10

aerational Amplifiers
10.1 Operationa Amplifiers 10.3 Feedback
Parameters ofPractical Op-Amps
10.2

NTRODUCTION

he nreceding chapter, we saw how the coupling and bypass capacitors determine
then
he lower cutoff frequency of an amplitier. If such capacitors can be eliminated,
m amplifier's frequency
response can go down to dc (zero frequency). Because its
frequency response cannot go all the way down to de, an amplifier that employs couplingg
capacitors is known as an ac amplifier. In contrast to this, if coupling is accomplished
drectly without the use of capacitors, we say that the amplifier is directly coupled
and refer to it as a direct-coupled (dc) amplifier. Note that the two ways in which
the term "dc" is used are, in essence, synonymous. Provided that a dc (direct-coupled)
amplifier has no bypass capacitors, its frequency response will go down to dc (zero
frequency). The elimination of coupling and bypass capacitors from amplifier design
has an extremely important consequence-amplifiers can be more easily fabricated on
IC chips. As a result, amplifiers-in particular, operational amplifers-can be made small
n size and economical in price.
The differential amplifier is a direct-coupled device that is typically the input stage
0 an operational amplifier (op amp.) Because it requires no capacitors tor coupling
can be produced small
ages, the op amp lends itself nicely to IC fabrication. It for numerous linear
S7e and high in reliability. Operational amplifiers are useful and
nonlinear applications as well. They are versatile predictable-
ns,and
they are the basic analog IC.
to
euack can be produced in a cireuit or system by returning portion ofthe output
a

will modity the performance

d input. Because the incorporation of feedback generally
and cha
S i c s of a circuit, feedback principles are quite useful in electronic circuit
 530 Electronics Operational Amplifiers 531
discuss the properties
ional amplifier, and
of ideal operational me
By Ohm's law
we will
design. In this chapter, ampliier operation.
be used to improve
how negative feedback
can
=
R
0 Ry,= R +R)v
10.1 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERSS -RV (10.2)

is a direct coupled high gain ifier usually

amplifer
An operational amplifier (op-amp)
Ra
differential ampliher. Perhaps the most R2
analog IC is the
consisting of one operational
or more amplifñer (op amp). The circuit symbol a ant
op

marked with a minus sign (u.\

amp is shown in Fig.
10.1a. The input
is the nonint
noninverting
OA
marked with a plus sign (v2)
inverting input, and the one labeled v, Although voltages v, v, and
input. The single-ended output is '2
measured with respect to the reference
so indicated, often the reference
shown, and, therefore, is implicit. The simplified model of an op amp is hown i
are
4 v

is the input resIstance, and R, 1s the output resistano

Fig. 10.1b, where Ais the gain, R and R, =0 Q.
ance.
For an ideal operational amplifer, A =o, Ri =o,
The relationship between the output and the inputs is given by (a) b)
circuit, and (b) explicit form of the circuit
vA-V) (10.1) 10.2 (a)
ldeal-amplifier

Fig
But due to the ampliñer, v, =A(V2-Vi)=-Avj, so

(10.3)
and substituting into Eq. 10.2, we get

Vj O-

oVo Rin -
Ro
-oVo Ra-(+R)-R, -4+R,)+
Thus,
V20 I)A (-vi) -Ra's (10.4)
Vo
V20- R+(1/A)(R +R)
Drill Exercise 10.1
For the ideal-amplifier circuit given in Fig. 10.2, suppose that R, = 1 k2, R, = 10 k2,
(a)
(b)
each
Fig. 10.1 (a) Operational-amplifier circuit A=100,000, and v, =1 V. (a) Find v,V, i, and i, (6) Find the power absorbed by
symbol, and (b) operational-amplifier model. resistor, the independent voltage source, and the ideal amplifier (i.e., the dependent
voltage source).
Example 10.1
ANSWER (a)- 10.0 V, 0.10 mV, 1.0 mA, - 1.0 mA;
Let us find
v, for the ideal
amplifier circuit shown in
this circuit is shown in Fig. 10.2a. The explicit 1om o 10.0 mW, 1.0 mW, -
10.0 mW
Fig. 10.26. (b) 1.0 mW, -

In the circuit
given in Fig. 10.2, the
noninverting input is at the reference polenh that the gain Abecomes
Circuit such as that in Fig. 10.2, let us consider the
case
Tnat15, VOV. Furthermore, since node v, and node v, are constrained DIrarily large. When A^o, from Eq. 10.4 we have that
sources Dy ve
(independent and dependent,
Currents only at node
v respectively), in using nodal anay e sum
(the inverting input). Since the (10.5)
current, by KCL, amplifier inpui n0

iti=0 infinite, for a finite input voltage v

th atalthough the gain ofthe amplifier is that # 0). Inspection of Eq. 10.3
indio vOltage v, is finite (provided, of course, R
then v=-V,A0.
n y the output voltage remains finite-as A > o,
532 Electronics the input oltage to the Operational Amplifiers 533
resistor
connecied betwoen the
ultput and he
ou
Since mplifier in ) V, «r
This result occurs
because there
is a

is called
negative
feedback. terminals
must be at the same
obtain
cntial, theri v,
Vy, ofd
eauivaletly, since both input
negative input.
Such a
connection
we must hava. st
cquatiOn,
We
mitstituting this fact ininto the
because of the
infinile
gain propcriy,
the umnlia.cdbnck
bctwcen
In anop-amp circuit, dircctly
source
voltage
resistor and must not
connect a

in Fig. 10.2,
the corresponding op-ump cuit iis usually
circuit
For the circuit given 0 v, and summing the
teminals.
Using the fact
10.3.
that V,
" from which

drawn as shown in Fig.

