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IIB Notes - Evolution

The document discusses the topics of evolution and the origin of life. It defines evolutionary biology as the study of the history of life forms on Earth and the changes in flora and fauna that have occurred over millions of years. Furthermore, it states that evolution is the story of the origin of life and the evolution of different life forms on our planet in the context of the evolution of Earth and the wider universe.

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IIB Notes - Evolution

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Anush Khillare

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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

EVOLUTION IIB IIB
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CHAPTER-07 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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EVOLUTION IIB
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01. Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on earth. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. It is the changes in flora and fauna that have occurred over millions of years on IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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earth. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. This is the story of origin of life and evolution of life forms or biodiversity on planet IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
earth in the context of evolution of earth and against the background of evolution IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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of universe itself. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Evolution simply means an orderly change from one condition to another. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Evolution term was introduced by Herbert Spencer. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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ORIGIN OF LIFE IIB
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Universe IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The universe is vast. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Relatively IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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The earth is almost only a speck. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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The universe is very old IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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20 billion years old. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Universe is IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Huge clusters of galaxies IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Galaxies contain stars and clouds IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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stars and clouds of gas and dust. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Big Bang Theory :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. A singular huge explosion
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. 15,000 million (15 billion) years ago
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. unimaginable in physical terms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. The universe expanded
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. temperature came down forming
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. Hydrogen and Helium formed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. The gases condensed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. Under gravitation
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. Galaxies of the present day universe formed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. In the solar system of the milky way galaxy
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. Earth was supposed to have been formed
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. About 4.5 billion years back.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 13. There was no atmosphere on early earth.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. Water vapour,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. Methane
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 15. Carbondioxide
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 16. Ammonia
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 17. released from molten mass covered the surface.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 18. UV rays
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 19. brokeup water
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 20. Hydrogen and Oxygen formed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 21. lighter H2 escaped
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 22. Oxygen combined with NH3 and CH4
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 23. H2O, CO2 and others formed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 24. The ozone layer was formed.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 25. As it cooled
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 26. the water vapor fell as rain
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 27. fill all the depressions
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 28. Oceans were formed
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 29. Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 30. i.e., almost four billion years back.T
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Theories of origin of life
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Theory of Special creation :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Oldest theory of evolution
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Proponent : Spanish Monk Father Sudrez
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB He suggested all living beings are created by god as such.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB This theroy has Three Connotations.
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EVOLUTION IIB IIB
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a. All living organisms (species or types) that we see today were created as such. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
b. The diversity was always the same since the creation and will be the same in future. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
c. The earth is about 4000 years old.R IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Cosmozoic Theory: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Also known as Theory of Panaspermia IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Proponent – Richter 1865 (Greek thinkers) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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03. Life on earth came from distant planet in the form of spores and microorganisms. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Spores were called cosmozoa or panaspermia IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Cosmozoa were covered by meteorites IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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06. Meteorites are matter from outer space IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. Meteorites struck earth and release cosmozoa. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. ‘Panspermia’ is still a favourite idea for some astronomers. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Theory of spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. Also called Theory of Autobiogenesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10. Proponents- Greek philosophers in 600 BC IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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11. Life originated from non living material spontaneously. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
12. Louis Pasteur disaproved this theory. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
According to this theory life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw mud IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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etc. Spontaneously IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They believed that the mud of Nile river could give rise to fishes , frogs, crocodiles etc, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
when warmed by light rays. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Theory of Biogenesis : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Proposed by Harvey & Huxley. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They stateed "Omnis vivum ex ovo or vivo" Which means "New life originated IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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on earth only by pre existing life " IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Experiments by - Francisco Redi, Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Life originated only from pre existing life from reproduction IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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03. This theory could not explain first life on earth but could satisfactorily explained the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
continuity of life. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Experiment of Louis Pasteur : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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01. His experiment is also known as 'Swan neck flask experiment’. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. He prepared sterilized syrup of sugar and killed yeast by boiling them in flasks. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. He took two flasks one of broken neck and another of curved neck (swan neck flask/ IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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“S” shaped neck flask). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. He showed that in pre-sterilized swan neck flasks, life did not come from killed yeast IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
bacause germ laden dust particle in the air were trapped by the curved neck which IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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serves as filter while in another flask open to air (broken neck), new living organisms IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
arose. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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EVOLUTION IIB IIB
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Synthesis of simple organic compounds : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Formation of micromolecules started. Temperature cooled down and highly reactive IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
free radicals – CH and – CH2 formed saturated and unsaturated hydrocarons. Later these IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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get converted into monosaccharides, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, fatty acids and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
glycerol. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The hot dilute soup or primitive broth : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Sea was containing these molecules. The unique feature of this broth was molecules IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
didn’t degrade as there was no free oxygen and enzymes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Formation of complex organic compounds : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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In the hot soup simple organic substances colloided, reacted and aggregated to form. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Polysaccharides, fats, proteins, nucleotides and nucleosides. Proteins with enzymatic nature IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
called protoproteins formed. Formation of protein molecules is considered landmark in IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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origin of life. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Formation of nucleic acid : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Formed by aggregation of phosphoric acid, sugar, purines and pyrimidines. Thousands IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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of nucleotide joined to form self replicating nucleic acids. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Formation of protobiont or precells : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nucleic acid + inorganic molecules + organic molecules = protobionts or precells IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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First form of life IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Formation of first cell : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nucleic acid in pre cells had the capacity to multiply. Started protein synthesis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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This significant activity converted precells into a cell. Chemical evolution led to biological IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
evolution IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Coacervate Theory of Oparin : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Proponent – Oparin 1938 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
FORMATION OF PROTEIN WAS VERY CRUCIAL IN COURSE OF IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Suggested coacervates are the substances of primitive earth from which first cell like IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
forms originated. Called them Protobionts or Eubionts IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Microsphere Theory : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Proponent- Sydney Fox in 1959 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Restudied Oparins Coacervate Theory by experimentation. He heated amino acids IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
which polymerized into protein droplets called proteinoids. Proteinoids aggregated into IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
spherical colloidal droplets called microspheres. It was concluded from Oparins and Sydnys IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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experiments that IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
COACERVATES AND MICROSPHERES WERE THE FORE RUNNERS OF IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
FIRST FORM OF LIFE ON THIS EARTH IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Urey Millers Experiment in support of Chemical Evolution :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Proponents – Stanley. L. Miller and Harold C. Urey
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Provided first experimental evidence of Oparins theory after thirty years on 1953. To do so
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB they designed a apparatus simulating prebiotic conditions.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Experimental setup :
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Apparatus – Spark Discharge Electrodes

