MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

1.0 Introduction
Measuring distances along straight lines
1. In topographical surveys, you measure 
distances along straight lines. These lines
either join two fixed points or run in one
direction starting from one fixed point. They
are plotted in the field with pegs, pillars or
ranging poles.

Expressing distances as horizontal measurements

2. You should always measure distances 
as horizontal distances. You may have to
measure on ground which has no slope, or
only a very small slope that is less than or
equal to 5 percent (see Section 4.0). The
distance measured on this type of ground will
be equal to or very close to the horizontal
distance. When the slope of the terrain is
greater than 5 percent, however, you will have   
to find the horizontal distance. To do this, you 
must either correct any measurements you
made along the ground (see Section 4.0) or   
use another method of measurement (see 
following sections). Unlevelled ground also
requires particular methods of measurement.

Measuring distances along lines that run through obstacles

3. Usually, you will be able to reach all the 
points of the straight line you want to
measure. But in some cases an obstacle
such as a lake, a river or a cultivated field
will be in the way, and you will have to
take indirect measurements. This means
that you will calculate horizontal distances
along the original straight line (see Section
2.9).

Chaining with a rope

Choosing the most suitable method

4. There are many good ways to measure distances. The method of measurement you
use will depend on several factors:

 the accuracy of the result needed;

 the equipment you have available, to use;
 the type of terrain you need to measure.

In the following sections, you will learn how to use the various methods of
measurement. Table 1 will also help you to compare these methods and to select the
one best suited to your needs.

      TABLE 1

Distance measurement methods

Error2 per
Section1 Method Distance Remarks Equipment3
100 m2
Medium 1 to 2 m For quick, rough
22* Pace count None
to long or more estimates
Pacing with a
1 to 2 m For quick, rough Passometer or
22* passometer or Long
or more estimates  podometer
podometer
0.05 to Especially useful Ruler (mason's level,
21* Ruler Short
0.10 m for sloping ground plumb line)
Chaining using Medium 0.5 to 1 Liana or rope, string,
23** Cheap
a rope to long m marking line
Chaining using Medium less than Best results with Steel band, measuring
24**
a band or tape to long 0.05 m steel lines tape
Chaining using Medium 0.02 to
25** Stronger quality Surveying chain
a chain to long 0.10 m
For quick and Clisimeter (lyra-)
27*** Clisimeter Medium 1 to 2 m
rough estimates (2 m stadia staff)
For quick and
Medium 0.1 to 0.4 Telescope with stadia
28*** Stadia accurate
to long m hairs, levelling staff
measures
1
 * Simple ** More difficult *** Most difficult.
2
 Error increases as the terrain becomes more difficult (slope, vegetation, obstacles).
3
 In addition to ranging poles (setting out the line), marking pegs (intermediate points), and
notebook/pencil. In italics, equipment you can build yourself, as explained in text.

Calculating perimeter lengths

5. The perimeter of an area is its outer  
boundary. The length of the perimeter of
regular geometrical figures can be
calculated from the mathematical formulas
given in Annex 1, at the end of this manual.

Perimeter WXYZW

AB + BC + CD + DE + EF + FA = Perimeter
ABCDEFA

1.1 How to measure short distances with a ruler

1. To measure short distances, use a measuring stick called a ruler, 4 to 5 m long. You
can make your own by following the steps below. A ruler is particularly useful for
measuring horizontal distances on sloping ground.

Making your own ruler

2. Get a piece of wood which is straight and flat. It should be about 5 cm wide, and a
little more than 4 m long. You can also use a shorter length, if the distance you are
going to measure is shorter.

3. It is best to use a planed piece of wood, but if you cannot get one you may use a
straight wooden pole. If you use a pole, you should plane at least one of its surfaces.

Measuring with a ruler   A planed piece of wood is best...

 ... but you can also plane one side of a pole

4. You should now add graduations to it. Graduations are marks which show exact
measurements, in centimetres, decimetres, metres, etc. To do this, you need to get
two ready-made measuring tapes, such as the 2 m ribbon tapes that tailors use. Glue one
of these measuring tapes onto the planed face of your piece of wood. Take care to align
the zero mark of this tape with one of the ends of the piece of wood. Glue the second
tape next to the end of the first tape; this should reach near the end of the piece of
wood. Drive several small nails through the tapes to secure them better.

