of cocoons recorded for these biotypes (Table hibernate in winter when there is a shortage of fresh
2) indicate that in terms of fecundity, cocoon shell weight leaves. However, the muga silkworms that feed on som
and filament length Aa-TM, Aa-KA and Aa-SD are the trees do not hibernate (Kakati, 1991, 1993). The behav-
best performers (Singh et al., 2012a). iour of diapause and non-diapause stocks is shown in
DIAPAUSE BEHAVIOUR OF MUGA SILKWORMS Table 3. From a commercial point of view, it is important
to isolate diapausing stock during Jarua (Nov–Jan) and
Occurrence of natural populations of insects is a spon- Chotua (Feb–March) when they are subject to high mor-
taneous phenomenon (Varley et al., 1973). The existence tality due to fungal diseases and parasitization by uzi fly
of variants in natural populations indicates the presence (Exorista bombycis) and wasps. Moreover there is no
of a heterozygous genetic structure (Thangavelu & Bha- shortage of eggs during Jethua (April–May) as sufficient
gawati, 1984). Physiological and behavioural adaptation eggs are produced by the Kotia (Oct–Nov) commercial
to different seasonal environments is an important char- crop. The optimum conditions for rearing of muga silk-
acter of most insects (Tauber & Tauber, 1976; Kakati et worm are 20–31°C temperature and 65 to 95% relative
al., 2005). Unlike the mulberry silkworm, B. mori L., humidity.
which undergoes diapause in the egg stage (Saunders,
1976) species of Antheraea undergo diapause in the pupal IMPROVEMENT OF MUGA SILKWORM BY
stage, except A. yamami, which undergoes diapause in BREEDING AND SELECTION
both the egg and pupal stages (Jolly et al., 1973; Ahsan et The genetic diversity of muga silkworm in culture, in
al., 1976; Choudhury, 1981; Kato & Sakate, 1982; which there are more than two or three generations per
Sakate, 1982; Kuribayashi, 1984; Khanikor & Dutta, year, rapidly decreases. The offspring of crosses between
1997, 1998, 2000). The number of generations per year green and yellow coloured individuals from different
that the muga silkworm completes in situ and ex situ regions showed a 30–40% increase in characters such as
populations differs. The cultivated stock, which has been larval weight, cocoon weight, shell weight and filament
subjected to domestication is now multivoltine, whereas length. The yellow mutant can easily be crossed with the
the wild population is univoltine (Choudhury, 1981; green mutant (Green × Yellow and Yellow × Green). The
Thangavelu & Bhagawati, 1984). hibernating stocks perform better when crossed with yel-

295
TABLE 2. Performance of of different biotypes of muga silkworm (A. assamensis).
Female Male Single cocoon
Fecundity Hatching
Biotypes ERR % Cocoon Shell weight Cocoon Shell weight filament length
(nos) %
weight (g) (g) weight (g) (g) (m)
Aa-SD 138 76.0 93.0 6.71 0.50 4.28 0.35 289
Aa-Blue 140 75.0 91.0 6.30 0.54 4.13 0.35 302
Aa-MM 172 80.0 81.0 6.80 0.48 4.70 0.49 388
Aa-GM 135 77.8 82.0 6.28 0.52 4.50 0.46 350
Aa-TM 168 83.3 77.0 6.54 0.75 5.05 0.52 411
Aa-IM 165 70.0 85.0 6.54 0.47 4.39 0.47 328
Aa-KA 145 74.5 83.0 7.22 0.72 4.86 0.47 393
Aa-SM 170 70.0 79.0 6.99 0.57 4.39 0.45 343
CD at 5% 2.75 1.96 5.45 0.008 0.12 0.007 0.048 35.7
CD at 1% 4.03 2.87 9.36 0.011 0.03 0.01 0.013 52.3
Source: Singh et al. (2012a).