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Apparatus

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Components – CH4 Spark discharge
To vacum
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB pump NH4
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 1. Large spark discharge glass H 4O
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB chamber fitted with tungsten H2 Water Out
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB electrodes
Condensar
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Water in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 2. Flask for water boiling
Water droplets
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 3. Side tube connected to a
Water containing
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 4. vacuum pump organic compounds
Boiling water
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 5. A cooling jacket Liquid water in trap
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Diagrammatic representation of Miller experiment
6. U- shaped trap
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Steps of Experiment :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Evacuated the entire apparatus made it sterile. Water added partially. Mixture of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB methane, ammonia and hydrogen in the ratio 1:2:2 without allowing air. Water was boiled.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 and water vapour at
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
8000C.Water vapours along with gases were circulated through high electric spark of 75,000
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB volts. After several days mixture was allowed to cool through a condenser. Liquified mixture
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB collected in trap.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB THE TRAPPED PRODUCT WERE VARIETY OF SIMPLE ORGANIC
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB COMPOUNDS ESPECIALLY AMINO ACIDS AND SUGAR.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Organics Evolution :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Defined as a slow, gradual, continuous and irreversible changes through which the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB present day complex forms have descended from their simple pre- existing forms of the past.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Theories of Organic Evolution :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Proponent – Charles R. Darwin
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB He was a British naturalist. Theory is based on several facts, observations, and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB deductions known as Darwinism. Widely accepted theory. Darwin during his voyage on
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Galapagos islands by H.M.S. Beagel ship, observed various types of plants and animals.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Charles Darwin published his observations and conclusions in a book ‘Origin of Species’.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Over production or enormous fertility or prodigality of production :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB All organisms produce young ones than those which can survive up to maturity.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Oyesters lay out 114 million eggs in a single spawn. But all not hatch. Regardless of rate of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB reproduction of a species, its number remains constant. Because of struggle for existance.
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EVOLUTION IIB IIB
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Struggle for Existance : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Though individuals multiply geometrically. Space and food remains constant. This IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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leads to compitition. This struggle may be IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Intraspecific : Competition among the individuals of the same species. Severe struggle IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Interspecific : Struggle between individuals of different species living together IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Environmental : Struggle of all living organisms against adverse environmental conditions. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Variation and Heredity : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Variations are difference s between individuals of the same species. Variations may IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
be Harmful, Neutral and Useful. Useful variations are passed on and preserved. Variations IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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are of two type, Favourable variations or Unfavourable variations.
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Survival of the fittest and natural selection : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Organisms provided with favourable variations succeed in struggle for existance. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Others perish. This means survival of the fittest. Nature selects the organisms which are IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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provided with favourable variations. This is called as natural selection.
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Origin of new species : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Nature selects organisms with favourable characters. These favorable characters IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
are transmitted to next generations. In each generation slight variation occures with natural IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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selection. Ultimately gives rise to a new species with accumulation of favourable characters.
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Wallace summarized Darwins theory : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Sr IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Facts observed in nature Deductions IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
No.
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a.Over production or prodigality of production. Struggle for existance IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1
b. Number of survivors remains constant IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
a. Struggle for existence Survival of fittest or natural IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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b. Variations and Heredity selection
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a. Survival of the fittest Origin of new species IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
3
b. Environmental changes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Criticism of Darwinism- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1. The main drawback of this theory is that Darwin didn’t have the knowledge of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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genetics and he had no satisfactory explanation for the cause, origin and inheritance IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of variations. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
2. This theory only explained the survival of fittest but was unable to explain the arrival IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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of fittest. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
3. Darwin was unable to explain why in a population only a few individuals develop IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
useful variations and others have harmful variations. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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4. Criticism of Darwinism was based on sexual selection. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB MUTATION THEORY-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB - This theory was proposed by Hugo de Vries based on his work on Evening Primrose
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (Oenothera lamarckiana)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB - Large differences arising suddenly in a population are called mutations. Actually
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB mutations are sudden changes of genetic material (DNA) and hence all are inheritable.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB - In addition to recombination, mutation is another phenomenon that leads to variation
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB in DNA.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB - Mutation is a discontinuous source of variations and provides raw material for
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB evolution.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB - According to Hugo de Vries it is mutation which causes evolution and not the minor
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB variations (heritable) that Darwin talked about.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB - Mutations are random and directionless while Darwinian variations are small and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
directional.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB - Evolution for Darwin was gradual while de Vries believed mutation caused speciation
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB and hence called it saltation (single step large mutation).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Criticism-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (i) Natural mutations are not very common as Hugo de Vries thought.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (ii) Mutations are normally recessive & harmful, while the characters taking part in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB evolution are usually dominant
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Modern synthetic theory of evolution :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Basic concept based on – Dobzhansky’s book “Genetics and the origin of species” in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 1937. Huxley proposed the term modern synthesis. It describes evolution in terms of genetic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB changes in population leading to origin of new species.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Concept of modern synthetic theory :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Consists of three main concepts
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Genetic variations
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Natural selection
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Isolation
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB GENETIC VARIATIONS
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (a) Gene recombination- New combinations of genes which are usually caused by the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB crossing over during. gametogenesis. It is continuous and common source of variation
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB in a sexually reproducing population.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (b) Mutation- Discontinuous source of variations.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (c) Hybridization- It is crossing of organisms which are genetically different in one or
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB more traits.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (d) Gene migration & Gene flow:- When migration of a section of population to another
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB place and population occurs, gene frequencies change in the original as well as in the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB new population, New genes/ alleles are added to the new population and these are lost
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB from the old population.
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There would be a gene flow if this gene migration, happens multiple times. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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(e) Genetic drift- If the change in gene frequency occurs by chance, it is called genetic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
drift. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
GENETIC DRIFT (SEWALL WRIGHT EFFECT) : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 Random change of gene/allelic frequencies in a population merely by chance is called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
genetic drift. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 It operates rapidly in small population. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 It is due to habitat fragmentation, isolation, natural calamities or any epidemics. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 Founder effect and bottleneck effect are two forms of genetic drift. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(a) Founder effect- When a section of population get isolated or migrated or drifted from IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
original population, than this section becomes genetically different from the original IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
population due to change in allelic frequecy because gene pool of this section may IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
contain some alleles in a very law frequency or may lack a few alleles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Sometimes the change in allelic frequency is so different in the new sample of population IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
that they become a different species, The original drifted population becomes founders IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and the effect is called founder effect. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(b) Bottleneck effect- Bottlenecks are the natural calamities like earthquakes, volcanic IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
eruptions, floods, storms etc. A sudden change in the environment may drastically IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
reduce the size of a population and now this population may be genetically different IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
from the original population, Certain alleles may have more frequency among the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
survivors, others may be less, and some may be absent altogether. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
If a population that has passed through a bottleneck ultimately recovers in size, it may IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
have low levels of genetic variation for a long period of time and this may produce a IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
new species. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(3) Sickle cell anaemia and malaria: Balancing selection IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- Individuals, homozygous for sickle cell anaemia die at an early stage due to anaemia IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and the individuals in which heterozygous condition is present for this character, the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
RBC become sickle shaped. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 In this type of RBC, malarial parasite can’t have a normal growth and individuals IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
become resistant to wards malaria. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 The individuals with heterozygous condition have better chances of survival, hence IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
are selected by nature. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 Thus the process of natural selection maintains the abnormal form of hemoglobin along IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
with the normal form in a region where malaria is common. This type of selection IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
is called Balancing selection. It means the preservation of genetic variability is IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
maintained by the selection of heterozygote which is called balanced polymorphism. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
But this kind of balancing selection is found very rarely in nature. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 121