5. You can also make the graduations yourself. Using a measuring ruler or tape, mark the
graduations on the piece of wood with a pencil. With a knife or saw, make a straight,
shallow cut every 10 cm. A carpenter, with his tools, can help you to do this more
accurately. Identify the graduations with numbers (for example, every 0.5 m) using paint
or ink; or you can use a piece of hot wire to burn the graduations and their numbers into
the wood.
  

Use glue and nails to secure the tapes

Mark your ruler accurately

Measuring short distances with your ruler

6. When you have to measure a short 
distance on horizontal terrain, mark each
end of the distance with ranging poles.
Place your ruler on the ground with its end
at the first ranging pole, making sure the
ruler follows the straight line. Put a
marking peg at the other end of the ruler.
Then take the ruler and place its first end
at this marking peg. Continue in this way
until you reach near the end of the line,
keeping an accurate count of the number
of ruler lengths. You will usually need to
use only part of the ruler's length to
measure the last part of the line. Take
care then to read the graduations on the
ruler correctly.

    
   

Read the graduations carefully

7. When you need to measure a distance on 

sloping terrain, your ruler will be very useful
for finding horizontal distances. You proceed
downhill, and for each measurement:

 make sure that the ruler is

horizontal, using a mason's level (see
Section 6.1);
 determine the point where you need to
place the marking peg, using a plumb-
line at the end of the ruler (see Section
A mason's level
4.8).

     
  

Note: when you measure a distance on

sloping ground, remember that you should
proceed downhill. A plumb-line

1.2 How to measure distances by pacing

1. You may measure distances roughly by pacing. This means you count the number of
normal steps which will cover the distance between two points along a straight
line. Pacing is particularly useful in reconnaissance surveys, for contouring using the
grid method (see Section 8.3) and for quickly checking chaining measurements (see
Sections 2.3 to 2.5).

2. To be accurate, you should know the average length of your step when you walk
normally. This length is called your normal pace. Always measure your pace from the
toes of the foot behind to the toes of the foot in front.
  

Count your steps as you walk

Finding your own pace factor

3. To measure the average length of your normal pace (the pace factor, or PF):

 take 100 normal steps on horizontal ground, starting with the toes of your back foot from a well-
marked point, A, and walking along a straight line.
 mark the end of your last step with peg B, at the toes of your front foot.
 measure the distance AB (in metres) with, for example, a tape and calculate your pace factor PF
(in metres) as follows:

  PF = AB �100

Walk 100 paces

    
Example  

If for 100 paces, you measure a distance of 76 m,

then your pace factor is calculated like this: PF =
76 m � 100 = 0.76 m.

Mark the distance

Note: to determine a more accurate pace 

factor:

 walk over a longer distance (at least

250 paces);
 repeat the measurements at least
three times and calculate the average
PF.

Example

For 250 paces, you measure successively 185

m, 190 m and 188 m; in total, for 3 x 250 = 750
paces, you have walked 185 + 190 + 188 m =
563 m; your average pace factor, PF = 563 m
� 750 = 0.75 m.

    
4.Your pace factor will vary, depending 
on the type of terrain you are measuring.
Remember that:

 your pace will be shorter in tall

vegetation than in short vegetation;
 your pace will be shorter walking uphill
than walking downhill;
 your pace will be shorter walking on
sloping ground than on flat ground;
 your pace will be shorter walking on
soft ground than on hard ground.

    
To get the best results, you should first 
make your paces as nearly the same
length as possible. To do this, walk
over known distances, both on level
ground and on uneven or sloping ground.
Adjust your pace so that it is as regular as
possible.

Measuring horizontal distances by pacing

5. Clearly plot the straight lines you have 
to measure, using wooden pegs or
ranging poles. If necessary, remove any
high vegetation standing in the way.

6. Walk along the straight lines, carefully Plot the lines you want to measure
counting your steps.

7. Multiply the number of steps N by your

pace factor PF (in metres) to get a rough
estimate of the distance in metres, as
follows:

Distance (m) = N x
PF
    
   

    
Example  

To measure ABCD, pace distances AB = 127

steps; BC = 214 steps; and CD = 83 steps.
ABCD = 127 + 214 + 83 = 424 steps.
If PF = 0.75 m, ABCD = 424 x 0.75 m = 318 m

    
   

    
Note: to avoid errors when counting your 
steps:

 count only double steps or strides,

and multiply the total count by 2;
 take count of the hundreds with your
fingers (using one finger for each
hundred steps);
 take count of the thousands by ticking
them off on paper; Estimate the size of obstacles
 when crossing obstacles such as
fences and small streams, estimate
the number of steps, strides or half-
steps it would take to cross them.