low. In the intra population crosses, the reproductive environment having very little effect. High heritability
vigour of the yellow mutant lines M3BP, M3PB, M3P, estimates indicate the presence of a large number of fix-
MK1 and MK2 gradually decreased and they died out as able factors and hence it may be possible to improve these
a result of poor larval survival and inbreeding depression, characters by selection. Thus, by progeny testing and fur-
with only a few lines surviving for 6–8 generations. ther selection it should be possible to improve the cocoon
Thangavelu et al. (1987) collected muga silkworm traits that are of economic importance.
genetic stocks and isolated the following five variants: Recent research on molecular markers has resulted in
yellow morph, one with yellow lateral lines, one in which the generation of 87 microsatellite markers from 35,000
the moths were black, the winter diapausing wild type expressed sequence tags and a microsatellite-enriched
and non-diapausing wild type. Siddiqui & Das (2000) sub-genomic library (Arunkumar et al., 2009). In the
found that genetic variation, expressed in terms of the future these microsatellite markers are likely to be widely
genotypic co-efficient of variation, was low and most of used in genetic studies of A. assama and other closely
the traits varied little, and they concluded that there was a related species. In this context Neog et al. (2010) have
need to isolate pure lines and use these in a future assessed eleven populations, comprising four from culti-
breeding program. At the research stations RMRS and vated and seven from wild stocks with different geo-
Boko the following wild stocks: RMRS-Aa-001, Aa-002, graphical origins, using 50 RAPD primers. This study
Aa-003 and Aa-004, have been crossed and strains with revealed that the populations are highly polymorphic,
improved cocoon traits, such as cocoon weight, shell which is associated with their being able to survive in the
weight and fecundity, produced. Thus, it is possible to diverse climatic conditions prevailing in north-eastern
exploit hybrid vigour by crossing genetically different India. Arunkumar et al. (2012) used EST-SSRs and
lines. Singh et al. (2012b) report that quantitative traits genomic SSRs to analyze 97 individuals from natural
like cocoon weight and fecundity have a high PCV, GCV population collected from six different geographical loca-
and heritability. The GCV was near to PCV for most of tions in the Meghalaya states. This study revealed that
the economic cocoon traits indicating a highly significant one of the populations was genetically very different from
effect of genotype on phenotypic expression, with the the other populations. These studies indicate it might be

TABLE 3. Effect of egg incubation on growth of different life stages of muga silkworm. Duration of the different life stages, fecun-
dity and the percentage of eggs of muga silkworm that hatched when reared at different times of the year (2003–2004).
Crops
Parameters Bhodia Kotia (October– Jarua (December– Chatua Jethua Aherua
(August–September) November) January) (March–April) (May–June) (June–July)
Incubation (days) 7 8 12 10 10 8
Fecundity (no. of eggs) 316 208 188 105 190 172
Hatching (%) 85.0 77.0 83.0 85.0 78.0 70.0
Larval duration (days) 21 23 47 28 21 21
Pupal duration (days) 20 22 41 24 18 17
Longevity of moths (days) 8 9 11 10 10 9
Source: Kakati et al. (2005)