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Chromosomal Abberations :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Refers to structural alterations in the chromosomes causing changes in gene alterations
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB as Deletion, Duplcation, Translocation and Inversion.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Natural Selection :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Link between changes in the environment and genetic variations of the species attempting
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB to survive and reproduce. Natural selection encourages those genes that assure highest
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB degree of adaptive efficiency between population and its environment.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Industrial Melanism :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Proponent - Kettelewell
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It is one of the best examples for natural selection. Development of dark coloured
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB paper moths in response to air pollution. During industrial revolution in Great Britain.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB During post industrialisation period, the tree trunks which were previously covered by
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB lichens became dark due to industrial smoke and soots. Moth are nocturnal in habit.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB During day time they rest on tree trunks. Under this condition the white-winged moth
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (Biston betularia)did not survive due to predators, dark-winged or melanised moth
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (Biston carbanaria) survived. This showed that in a mixed population, those that can
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
better-adapt, survive and increase in population size Remember that no variant is
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB completely wiped out.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (a) (b)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Figure showinng white - winged moth and dark - winged moth (melanised) on a tree
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB trunk (a) in unpolluted area (b) in polluted area
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Evolution by anthropogenic action :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, etc., has only resulted in selection of resistant
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB varieties in a much lesser time scale. This is also true for microbes against which we
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB employ antibiotics or drugs against eukaryotic organisms/cell. This also tells us that
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB evolution is not a directed process in the sense of determinism. It is a stochastic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB process based on chance events in nature and chance mutation in the organisms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 It is the prevention of inter breeding between the populations of two different or IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
closely related species. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 It maintains the characters of the species but can lead to the origin of new species. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
4 This mechanism of reproductive isolation was explained by Stebbins in his book IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
‘Process of Organic Evolution” IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Two main subtypes of reproductive isolation are- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1. Prezygotic isolation- Prevention of mating and the formation of hybrid zygote. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(i) Ecological isolation: Isolation due to different habitats of two species. For IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
example one may be living in fresh water and other in the sea. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(ii) Temporal isolation: Due to difference in breeding seasons or flowering times oftwo
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
species. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(iii) Behavioral isolation: Due to difference in sexual or coitus behaviour of two IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
species. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(iv) Mechanical isolation: Due to incompatible external genital organs. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(v) Gametic isolation: The sperms and ova of different species can’t fuse due to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
difference in their surface chemicals. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
2. Postzygotic isolation :- A hybrid zygote is formed but it may not develop into a viable IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
fertile adult. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(i) Hybrid inviability: Hybrid zygote fails to develop. In plants, embryos arising IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
from interspecific cross are not viable. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(ii) Hybrid sterility:- Hybrid adults are sterile and do not produce gametes. e.g IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mules and hinny. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(iii) Hybrid breakdown : Sometimes inter specific mating produces a hybrid, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
which give rise to next hybrid by back cross but they have reduced vigour or IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
fertility or both IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Exception: Tigon (African lioness + Asian tiger) and Liger (Male lion + Female IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
tiger) hybrids are fertile but these species do not interbreed naturally. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
SPECIATION- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- Formation of one or more new species from an existing species is called speciation. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Speciations are of two types IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(1) Divergent speciation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(2) Transformation speciation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(1) Divergent speciation: When one or more new species are formed from an ancestor IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
species. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(a) Allopatric Speciation: When a species split into two or more geographically IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
isolated populations and these populations finally form a new species, It is called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
allopatric speciation . IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 123