Pacing with a passometer or a pedometer

8. You can register your paces 
mechanically by using a simple device
called a passometer. The passometer is
about the size of a watch. You should
wear it on a point near the centre of your
body, attached to a belt or waistband for
example. At each pace you take, the jolt of
your step makes a pointer in the
passometer turn. This pointer shows the
number of paces. The passometer counts your steps
    
9. The pedometer is a similar device, but it 
registers distance. This is usually
expressed in kilometres and fractions of
kilometres.

10. You should check these two devices

for accuracy before you use them. To
check a passometer, walk a few hundred
paces, counting them carefully. Then The pedometer measures distances
compare your total count of paces with the
number of registered paces, and adjust
the device as necessary. To check a
pedometer, walk at a normal pace along a
straight line over a known distance.
Compare this distance with the registered
distance, and adjust the device as
necessary.

1.3 How to chain with a rope

1. For greater accuracy in measurement, 
especially over difficult terrain, you can
use a measuring line made from rope.
Depending on the distances you need to
measure, you can make a measuring rope
10, 20 or 30 m long.

Making your own measuring rope

2. Get a rope 1 to 1.5 cm thick, made 
of natural fibres. Ropes of man-made fibres,
such as nylon, may change over time, but
natural materials, such as jute, will shrink or
stretch very little. A piece of used sisal rope is
better to use than a new one. You can also
use a piece of supple liana, which you can
easily find in the forest.
Choose the right size rope
3. Put the first mark- the zero mark- about 20
cm from one end of the rope. From this point,
accurately measure the length you need one
metre at a time. Leave about 20 cm at the
other end of the rope. Mark each metre point
with durable waterproof paint, dye, ink or
coloured wax. Keep these metre marks as thin
as possible to avoid inaccurate
measurements. You can use thin string for the
marks instead, threading the string through the
rope so that it does not shift position.

4. Reinforce the two ends of your measuring

rope. To do this, tightly wind some light string
around the last 10 cm of each end of the rope.
    
  

Reinforce the ends with string

Make each mark easy to read

Measuring horizontal distances with a rope

5. Clearly plot the straight lines you want 
to measure, using wooden pegs, for
example. On either side of each of these
lines, clear a narrow strip of ground
completely, removing vegetation and large
stones.

6. If the distances are shorter than your

rope, or about the same length, you can Clear the ground where you are working
take their measurements directly. To do
this, carefully stretch the rope from one
peg to the next. If a distance fails between
the metre marks on your rope, measure
this shorter length with a ruler or a tape
graduated in centimetres.
    
7. If the distances are longer than your 
rope, you will need to use one of the
chaining methods described later (see
Section 2.6). These methods can be used
with all measuring lines, including ropes,
bands, tapes or chains.

Stretch the rope straight

    
   

Measure the difference with a ruler

1.4 How to chain with bands or tapes

1. You can buy bands and tapes in 
stores. A measuring band is made of a
strip of steel, usually 6 mm wide and 30 or
50 m long. Metres, decimetres and
centimetres are clearly marked on the
band. Bands are wound onto an open
frame, with a spindle and handle for
rewinding. A measuring band
    
2. Measuring tapes are made of steel, 
metallic cloth or fibreglass material. They
come in lengths of 10 to 30 m or more.
They are usually marked at 1 m intervals,
with the first and last metres graduated in
decimetres and centimetres. They are
wound into a case, with a handle for
rewinding. Tapes can present some
problems. Steel tapes can easily become
twisted and break. Cloth tapes are less
A measuring tape
precise than the others, since they often
vary slightly in length.
    
   

Measuring horizontal distances with a steel band or a tape

3. Plot the straight lines you need to measure. If the lines are the same length as your
measuring band or tape or shorter, you can measure the distances directly. To do this,
stretch the band or tape from one peg to the next one.
4. If the lines are longer than your band or tape, use one of the methods described
later (see Section 2.6).