296
time in each instar (Tikader & Rajan, 2012) (Table 4).
Though the wild silkworm sector of sericulture has
recently become more important, much needs to be done
to stop the current decline in the production of muga silk
(Fig. 3; Tikader et al., 2011). In this context the leaves of
tetraploid som plants provide a better food for rearing
muga silk worm larvae, but this has not yet been
exploited commercially at the farmer level (Gogoi et al.,
2009). It is important to do further research on improving
the quality of the host plant for muga silkworms as this
will have a significant effect on silk quality and quantity.
Fig. 3. Muga silk production showing a leveling off over the MUGA SILKWORM EGGS
past 10 years.
Muga culture is an age-old practice and the production
of high quality eggs is a pre-requisite for the development
possible to use inter population hybridization to improve of the sericulture industry. The scarcity of high quality
the muga silkworm. eggs for commercial rearing is thought to be the main
BIOASSAY OF THE HOST PLANTS OF MUGA reason for the decline in muga silk production. In addition
SILKWORM to the losses due to natural causes, diseases and natural
enemies, there are the other factors responsible for the
The muga silkworm is polyphagous and thrives on sev- poor productivity. The majority (80.0%) of the eggs
eral species of plants, unlike the mulberry silkworm, received by the farmers have not been tested scientifically
which can survive only on mulberry. Muga silkworm and are thus of poor quality. Muga silk industry is pri-
feeds primarily on som (Persea bombycina), but will feed marily in the hands of those who rear this silkworm to
on soalu (Litsea monopetala), dighloti (L. salicifolia) and produce eggs and thus it is difficult to ascertain the exact
mejankari (L. citrata) if som is not available. Som occurs production of eggs. The government has established
throughout Assam and is utilized there for the commercial farms, P4, P3 and P2, at strategic locations within the dis-
rearing of muga silkworms (Neog et al., 2005). Based on tribution of wild muga, which procure cocoons and main-
the shape of its leaves, Choudhury (1981) identified three tain cultures that are used to provide seed cocoons for the
distinct morphotypes of som. The feeding rate of A. people who rear them commercially (Borpuzari, 2010).
assamensis larvae depends on the morphology of the The cocoons supplied by these government farms are
leaves of som (Hazarika et al., 1996) as this silkworm microscopically examined to ensure that they are free of
prefers the less pubescent small leaves that have short diseases and parasitoids (Thangavelu et al., 1988).
petioles. Although soalu occurs sporadically in the whole Storing of seed cocoons during favorable seasons is
of North-East India, it is more abundant in Lower Assam. another method of improving the supply of eggs of muga
It is utilized for feeding muga silkworms for producing silkworm. The muga cocoons are kept at a low tempera-
disease free eggs. Dighloti is a hardy shrub and occurs in ture for different periods viz., 32, 42 and 52 days. The
the jungles of upper Assam. It is considered to be a sec- performance of the adults that emerged from the cocoons
ondary food plant of muga silkworm as larvae reared on it revealed that it is best keep them at 7.5° or 10°C for 32
grow slowly and take a long time to complete their devel- and 42 days, respectively. Studies on the effect of storage
opment and produce less silk. of muga seed cocoons on fecundity and hatching revealed
The muga silkworm reared on different host plants dif- that they can be stored for up to 62 days during winter
fered greatly. The characteristics of the cocoons of muga and 42 days during autumn without any adverse effect on
silkworm reared on som are described by Ahmed et al. the quality and quantity of eggs.
(1998). Tikader (2011) report the performance of the wild
silkworm (Cricula trifenestrata) reared on different host NATURAL ENEMIES OF MUGA SILKWORM
plants. These studies reveal that the larvae of muga silk- Muga silkworm is subject to viral, bacterial, fungal and
worm reared on hybrid plants grew faster and spent less protozoan diseases that result in heavy crop losses (Table

TABLE 4. Performance of muga silkworm reared on different host plants.


Single cocoon weight (g) Single shell weight (g) Silk ratio (%)
Host plant
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Som 3.64 5.36 0.293 0.360 8.049 6.716
Soalu 4.02 6.15 0.300 0.416 7.462 6.764
Dighloti 3.39 5.21 0.256 0.383 7.551 7.351
Hybrid 3.75 5.41 0.293 0.380 7.813 7.024
Mean 3.70 ± 0.23 5.53 ± 0.36 0.285 ± 0.02 0.384 ± 0.02 7.718 ± 0.23 6.963 ± 0.25

297
TABLE 5. Major diseases and natural enemies of muga silkworm.
Causal
Sl Disease Symptoms Crop loss (%)
organism
Protozoa 40% or even
1 Pebrine Pebrine infected larvae develop black dots on the surface of their bodies.
(Nosema spp.) total loss of crop
The haemolymph of infected larvae turns milky and contains numerous hex-
2 Grasserie Virus agonal crystals in suspension which can be seen when viewed under a micro- 20–30%
scope.
Common symptoms of this disease are lethargic larvae with swollen bodies,
3 Flacherie Bacteria, virus 20–30%
which feed little and have drooping heads.
The infected silkworms become harder, paler and completely inactive. A white
4 Muscardine Fungus encrustation envelopes the body, which becomes laterally compressed, dry, hard 25–35%
and brittle.
The uzi fly lay eggs on the surface of the body of the silkworm, after hatching
Uzi Uzi fly (Exor-
5 the maggot burrows into the body of the silkworm and feeds on its haemolymph 25–30%
infestation ista sorbillans)
and other tissues.