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (b) Sympatric speciation: In this type of speciation a sub population becomes
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB reproductively isolated from its parental population. It is the formation of species
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB without geographical isolation. eg. mainly present in plants due to polyploidy.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (2) Transformation speciation: When an ancestor species changes into a new species.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (a) Phyletic speciation: Ancestor species changes into new species by gradual changes
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB in thousands of years. e.g Eohippus Mesohippus Merychippus Pliohippus Equus
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (b) Quantum speciation: In this process suddenly major changes appears in ancestor
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB species and ancestor species immediately changed into new species. No connective
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB links are present in this type of speciation. It is caused by major mutation.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB WHAT ARE THE EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION?
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Process of evolution is supported by evidences such as
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Palaeontological evidences
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Comparative anatomy
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Embryology
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Molecular biology
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Palaeontological evidences:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Fossils are remains of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks. Fossils are described as
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB the true witnesses or documents of evolution. Rocks form sediments and a cross-section
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB of earth's crust indicates the arrangement of sediments one over the other during the long
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB history of earth. Some of them appear similar to modern organisms . They represent extinct
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB organisms (e.g. Dinosaurs). A study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB the geological period in which they existed. The study showed that life-forms varied over
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time spans. All this is called
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB paleontological evidence
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Types of Fossils :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Unaltered fossils : Fossils which are preserved in their original or intact form in ice,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB amber etc. e.g. i) Wooly mammoths found frozen in ice (25000 years before extinct
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB fossils were found from Siberian region)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Petrified fossils : Replacement of organic or soft parts of dead organisms by mineral
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB deposits is called petrification. Here only the hard parts like bones, teeth, shells and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB wood etc. get preserved, which are called petrified fossils. These are the most common
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB types of fossils.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Mould fossils : Only an impression of the external structure of body is preserved inb
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB wet soil and no body part is recovered of dead organisms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Cast fossils : Sometimes minerals are filled in the mould, resulting in cast fossils
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Print fossils : Fossilized impressions of foot, wings, leaves, stem etc.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. Coprolites : Preserved faeces or excreta of organisms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Evidences from comparative morphology and anatomy- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- Similarities and differences are found among organisms of today and those that IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
existed years ago. Such similarities can be interpreted to understand whether common IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ancestors were shared or not. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- These similarities are of two types- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(A) Homology (B) Analogy IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(A) Homology:- The organs which have common origin, embryonic development and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
same fundamental structure but perform similar of different functions are called as IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Homologous organs and this phenomenon is called Homology. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Examples of homologous organs: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(i) Forelimbs of mammals- Whales, bats, Cheetah and human (all mammals) share IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
similarities in the pattern of bones of forelimbs though these forelimbs perform different IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
functions. In these animals, forelimbs have similar anatomical structure-all of them IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges in their forelimbs. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(ii) Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita both are modification of axillary bud. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(iii) Vertebrate hearts or brains IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(iv) Mouth parts of insects- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cockroach Heney bee Mosquito IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(Biting & chewing) (Chewing & lapping) (Piercing & Sucking) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
In each of these insects mouth parts comprise labrum, mandible maxilla etc. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(v) Testes in male and ovaries in female IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(vi) Potato and Ginger - both are modified shoot IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(vii) Radish and Carrot- both are modified roots. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(viii) Molecular homology- Homology found at molecular level.For example the plasma IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
proteins found in the blood of man and apes are similar.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- When the same structures develop along different directions due to adaptations to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
different needs, this is called as divergent evolution. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- Homology indicates common ancestry and based on divergent evolution IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(B) Analogy- The organs which have different origin and fundamental structures but IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
perform similar functions are called Analogous organs and this phenomenon is called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
as analogy. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Examples of analogous organs : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(i) Wing of butterfly and birds- They are not anatomically similar structures though they IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
perform similar functions i.e., used for flying. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(ii) Eye of the octopus and of mammals. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(iii) Flippers of Penguins and Dolphins
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(iv) Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(v) Sting of bee and scorpion IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(vi) Chloragogen cells of earthworm and liver of vertebrates IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- When different structures evolve for the same function due to the similar habitat, this IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
is called convergent evolution. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- Analogy doesn’t indicate common ancestry and it is based on convergent evolution where IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
different group of organisms have similar adaptive features due to similar habitat or towards IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the same function, hence analogous structures are a result of convergent evolution.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 125

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Thorn
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Bougainvillea Cucurbita
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS ANALOGOUS ORGANS
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Same basic structural plan and origin but Different structure and origin but same
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB different function function
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It suggests common ancestry It do not suggest common ancestry
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Indicates divergent evolution Indicates convergent evolution
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Thorn of Bougainvillea Thorn of citrus and spine of Opuntia
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Tendril of Cucurbita
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Whales, bats, Cheetah and human (all Eye of the octopus and of mammals or the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB mammals) share similarities in the pattern of flippers of Penguins and Dolphins
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
bones of forelimbs.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Embryological Evidence : Comparative study of embyological development in different
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB sexually reproducing organisms suggests common origin. Begins with single diploid cell
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB zygote. Zygote- Cleavage- Blastulation-Gastrulation-Three germ layers-Organogenesis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Embryoes of different vertebrates look alike. Particularly with reference to gillslits, gill
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB clefts and tail.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Molecular evidence : All organisms show presence of endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB bodies, mitochondria as cell organells. Similarities in proteins and genes performing a
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB given function among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry. All basic catabolic
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB and anabolic process. These biochemical similarities point to the same shared ancestry as
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB structural similarities among diverse organisms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Man made species : Man has bred selected plants and animals for agriculture, horticulture,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB sport or security. Man has domesticated many wild animals and crops. This intensive
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB breeding programme has created breeds that differ from other breeds (e.g., dogs) but still are
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB of the same group.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB It is argued that if within hundreds of years, man could create new breeds, could not
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB nature have done the same over millions of years?
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Geological time scale : The total life span of earth from the time of its origin is called
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB geological time. Crust of earth consists of layers of rocks. Formed by sedimentation or
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
126
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
deposition of materials. Age of rocks is determined by radioactive dating techniques.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Divisions of geological time : Major divisions of geological time are eras. Eras are divided IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
into periods. Periods are divided into epochs. Eras , periods and epochs are arranged on IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the time scale in an order of their age and this arrengement is called geological time scale.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Various eras are Azoic, Archaeozoic, Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Calculation of fossil’s age IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. To find out the correct age of fossils, we determine the age of rocks from which fossils IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
are found. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Rocks contain some radioactive elements that decay and convert into their more IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
stable forms. This radioactive decay takes place at a constant rate for each radioactive
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
element irrespective of the environmental conditions. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. It is already calculated that how long it will take for half the quantity of the element to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
change into its stable form and this time is known as its half-life. After another half-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
life has passed, the element will have decayed to a quarter of its original amount and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
so on. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. For example: half life of carbon-14 is 5730 years, it means in 5730 years, half of the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
C-14 converts into its stable form N-14. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Thus we can calculate the age of rocks by relative proportions of radioactive element IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and non radioactive element in a sample of rock. This method is called radioactive
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
dating. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Evidences form vestigial organs IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. The organs which are present in reduced form and do not perform any function IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
in the body but are functional in related animals are called vestigial organs. They IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
are remnants of organs.which were complete and functional in their ancestors. E.g., IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
nictitating membrane, muscles of pinna (auricular muscles), vermiform appendix IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(Caecum), Coccyx, canine teeth, third molars (wisdom teeth), body hair, nipple in IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
males, segmented muscles of abdomen etc. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Evidences from Atavism (Reversion): IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Sometimes in some individuals such characters suddenly appear which were supposed IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
to be present in their ancestors but were lost during the course of evolution, this IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
phenomenon is known as atavism or reversion. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Atavism proves that animals developing atavistic structures have evolved from such IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ancestors in which these structures were fully developed. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. E.g., tail in new born baby, extra long and pointed canine teeth, functional auricular/ IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
pinna muscles, long and thick body hair, extra nipples in female, cervical fistula IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(pharyngeal gills slits). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 127