Note: you should pull bands and tapes tight, so that they do not sag, especially when
you are measuring long distances. But, you should avoid over-stretching them
(especially fibreglass tapes), since this could lead to errors.

Keep the band or tape straight and tight

Read the measurement at the peg

1.5 How to chain with a surveyor's chain

1. Surveyor's chains are also sold in 
stores. They are made of a series of steel
links; each link is the same length, usually
20 cm. The links are attached to each
other by steel rings. The length of one
link includes its straight portion, its two
rounded ends, and the two half-rings that
connect it to the links on either side. Each
metre of the chain is usually marked by
a brass ring. At each end of the chain,
there is a metal handle which you should
include in the measurements. The total
length of the chain is usually 10 or 20 m.
Chains are less accurate than bands and
tapes, but they are much stronger. Measuring with a surveyor's chain
    
   

    
2. When you use a surveyor's chain, you 
should be careful of the following:

 make sure that the rounded end of

one length does not remain on top of
the one next to it. This can make the
chain shorter. At the start of each
survey, check for this by sliding the
entire length of the chain through your
hand and straightening all the links;
 avoid leaving the chain in the sun
since the heat may cause the chain to
become longer;
 pull the chain tight enough for
accurate measurement.
Make sure the links are straight

Measure the length of each link with a ruler

Check the length of the chain

3. When using a chain for the first time, you  Example

should carefully measure the length of each
link, using a ruler. Remember that this length If each link is 0.20 m long, there should be five
includes the straight part and its two rounded links per metre of chain.
ends, as well as the two connecting half-
rings. At each end of the chain, the handle,
one shorter link, and half the connecting ring
make up the length of a link. After measuring
the length of the links, check that 1 m of chain
equals the expected number of links.

4. You should always fold the surveyor's chain as follows:

 take the two handles together in your left    collect two links at a time with your right
hand, doubling the chain; hand, putting them slantwise.
  

Take both handles in your left hand

Collect the links two at a time

    
5. To unfold a surveyor's chain, hold the two  
handles in your left hand and throw the chain
in the direction of the measurement you want
to make.

Throw the chain in the direction of the

measurement

Measuring horizontal distances with a chain

6. The chain is used for measuring the lengths of straight lines, which should be marked
at each end with a ranging pole. You will need an assistant to help you. The method of
chaining you use depends on the type of terrain you are measuring (see Section 2.6).

When you measure with a chain,

you will need an assistant
 Hold the chain tight against the marker

1.6 How to measure distances by chaining

1. As you have learned, measuring lines can be ropes, bands, tapes or surveyor's
chains. When you measure long distances, the way you use the measuring line will
depend on the slope of the terrain. When the terrain is flat or nearly flat (that is, with a
slope of 5 percent or less - see Section 4.0), you can measure the horizontal distances
by following the ground surface. This method is usually used in measuring fish culture
sites, where steeper slopes must be avoided. When the slope of the terrain is
steeper than 5 percent, you should be especially careful when you measure the
horizontal distances because in this case the surface measurement is always greater
than the horizontal measurement.

On flat ground, measure directly

... the surface measurement is longer

The horizontal distance is the true

measurement...

Chaining over horizontal ground

2. Mark each straight line you need to 
measure with a ranging pole at each end.
On lines longer than 50 m, place
intermediate markers at regular intervals,

3. To measure long distances accurately,

you will need marking pins. You can use
thin wooden stakes about 25 cm long,
which you can easily carry in a small
basket. These marking pins will be driven
vertically into the ground as you proceed
with the chaining.
    
   

    
4. Chaining is carried out by two persons,  
a rear chainman and a head
chainman. The rear chainman is
responsible for the measurements. He
notes the results. He also guides the head
chainman to make sure that the
consecutive measurements are made
exactly along straight lines between the
marked ground points.
    
5. Start the measurements at one end of  
the straight line. Remove the ranging pole
and drive the first marking pin into the
ground at exactly the same point.

6. The rear chainman places his end of

the measuring line against this marking
pin. The head chainman, taking with him a
The rear chainman stays at the first point...
number of marking pins, walks away along
the straight line with the other end of the
measuring line.
    