5) of up to 40% for individual diseases (Veeranna, 1999). use of disease free eggs and procurement of cocoons from
It is estimated that 20–30% of the loss is due to pebrine disease free zones may reduce the incidence of this dis-
(microsporidian) disease, which sometimes kills an entire ease. Several plant products and antibiotics are used to
silkworm culture. This disease is transmitted from control the bacterial diseases of muga silkworm (Dutta et
infected mother to offspring by transovarial transmission al., 2010).
and is termed a primary infection. This infection results in Muscardine is a less prevalent disease caused by a
most of the worms dying in the second or third instar. fungus (Fusarium spp.). It infects larvae mainly in winter.
Cross-transmission from diseased to healthy individuals Infected larvae are hard, pale and completely inactive. A
can also result in serious losses (Chakrabarti & Manna, white encrustation envelops the body, which becomes lat-
2008). This is referred to as a secondary infection and erally compressed, dry, hard and brittle. If the disease
results in worms spinning flimsy cocoons of inferior qual- occurs at late age, the larva spins a cocoon but the pupa
ity. The only way to minimize the severity of this disease develops a white encrustation. Proper disinfection of eggs
is the use of preventive measures as it is hard to eradicate with 2% formaldehyde solution reduces the incidence of
the pathogen completely. The usual method for doing this this disease. “Lahdoi” a chemical formulation was devel-
is to examine the eggs under a microscope and reject oped recently to control muscardine disease in muga silk-
those that are infected. Diseased larvae should be worm (Das & Das, 2010).
removed and destroyed immediately. To reduce the level The muga silkworm is attacked by a wide range of
of contamination the houses where the silkworms are parasitoids and predators. During winter, the muga silk-
reared should be disinfected before and after the produc- worm is prone to parasitisation by the uzi fly (Exorista
tion of eggs. bombycis), which can result in a crop loss of 80% (Singh
Grasserie disease is caused by a virus and can cause et al., 1993). Biological control of this fly using the para-
heavy crop losses. It infects larvae mainly in summer and sitoid, Nesolynx thymus (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) can
rarely in winter. Apart from climatic conditions, the result in the death of up to 95% of the flies, which if used
quality of leaves is an important factor determining the along with uzi traps and nets is an effective way of
incidence of this disease. The infected larvae die during reducing the losses caused by this fly.
spinning or after pupation and adults on emergence.
CONCLUSION
Infected moths have a flaccid body and crumpled small
wings. Use of preventive measures during rearing and Thus, from the above, it can be concluded that although
disease free eggs may reduce the incidence of this muga culture has been practiced in Assam and adjoining
disease. Washing the eggs with formaldehyde, sodium areas since time immemorial, unlike mulberry silkworm
hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, and potassium permanga- culture, it still faces a large number of challenges. The
nate solutions is one way of killing the virus. major constraints identified are (1) Lack of information
Flacherie is another common disease of muga on the genetics of the host plant, which hampers crop
silkworm. It is caused by a virus followed by secondary improvement. The genetic diversity of the morphotypes
infection with bacteria. Incidence of this disease is needs to be assessed using molecular markers and
highest in summer and this is thought to be due to sudden morpho-biochemical methods prior to selecting plants for
fluctuations in temperature coupled with poor food breeding purposes. Appropriate agronomical practices
quality (Aruga et al., 1963). Mature larvae are generally have to be developed for obtaining high quality leaves for
more susceptible to the disease and die before spinning. rearing the silkworms. Since, propagation of trees from
Common symptoms of this disease are a swollen body, seed results in the generation of a heterogeneous popula-
lethargy, reduced feeding and a drooping head. The pro- tion, suitable methods for the vegetative propagation of
tection of larvae in their early stages from sun and rain, high quality plants needs to be developed. (2) It is

298
believed there is only a single race of muga silkworm, National Workshop on Management of Sericultural Germ-
which is endemic to the Brahmaputra valley in Assam plasm for Posterity held on 26–27 July 2000 at Central Seri-
and the adjoining hills of India. Muga silkworm rearing cultural Germplasm Resources Centre, Hosur, India. pp.
and the reeling and weaving of muga silk by the people of 133–139.
DUTTA P., NEOG K., DAS K., DAS R., HANDIQUE P.K. & CHAKRA-
Assam are not only traditional but also an important part VORTY R. 2010: Evaluation of some botanicals, antibiotics,
of the economy in rural areas. Because of its unique carbon source and carrier against of the bacterial disease of
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