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Evidences from connecting links :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Some organisms possess characters of two separate groups called as connecting links,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB which proves members of higher groups have evolved from the lower group.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Some examples of connecting links are:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Connecting Link : Intermidiate or transitional stage between two organisms. Also called
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB missing link.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Seymouria : Lived 350 million years ago. Link between amphibians and reptiles
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Ichthyostegia : Missing link between fish and amphibian
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Archaeopteryx : Connecting link between reptiles and birds. Had long tail like reptiles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Supported internally by caudal vertebrae. Scales on body. Bones were solid.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Euglena - Between plants and animals
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Neopilina - Between Annelida and Mollusca
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Peripatus - Between Annelida and Arthropoda
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Balanoglossus - Between non chordata and chordata
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Chimera - Between cartilaginous and bony fishes
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Protopterus (Lung fish) - Between fishes and amphibian
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Archaeopteryx - Between reptiles and birds
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Platypus and Echidna - Between reptiles and mammals.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Evidences from embryology :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Baer’s law : This was proposed by Von Baer (Father of embryology). He stated that
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB “in embryonic stage general characters appear firstly and specialised characters
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB appear later.”
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. In 1866, Ernst Haeckel explained it in detail and called it ‘Biogenetic law’. It means
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB an organism shows its ancestral adult stages during its embryonic development. In
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB other words embryos of advanced species pass through stages represented by adult
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB organisms of more primitive species.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. It shows that all organisms have common ancestry.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. The tadpole larva of amphibians resembles with fishes. This indicates origin of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB amphibians from fishes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. During the development of heart in higher vertebrates like birds and mammals, it
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB initially exhibits the 2-chambered states same as fishes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Later on, it develops into 3-chambered as in amphibians and reptiles and finally in the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB embryonic stages it becomes 4-chambered as such in the adults. This proves that all
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB vertebrates have evolved from common fish like ancestors and also that both birds and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB mammals have evolved from reptiles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Evidence from physiology and biochemistry
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Different organism show similarities in physiology and biochemistry. Some clear
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB examples are –
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Protoplasm : Structure and chemical composition of protoplasm is same from protozoa IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
to mammalia. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Enzymes : Enzymes perform same function in all animals like Trypsin digest protein IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
from amoeba to man. Amylase digest starch from porifera to mammalia. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Blood : Chordates show almost same composition of blood. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. ATP : This energy rich molecule is formed for biological oxidation in all animals. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Hormones : Secreted in different vertebrates performs same function. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Hereditary material : Hereditary material is DNA is all organism and its basic structure IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
is same in all IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
animals. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. Cytochrome C is a respiration protein situated in the mitochondria of all organism. In IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
this protein from IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
78-88 A.A. are identical in all organism, which show common ancestory. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Evidence from biogeographical distribution: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. The study of geographical distribution of animals and plant species in different parts IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of earth is called as biogeography.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. On the basis of fauna and flora Alfred Russel Wallace divided the whole world into six IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
biogeographical regions called realms. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Nearctic - North America u Neotropical - South America
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Ethiopian - Africa u Palearctic - Europe IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Oriental - Asia u Australian - Australia IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. It is believed that millions of years ago all the continents were present in the form of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
a single land mass called Pangea. Later due to continental drift, these land masses got IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
separated from each other by the seas. As these continents had different climates so IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
plants and animals evolved there were of different varieties.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. In South America, mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit, etc., were IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
present. Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
animals were overridden by North American fauna.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. In prehistoric time Australia was a part of Asian continent. After the evolution of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
prototherians from reptiles Australia got separated from mainland of Asia. Later on IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
eutherian mammals evolved in Asia which were carnivores in nature and they destroyed
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
prototherians and marsupials from Asia but pouched mammals (marsupials) of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Australia survived because of lack of competition from any other mammal. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Today eutherians are also found in Australia, because some of them evolved there and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
some were later transported by man. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Evidence from Biochemistry IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among diverse organisms IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
give clues to common ancestry. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. These biochemical similarities point to the same shared ancestry as structural IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
similarities among diverse organisms. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 129

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Composition and structure of protoplasm, enzymes, hormones, DNA, blood in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB chordates is also almost same. It shows that organisms shared ancestors in recent or
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB distant past.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB ADAPTIVE RADIATION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB from a point and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB adaptive radiation.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Placental Mammals Austrilian marsuplals Tasminian wolf
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Marsupilal
Sugar
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Mole Mole
glider