7. The head chainman stops when the 
measuring line is stretched out tightly to its
full length on the ground. He then looks
towards the rear chainman. If the
measuring line is not placed exactly along
the straight line, the rear chainman then
tells the head chainman how to correct the
position of the measuring line.
... and helps the head chainman find the second
point
8. When the measuring line is correctly  
placed, the rear chainman signals to the
head chainman to place a second marking
pin at the end of the measuring line.

9. The rear chainman immediately notes

down this measurement.
When the second pin is placed...
10. The rear chainman then removes the
first marking pin, putting it in his basket,
and replaces the ranging pole at the
starting point.
    
 

... the rear chainman notes the

measurement
... and puts the first pin in his basket...
    
11. Still holding their ends of the 
measuring line, both chainmen move
forward along the straight line, always
keeping the measuring line well
stretched. This is particularly important
when using a surveyor's chain.

12. The rear chainman stops at the second Both chainman move forward...

marking pin and places his end of the
measuring line against it.

13. The head chainman tightens the

measuring line along the ground, corrects
its position following any directions from
the rear chainman, and places a third
marking pin at the end of the measuring
line when signalled to do so.
    
   

... to measure the distance between

the second and third pins
    
14. The rear chainman notes down this 
measurement. Then he puts the second
marking pin in his basket before moving
on.

15. The process in steps 10 to 14 should

be repeated along each section of the The head chainman notes each distance
straight line until the end is reached.

Note 1: when the end of the line is 

reached, the number of marking pins in the
basket of the rear chainman shows the
number of complete measuring-line lengths
measured. You can use this to check on
the measurements noted down.

    
Note 2: using a set of 11 marking  
pins makes it easier to keep track of the
number of measurements completed.
When the rear chainman has ten pins in
his basket, ten complete measuring-line
lengths have been measured. He notes The number of pins in the basket helps
this down and gives the ten pins back to you keep count
the head chainman, leaving the eleventh
pin in the ground; this is the starting point
of a new series of measurements.
    
   

10 chain lengths have been measured

    
Example  

Using a chain 10 m long, the rear chainman

has marked 4 x 10 pins in his notebook. He
has 6 marking pins in his basket. At the
marking pin still in the ground, he has
measured a distance of (4 x 10) + 6 = 46 chain
lengths or 46 x 10 m = 460 m.

Chaining over sloping ground

16. When you are measuring on 
ground with a slope greater than 5
percent (see Section 4.0), you will need to
use the measuring line differently to find
the horizontal distances.

17. Proceed as described in the previous

section. Mark the straight lines with
ranging poles at each end and
intermediate pegs. Remember to work
downhill for greater accuracy.

18. The head chainman should hold the

measuring line horizontal, above the
ground, in this case.
    
19. When the measuring line is in the right 
place and is fully stretched, the head
chainman finds the exact point on which to
place the marking pin, using a plumb-
line (see Section 4.8).

20. Keep proceeding in this way along the

slope.

Note: on steep slopes, use a shorter

measuring line (such as 5 m, rather than
10 m).

21. As you measure on sloping ground, remember these important requirements:

 horizontal measuring line;    well-stretched measuring line;

Well-stretched measuring line

Horizontal measuring line
    
 exact placement of the marking pins.   
  Note: you may also measure along the
ground on a slope. But to obtain horizontal
distances, you will need to correct these
ground measurements afterwards by
using mathematical formulas .

Exact placement of the marking pins

Chaining over irregular ground

22. You may need to measure distances 
over irregular ground that has ridges,
mounds, rocks, trenches or streams in the
way. In such cases, you need to lift the
measuring line above the obstacle. Make
sure that you do the following:

 keep the measuring line well

stretched. The head chainman may
shorten it by looping it in his hand if
necessary;

    
   

    
 keep the line horizontal, using a 
mason's level for the best accuracy
(see Section 6.1);
 lift the back end of the measuring
line exactly above the marking
pin, using a plumb-fine if
necessary (see Section 4.8).
23. Instead of using a plumb-line, you can 
use longer marking pins, such as ranging
poles, set vertically in the ground.

 
Ranging poles are taller than marking pegs
    
24. In very hard or rocky soils, you will not  Painted rock or block
be able to use marking pins. In such
cases, mark t he points with objects you
can see easily, such as painted rocks or
blocks of wood. Make sure that your
markers will not blow or roll away. Or, you
can make a mark on the ground with a
stick, or make a mark on a rock with
chalk.