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Anteater
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Numbat (anteater)

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Marsupial

mole Marsupial
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Mouse Marsupial Mosue radiation Tiger cat
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Lemur
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Spotted cuscus
Banded anteater
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Flying
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Flying squtrrel phalanger Koala AUSTRALIA
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Marsupial
rat
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Bandicoot

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Wolf Tasminian wolf

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Picture showing convergent evolution of Austri- Wombat Kangaroo
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB lian Marsuplals and placental mammals

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Darwin’s finches repres ent one of the best examples of this phenomenon.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. During his journey Darwin went to Galapagos Islands.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. There he observed an amazing diversity of creatures.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin’s Finches amazed him.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. He realised that there were many varieties of finches in the same island.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. All the varieties, he conjectured, evolved on the island itself.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with altered beaks arose,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
enabling them to become insectivorous and vegetarian finches.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. Australian marsupials, a number of marsupials, each different from the other evolved
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB from an ancestral stock, but all within the Australian island continent.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB geogra-phical area (representing different habitats), one can call this convergent
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB evolution.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB varieties of such placental mammals each of which appears to be ‘similar’ to a

130
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
corresponding marsupial, e.g., Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf-marsupial. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
12. When adaptive convergence is found in closely related species, it is called as parallel IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
evolution. Parallel evolution occurs when two independent but similar species evolve IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
in the same direction and thus independently acquire similar characteristics. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Lamarckism : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. A French naturalist Lamarck had said that evolution of life forms had occurred but IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
driven by use and disuse of organs. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. He gave the examples of giraffes who in an attempt to forage leaves on tall trees had IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
to adapt by elongation of their necks. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. As they passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generations, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Giraffes, slowly, over the years, came to acquire long necks. Nobody believes this IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
conjecture any more. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. First logical theory of evolution was proposed by a French naturalist Jean Baptiste de IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Lamarck (1744-1829), author of book Philosophie zoologique (1809). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Other examples of Lamarckism are IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u aquatic birds stretched their toes and developed webbed feet.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u snakes lost their legs to crawl on ground. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Basic concepts of Lamarckism IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Internal vital forces : Due to the presence of some internal vital forces all organisms IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
have the tendency to increase in size of their organs or entire body. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. Effect of environment and new needs: Environ-ment influences all type of organisms. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Changing environment gives rise to new needs. New needs or desires produce new IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
structures (doctrine of desire/ appetency) and change habits of the organism. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. Use and disuse of organs : If an organ is constantly used over generations, it would be IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
better developed whereas disuse of organ results in its degeneration (vestigial organs). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. Inheritance of acquired characters : During the life time of an organism, new IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
characters develop due to internal vital forces, effect of environment, new needs or use IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and disuse of organs. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10. All these acquired characters are inherited from one generation to another. By IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
continuous inheritance through several generations, the variations are accumulated up IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
to such extent that they can give rise to new species. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Criticism of Lamarckism- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Weismann’s Theory of Continuity of Germplasm: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- Weismann cut of the tails of rats for as many as 22 generations and allowed them to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
breed, but tailless or reduced tailed rats were never born. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
- On the basis of this experiment Weismann proposed the theory of continuity of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
germplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 131

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB - According to this theory-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Two types of protoplasms are present in an organism germplasm and somatoplasm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB There is a continuity of germplasm and the variations influencing the germ cells are
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB only inherited but the somatoplasm is not transmitted to the next generation, hence it
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB does not carry variations to next generation.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (1) Boring of ear pinna and nose in Indian women is never inherited to the next generations.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (2) Chinese women used to wear iron shoes in order to have small feet, but they still have
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB normal feet.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. In a given population one can find out the frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB on a locus.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. This frequency is supposed to remain fixed and even remain the same through
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB generations.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Hardy-Weinberg principle says that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB constant from generation to generation.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB called genetic equilibrium.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. Individual frequencies, for example, can be named p, q, etc.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. In a diploid, p and q represent the frequency of allele A and allele a.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. The frequency of AA individuals in a population is simply p2.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. This is simply stated in another ways, i.e., the probability that an allele A with a
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB frequency of p appear on both the chromosomes of a diploid individual is simply the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB product of the probabilities, i.e., p2.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. Similarly of aa is q2, of Aa is 2pq. Hence, p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1. This is a binomial
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB expansion of (p + q)2.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. When frequency measured, differs from expected values, the difference (direction)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB indicates the extent of evolutionary change.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. Disturbance in genetic equilibrium, or Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, i.e., change of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB frequency of alleles in a population would then be interpreted as resulting in evolution.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 13. Five factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. These are gene
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB migration or gene flow, genetic drift, mutation, genetic recombination and natural
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB selection.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. When migration of a section of population to another place and population occurs,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB gene frequencies change in the original as well as in the new population.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 15. New genes/alleles are added to the new population and these are lost from the old
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB population.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 16. There would be a gene flow if this gene migration, happens multiple times.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 17. If the same change occurs by chance, it is called genetic drift.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
18. Sometimes the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of population IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
that they become a different species. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
19. The original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
20. Microbial experiments show that pre-existing advantageous mutations when selected
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
will result in observation of new phenotypes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
21. Over few generations, this would result in speciation. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Natural selection : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Natural selection is a process in which heritable variations enabling better survival IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
are enabled to reproduce and leave greater number of progeny. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. A critical analysis makes us believe that variation due to mutation or variation due to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
recombination during gametogenesis or due to gene flow or genetic drift results in IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
changed frequency of genes and alleles in future generation. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Coupled to enhance reproductive success, natural selection makes it look like different IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
population.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Natural selection can lead to stabilisation (in which more individuals acquire mean IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
character value), directional change (more individuals acquire value other than the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
mean character value) or disruption (more individuals acquire peripheral character IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
value at both ends of the distribution curve). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Types of Natural Selection : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Stabilising selection IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. It favours the average or normal phenotype and eliminates the extreme variants. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. After this natural selections mean value never change. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Peak gets higher and narrower because more individuals acquire mean character IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
value. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Always operates in constant environment. E.g., mortality in human babies : The optimum IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
birth weight favoured by stabilising selection is 7.3 pounds. New born infants less IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
than 5.5 pounds and more than 10 pounds have the highest mortality rate. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Directional/Progressive selection : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. It favours one extreme value and eliminates another extreme value and average value. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. After this natural selection mean value always changes. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Peak shifts in one direction because more individuals acquire value other than the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
mean character value. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Always operates in changing environment. E.g.,Industrial melanism, DDT resistance
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
in pests. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Disruptive selection : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. In this natural selection members of both extreme are selected simultaneously and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
average value get rejected. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. After this natural selection, two peaks are formed because more individuals acquire IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution curve. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. E.g., Shell patterns of limpets (marine molluscs) present a continuous, ranging from IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 133