Improving the accuracy of your chaining

25. To make your chaining more accurate, 
you should repeat the measurements at
least once; start measuring at the point
where you finished, and continue back
along the line. This second measurement
should not differ too much from the first
one (see Chart below). Measure twice for accuracy

26. If the two measurements agree, you

can calculate their average value. The
average value is taken as the true
measured distance.
    
   

    
   Maximum permissible difference between two
consecutive
distance measurements, per 100 m

Steel band or tape 0.1 m

Other tape 0.2 m
            AB + BA = Average Surveyor's chain 0.2 m
 2
Home-made rope 1.0 m

Example  

Using a surveyor's chain, you take the

following measurements:

 first measurement: 312.6 m;

 second measurement: 313.2 m; First measurement
 real difference: 313.2 m - 312.6 m =
0.6 m;
 acceptable difference: 0.2 m x (312.6
m � 100)
= 0.2 m x 3.12 m = 0.62 m
which is larger than the real difference
and therefore agrees;
 average distance: (312.6 m + 313.2 m)
� 2 = 312.9 m

    
   

Second measurement
    
   

27. If the two measurements differ by too 

much, you should take a third
measurement. Compare this with the first
two measurements. Then calculate the
average value from the two most similar
 
values, as shown above. First measurement
    
Example  

Chaining with a steel tape, you take the

following measurements:

 first measurement: 754.4 m; Second measurement

 second measurement: 753.2 m;   
 real difference: 754.4 m - 753.2 m =  
1.2 m;
 acceptable difference: 0.1 m x 7.54 m
= 0.75 m, which is smaller than the
real difference and therefore does not
agree;
Third measurement
 third measurement: 753.9 m;
 difference 754.4 - 753.9 m = 0.5 m
which is acceptable, being smaller
than 0.75 m;
 average distance: (754.4 m + 753.9
m) � 2 = 754.15 m.

28. If you find you have very different  

measurements of the same line, you may not
have been measuring along the true straight
line. To reduce such errors, put more ranging
poles on the line between the endpoints. If you
tie white or brightly coloured pieces of cloth to
the poles, you will be able to see them better.
Also, be sure to guide the head chainman
carefully as you measure. A crooked line gives the wrong measurement
    
 

More ranging poles increase your accuracy

Flags make sighting easier

    
29. Further improve the accuracy of your 
measurements by:

 inspecting the full length of the measuring

line before using it to measure a series of
straight lines;
 keeping a uniform tension on the
Check your line before use
measuring line during each measurement;
 accurately marking each point of
measurement;
 keeping an accurate count of these points;
 using the right device, such as a ruler, to
measure distances less than the
measuring-line length, and knowing how
to read the graduations on it (see Section
2.1).

Note: it is better if the head chainman holds  

the zero end of the measuring line. The rear
chainman can then directly make and note
down any intermediate readings.

Always stretch it tight

    
 

Mark and count points accurately

1.7 How to measure distances with a clisimeter

1. The lyra clisimeter is a simple 
instrument which can be used for
measuring distances. It is also used for
measuring ground slope (see Section 4.5).
The clisimeter is not as accurate as a
measuring line, but you can get a quick A folded clisimeter
estimate of distances from it without
having to walk the length of the line. The
longer the distance you measure with it,
however, the less accurate the
measurement will be. For good
estimates, do not exceed 30 m distances.
For rough estimates, you may measure
distances up to 150 m.
    
2. The lyra clisimeter consists of a sighting 
device, a hanging ring, and a bottom
weight to keep the instrument in a stable
vertical position. The clisimeter folds into
this weight so that it can be easily carried.

Sighting with a clisimeter

    
3. When you look through the sighting   The scale inside a clisimeter
device, you will see three vertical scales. A
scale is a series of marks along a line at
regular intervals. You will use the central
scale, the stadimetric scale, for measuring
horizontal distances. Note that this central
scale is made up of two parts:

 The top part, marked 150, 100 ... 7 m;

 The bottom part, marked 150, 100 ...
10 m.

4. To measure a distance with the

clisimeter, you need an assistant to help
you, and a reference height (called
the base). The method you use with the
clisimeter will depend on the kind
of base you choose.