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB pure white to dark tan. The white or light coloured limpets camouflaged with white
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB barnacles and tanned ones are protected on the tanned coloured rocks. Limpets of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB intermediate shell patterns, being conspicuous are preyed by predatory shore birds,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB resulting in disruptive selection.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Significance of Hardy-Weinberg’s Principle:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. The Hardy-Weinberg’s law is important primarily because it describes the situation in
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB which there is genetic equilibrium and no evolution. Thus :
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u It provides a theoretical baseline for measuring evolutionary change.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u The equilibrium tends to conserve gains which have been made in the past and
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB also to avoid too rapid changes.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Equilibrium maintains heterozygosity in the population.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB u Equilibrium prevents evolutionary progress.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Genetic drift operates in small population.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Genetic drift is due to habitat fragmentation, isolation, natural calamities or any
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB epidemic.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular life forms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed and active.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. The first organisms that invaded land were plants.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB They were widespread on land when animals invaded land.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water. This was
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB about 350 mya.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. In 1938, a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which was thought
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB to be extinct.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. These animals called lobefins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB land and water. There are no specimens of these left with us.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. However, these were ancestors of modern day frogs and salamanders.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB in sun unlike those of amphibians.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. Again we only see their modern day descendents, the turtles, tortoises and crocodiles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 13. In the next 200 millions years or so, reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB on earth.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB slowly.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 15. Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB probably 200 mya (e.g. Ichthyosaurs).
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
134
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
16. The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
17. The biggest of them, i.e., Tyrannosaurus rex was about 20 feet in height and had huge IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
fearsome dagger like teeth. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
18. About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. We do not know IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the true reason. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
19. This may have happened due to climatic changes or because most of them evolved IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
into birds. The truth may live in between. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
20. Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
21. The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
22. Mammals were viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother’s body. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
23. When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
24. There were in South America mammals resemb-ling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit, etc. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
25. Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
were overridden by North American fauna. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
26. Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
lack of competition from any other mammal. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
27. Some mammals live wholly in water. Whales, dolphins, seals and sea cows are some IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
examples. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
28. Evolution of horse, elephant, dog, etc., are special stories of evolution. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
29. The most successful story is the evolution of man with language skills and self- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
consciousness. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 135

NEET NOTES 137

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Progymn- Zosterop-

ancestors
Devonian Silurian
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Trache-

Carboniferous
hyllum

ophyte

Early Reptiles
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

350-300

(extict)
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

osperms

Psilop-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

hyton
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Paleozoic

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Carboni-

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

ferous

Pelycosaurs
Thecodonts
Psilop-

Permian

Sauropsids
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

hyton

Synapsids
ferns
Seed

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

(extinct)

(extinct)
250-200 300-250
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Tracheophyte
Arborescent
Permian

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

ancestors
lycopods

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Tertiary Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Evolutionary history of vertebrates

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Sketch of Evolution of Plants

Triassic

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

sids (ex-
200-150
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Therap-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
2, 3, 4.All from

tinct)
1.Tracheophyte
1.Herbaceous

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Psilophyton
Jurassic

3.Conifers

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

ancestors
lycopods
Mesozoic

4.Cycas

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

2.Ferns

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
1.Dicotyledons

4.Sphenopsids

100

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Cretacious

Psilophyton

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

2.Gnetales
3.Ginkgos

All from

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB (extinct)
Dino-

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

saurs

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

50
1.Monoctyledons

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

2.Chlorophyte
1.Psilophyton

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

2.Bryophytes
Tertiay

Snakes Tuataras

Birds Mammals
Turtels Lizards
Quaternary

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

ancestors

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Coenozoic
Mesozoic

Crocodiles

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Angiosperms
Quaternary

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Origin Psilophyton

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Vertebrates
Periods

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
MYA

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

Plants
found
Era

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
138
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Aus-
Dryo- Ra- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
tralo- Homo Homo Neanderthal Homo IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Man pithe- mapithe-
pithe- habilis erectus man sapiens IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cus cus
cines IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cranial 650-800 900 1400 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Capac- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ity IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mya 15 15 2 1.5 1,00,000- During IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
40,000 years ice age IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ago between IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
75,000- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10,000
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
years ago
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
modern IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Homo IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
sapiens IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
arose IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Charac- Ape- Man-like hunted first hu- probably used hides to Pre-his- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ters like hairy and with man-like ate meat protect their toric cave IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
hairy walked stone being, body art about IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and like go- weapons probably Buried their 18,000 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
walked rillas and but es- did not eat dead years ago. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
like chimpan- sentially meat Agricul- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
gorillas zees ate fruit. ture came IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and around IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
chim- 10,000 IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
panzees years
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
back
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
place Bones East Fossils dis- East and Afri- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
discov- African covered in Central Asia ca and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ered from grass Java moved IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Ethiopia lands 1891 across IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and Tan- continents IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
zania IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were existing. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus was more ape-like. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. These revealed hominid features leading to the belief that about 3-4 mya, man-like IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
primates walked in eastern Africa. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 139