 You may use a 2 m base, clearly

marked on a wooden stake called
a stadia staff. In this case, you will
use the top part of the distance scale,
marked BASE 2.00 m.
 Or you may take the height of your
assistant as the base; in this case,
you will use the bottom part of the
distance scale, marked BASE 1.70 m.

Making your own stadia staff

5. Get a straight piece of wood 2.50 m 
long. A rectangular stake with a cross-
section of 8 x 4 cm is best, but you can
use a round pole with a cross-section of 6
to 8 cm instead.

6. Get two wooden boards measuring 30 x

40 cm each.
Materials
7. Nail these boards along their centre
lines 10 cm from each end of the stake, as
shown in the figure.
    
8. Draw a horizontal line across the middle 
of one of these boards. This is called
the median line.

9. From this line, measure exactly 2 m

along the stake. You should reach a point
near the middle of the second board. At
this point draw a horizontal line across the
board.

10. Using a pencil and ruler, divide the

length of the stake between the two
boards, which should be 1.70 m, into 10
cm sections.

11. Paint the two sections of the boards

lying outside the 2 m length in bright
red. Then paint, in red, the first 10 cm
section next to each board and each
alternate section in between.

12. Paint all the other sections of the

boards and stake in white, including the 10
cm end sections of the stake. Your stadia
staff is now ready to use for measuring
distances.

Note: for short distances, you can use

a simpler staff; get a pole or staff exactly 2
m long and paint it alternately in red and
white, as described above.

Measuring distances with a stadia staff

13. Send your assistant, carrying the 
stadia staff, out to the first point along the
line you want to measure. There he places
the staff as nearly vertical as possible and
the painted side of the staff should face
you.

14. Holding the clisimeter in one hand,

look through its sighting device at the
stadia staff. Align the zero line of the
central scale with the median line of the
bottom board.

15. Look at the top part of the central scale

(BASE 2.00 m) of your clisimeter, and read
the distance in metres at the graduation
which lines up with the median line of the
top board.

16. Carefully note this reading in a field-

book.

17. Signal to your assistant to remove the

stadia staff and replace it with a marking
pin. He should then move on to the next
point to be measured.

18. Move up to the marking pin left by your

assistant, and repeat the procedure until
you reach the end of the line.
Sighting at the stadia staff using the upper scale
Note: remember that for fairly accurate
measurements, each distance you
measure along the straight line should not
exceed 30 m

Measuring distances without a stadia staff

19. If you do not have a stadia staff, you can  
use the height of your assistant as a
reference instead. The height you need for
this method is 1.70 m. Measure your
assistant's height. If this differs much from
1.70 m, do one of the following:

 if your assistant is taller than 1.70 m,

measure the height of his eyes or mouth
from the ground and choose the height
nearest 1.70 m;
 if your assistant is shorter than 1.70 m,
ask him to place an object on his head
(such as a can, a bottle or a block of
wood) which will increase his height up-to
1.70 m.

Find a reference point 1.70 m high

    
20. Send your assistant out along the line 
you want to measure and, at the selected
point, ask him to stand as straight as
possible, facing you.

21. Holding the clisimeter in one hand, look

through the sighting device at your assistant.
Align the zero line of the central scale with
the 1.70 m mark you have chosen, such as
the top of his head, his eyes or the top of a
bottle carried on his head.

22. Look at the bottom part of the central

scale (BASE 1.70 m), and read the distance
in metres at the graduation which lines up
with the ground level under his feet.

23. Carefully note this reading in your field-

book.

24. Signal to your assistant to drive a

marking pin into the ground at the point Sighting at your assistant using the lower scale
where he was standing, and to move onto
the next point to be measured.
25. Move up to the marking pin and repeat
the procedure as many times as necessary.
For the greatest accuracy, each distance you
measure along the line should not exceed 30
m.

Measuring distances on sloping ground

26. If you are taking a measurement on a slope greater than 5 percent, you must correct
the clisimeter reading to get the true horizontal distance. To do this, you need to use a
mathematical formula, as explained in Section 4.0.