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked up right.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. Evidence shows they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. Some of the bones among the bones discovered were different.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. This creature was called the first human-like being the hominid and was called Homo
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB habilis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. The brain capacities were between 650-800cc. They probably did not eat meat.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the next stage, i.e., Homo erectus about 1.5
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB mya. Homo erectus had a large brain around 900cc.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 13. Homo erectus probably ate meat.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near East and Central Asia
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB between 1,00,000-40,000 years back.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 15. They used hides to protect their body and buried their dead.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 16. Homo sapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed into distinct
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB races.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 17. During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern Homo sapiens arose.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 18. Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago one such cave paintings by Pre-
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB historic humans can be seen at Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Pradesh.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 19. Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB 20. The rest of what happened is part of human history of growth and decline of civilisations.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB FINAL KNOWLEDGE BUILDER
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
140
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
VARIATION MUTATION IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
These are small and can not bring any These are large and instantaneous IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
sudden change IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Changes are brought only when they accu- Changes can be bought within a span of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
mulate over many generations single generations IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They are directional Random and directional IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BEING STATE BOARD IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
u Thomas Huxley (1863) in his book “Mans place in Nature” explained origin of man. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Fossil records proved monkeys, apes and man(Primates) have common ancestry. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Place of Human in animal kingdom IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Order- Primates IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Sub order-Prosimii IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Lemurs, Lorises , Tarsiers IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Sub order- Anthropoidea IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
New world monkeys( Ceboidea), Old world monkeys ( Cercopithecoidea), Apes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(Hominoidea), Man (Hominoidea) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Sub order-Prosimii IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
LEMURS: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Small arboreal, Found in Madagascar, Grasping hands and feet, flat snouts, large eyes, long IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
bushy tails. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
TARSIERS: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Arboreal and nocturnal, Insectivorous primates, Eyes large, Limbs five digits, adhesive IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
pads, most digits with nails. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
NEW WORLD MONKEYS: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Flat nose, separated nostrils, Primitive dentition, 36 teeth, South and central Ameriaca , IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Squirrel monkey, Spider monkey IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
OLD WORLD MONKEY IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Narrow noses, short tails 32 teeth, Tropical Africa and Asia, Baboons, Macaques, Langurs IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Hominoidea IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
APES: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Prognathous face (having an upper or lower jaw that projects abnormally forward) , Slanting IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
forehead, flat nose, Chin absent, Lumbar curve absent, Tail is absent, Fore limbs longer than IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
hind limbs., Semierect and quadrapedal , Cranial capacity is about 400 to 600 c.c. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Human Beings: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Orthognathous face (Having a face without projecting jaw), High forehead, Skull dome IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
shaped, Elevated nose, prominent chin IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Foramen magnum in skull directed down ward, Lumbar curve developed, Pelvic girdle IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 141

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB broad, Complete erect posture, Bipedal locomotion, Forelimbs shorter than hind limbs,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Cranial capacity about 1450 c.c.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Phylogenetic relationship between apes and human beings
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Absence of tail, Larger head, Broad chest, Molar teeth with five cusps, Capable of
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB sound production, Menstrual cycle in females, Highly developed facial musculature for
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
expressions, Similarity in DNA, Haemoblobin and albumin molecules of chimpanzee,
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB gorilla and man.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Stages in Origin of man
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
142
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIBIIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
There are four main stages in the origin of man IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Ape stage , Ape men stage, Primitive men(Prehistoric man), Modern man IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Ape stage: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
30 million years ago, Ancestral ape was Propliopithecus
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Ape- Men stage: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Intermediate between apes and men, Austrelopithecus was connecting link between apes IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and primitive man IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Primitive man:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
First true man, Homo habilis (Handy man) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Homo erectus (Java man and Peking man) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Modern man: All the existing men and also some extinct man. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Cro-Magnon man called as Homo sapiens fossils. The modern man is called Homo sapiens IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
sapiens . IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Age of fossils can be illustrated with the help of four different methods. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Lead method IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Radio-carbon method IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Potassium – Argon method IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Electron spin resonance method (ESR method) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Modern day animals Corresponding ancient fossil IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Man Ramapithecus IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Horse Eohippus IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Dog Leptocyon IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Camel Protylopus IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Elephant Moerither IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Whale Protacetus IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Fish Arandaspis IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Tetrapods Icthyostega IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Bat Archaeonycteris IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Giraffe Palaeotragus IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 143

IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB EVOLUTION
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB Evolutionary stages of Horse:
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
144
NEET NOTES
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
EVOLUTION IIB IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ENJOY THE KNOWLEDGE IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Universe originated about 20 bya. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. India is situated in Oriental realm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Palaearctic and Oriental realms are separated by high Himalayan mountains. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. The aquatic mammals like dolphins, whales, seals and porpoises do not have gills slits, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
because their adaptation to aquatic life is secondary. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Unit of natural selection is an individual. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Unit of evolution is population. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. Genetic drift may accentuate the variations leading to appearance of new species and hence IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
evolution. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. Homology is accounted for the idea of branching descent. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. According to de Vries evolution is a jerky and discontinuous process. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10. The original idea of survival of fittest was proposed by Herbert Spencer. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
11. Camouflage is the phenomenon in which an organism shows resemblance with the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
surroundings (environment) e.g., praying mantis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
12. Old world monkeys are closest to human. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
13. Chimpanzee is closest ape to human. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
14. Gibbon is the only ape that is found in India (forests of Assam). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
15. Homo erectus is the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
16. Cromagnon man is the direct ancestor of modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
17. Study of plant fossils is called Paleobotany. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
18. Study of animal fossils is Paleozoology. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
19. Mainland of human evolution is Africa. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
20. According to theory of pangenesis all organs of an individual produce pangenes, which IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
are minute particles carrying information about the organs. The pangenes travelling IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
through the blood stream will ultimately reach the gametes, so that each gamete will IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
have pangenes for each of the different organs. After zygote formation, the pangenes tend IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
to form the same organs from which these pangenes were produced. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
21. Anthropology is the study of evolutionary history of man. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
22. Ethology is the study of animal habits and behaviour. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
uuuu IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB

NEET NOTES 145

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