1.8 How to measure distances by the stadia method

The stadia method is rapid and accurate 
for measuring long distances, but to apply
this method, you need to get expensive
surveying equipment and learn how to use
it. Therefore, only a brief description of the
method is given here so that you can
understand its basic principles. Sighting at a levelling staff with the telescope
  
1. The equipment used with this method 
includes a highly technical sighting device
called a telescope. To use it, you must
sight through two crossed hairs; there are
also two extra horizontal hairs
called stadia hairs. Most surveyor's
levels (see Section 5.8) have these stadia
hairs at an equal distance above and
below the horizontal cross-hair.

2. To measure a distance, you will also

need a levelling staff which is clearly
graduated in centimetres (see Section The scale inside a surveyor's telescope
5.0).   
  Example
3. Set up the surveyor's level at the point
from which you will measure the distance.  Upper stadia hair reading: 1.62 m;
Signal to your assistant to place the  Lower stadia hair reading: 0.52 m;
levelling staff vertically at the next point of  Stadia interval = 1.62 m - 0.52 m = 1.10 m;
the line. The distance between you and  Stadia factor = 100;
the staff may be several hundred metres.  Distance AB = 1.10 m x 100 = 110 m.

4. Look through the telescope and read

the graduations (in metres) on the levelling
staff that line up with the upper stadia
hair and the lower stadia hair. Note these
measurements down in your field-book.
5. Subtract the smaller reading from the
larger reading. This represents the interval
between the two hairs, called the stadia
interval.

6. To find the distance (in metres), multiply

the stadia interval by a fixed value called
the stadia factor. It is given for each
telescope, but on most instruments this
factor equals 100.

Note: if you are working on sloping

ground, you must correct this figure to find
the true horizontal distance (see Section
4.0).

1.9 How to measure distances that run through obstacles

1. To use the preceding methods, you 
must be able to walkover the whole length
of each straight line and take direct
measurements. Sometimes, however,
there is an obstacle on the line that makes Line XY crosses a lake
measuring the distance directly  
impossible. Such a line could be across a 
body of water such as a lake, a lagoon or
a river, or across agricultural fields with
standing crops. In these cases, you must
take indirect measurements of a segment
of the line. You will use some of the
methods you learned in Section 1.6 for
setting out a line across an obstacle. Set out line AZ
  
Measuring a distance across a lake  
or an agricultural field

2. From point A on the line XY running

through the obstacle, set out another
straight line AZ, avoiding the obstacle.
Lay out perpendicular CB
3. On this new line, layout a perpendicular  
line CB joining the original line at point B 
behind the obstacle (see Section 3.6).

4. Measure the two new line sections AC

and CB and calculate the unknown
distance AB from a mathematical formula
as follows:
 AB = �(AC2 + BC2)

Measuring a distance across a river

5. Here, the obstacle (a river) cannot be 
avoided, but you can see the points you
need to measure from both sides of the
river. There are several methods, based on
geometry, which can be used. Two simple
ones are described here.
GH crosses a river
6. Method 1. You need to measure distance  
GH across a river. Using ranging poles,  
prolong line GH back to point C. At G and C,
lay out perpendiculars GZ and CX. On each
of these lines, set out a point, E and F, so
that they lie on a straight line FY passing
through H, on the opposite bank. Measure
accessible distances GE, GC and CF.
Calculate the inaccessible distance GH as: You can see point H from point G

GH = (GE x GC) �(CF

- GE)
    
 

Prolong the line back to point C Lay out perpendiculars GZ and CX

    
 

Find points E and F on line FEHY Calculate distance GH

    
Example   
You wish to measure GH, across a river:

 prolong line GH back to C;

 lay out perpendiculars GZ and CX;
 select points F and E on line FEH;
 measure distances GE = 34 m; GC = 36
m; CF = 54 m;
 calculate GH = (34 m x 36 m) � (54 m -
34 m);
GH = 1 224 m � 20 m = 61.2 m.

7. Method 2. You need to measure distance 

AB across a river. Layout line BX
perpendicular to AB on one river bank.
Determine the point C of this perpendicular
from which you will be able to sight point A
across the river, using a 45-degree angle (see,
for example, Section 3.6, step 63). Measure Line AB crosses a river
distance CB, which is equal to inaccessible   
distance AB.  

Lay out perpendicular BX

     
  Example

You need to measure distance AB:

 from B, lay out perpendicular BX;

 determine C, so that angle BCA = 45
degrees;
 measure BC = 67 m;
Layout 45� angle BCA  distance AB = BC = 67 m.

Calculate distance AB