we gel
the inverting input (node v,),
(10.6)
R R K+R2-1
circuit is
and the gain of the overall V2 (10%)
R (10.7) hiu is overall gain of this
Circuit, which is called a
and
noninverting amplifser.
te that if R,=02, then v, Under the circumstance,
V

R R, is wuperfuous anud may

This circuit is called an inverting amplifier. navCed. The resulting op-amp circuit shown in Fig 104h is knorwn as a votage
R follower
Such a configuration is used to isolate or buffe one circuit from anxher.

R
Drill Exercise 10.2
w
For the noninverting amplfier givenin Fig 10.4a, suppose that R, -1 ka, R, =9ka
and v, 1 V. (a) Find v, y, and i2. (b) Find the power absorbed by each resisun, the
0V
independent voltage source, and the op amp.

ANSWER (a) 10 V, 1 mA, -

I mA; (b} I mW, 9 mW, O W, -
10 mW

Fig. 10.3 Op-amp circuit-an inverting amplifier. circuits can be quite useful in some situations in which there
Notice how simple the analysis of the op-amp circuit in Fig. 10.3 is when we use Ooerational-amplifier
the fact that v, = 0 V. Although this result was originally deduced from Eq. 10.4, the than a single input.
is more
combination of infinite gain and feedback constrains the voltage applicd to the op-amp Example 10.3
(between terminals v, and v,) to be 0V. In other words, we must have that v, = V2.
in terms of the input voltages v, and v, for
Let us dectermine the output voltage v,
Example 10.2 the op-amp circuit shown in Fig.
10.5. Since v =0 V, then v, =0 V. By KCL, at the

Consider the op-amp circuit with feedback in Fig. 10.4a. Again, the inputs ofte inverting input,
amplifier draw no current, and so in applying KCL at node vj, we have
from which we get
=0 R
R R
w
R
V V2

Fig 10.5 Op-amp adder.

(a) Noninvering ampifier (b) Voitage follower
 534 Electronics
R, Combining Eqs 10.10 and 10.11
Operational Amplifiers 535
4 - R
+,) results in
RV+Rv.= Rav,
is the sum orthe input voltages v, and v.(
Since the output v, called an
Since
theo
-Rz/R), this euit
circuit is Callea
adder (or summer).
A comm
are for example, mon
multiplied by the ce
Since theoutput is the difterence of the inputs
(10.12)

"audio mixer," where, for exar the are inputs applicatic

voltageson ofcAnsan
circuit is called a ddifference (multiplied by the constant R,/R), such
circuit is as an
to two separate microphones
and the output voltage is their.
sum. Jtages attribsuchuad i
a
amplifer or differential
amplifier.
Drill Exercise 10.4
Drill Exercise 10.3 or the difference amplifier shown in Fig. 10.6,
For the op-amp adder shown in Fig. 10.5, suppose that R =1 ko . 2 cos 20007Tt V, and suppose that R, =
1 k2, R2=9 kl2,
v,= 0.3
and R=10 ka
0.2 2000rtt V, and v,
=
0.3 cos 4000Tt V. Find vo i i2,
a cos
4000tt V. Find v. v, i, iz, iz, and i4
-
cos
i. ANSWER 1.8 cos 2000Tt + 2.7 cos
4000tt V, 0.27
4000Tte V, cos
ANSWER 2cos 2000-3 cos
40007t V, -0.2 cos 2000tnmA, -
0.2 cos 2000tt-0.27 4000mt mA, 0.03 cos
cos
0.3 cos 4000ntmA, -0.2 cos 2000tt + 0.3 cos 4000TI mA. -0.2 cos 2000Tt 0.27 cos 4000Tt
- 4000Tt mA,
mA, 0.03 cos 4000tt mA

Example 10.4
operational ampliñer, the gain and the input resistance are large, but
al
For a Amore practical model of an actual op amp is to have resistace R, (called a
Let us find the output voltage v, of the op-amp circuit with two inni not inn esistance of the op amp) connected series with the dependent voltage
in

Fig. 10.6. inputs is shown in the ouatassuming that an op amp 1s ideal often yields simple analysis with very a
Using the fact that v = V a v , by KCL at the inverting input source.

accurate r e s u l t s .

An actual operational ampliier can be described by the block diagram shown in Fig
RR 7 The first stage of an op amp 1s a dilterential amplifier. Since the input resistance

fa simple differential ampliier isnot necessarily high modified versions of the basic
from which
derential amplifier are used, or FETs are used in place of BJTs. Typically, what results
RV+ Rav=(R, + R)v
icaninput resistance of 1 MQ or more. Following the first stage is a high-gain amplifier
Applying KCL at the noninverting input, we get (10.10) thtsupplies additional gain. The overall gain of an op amp is typically 100,000 (100
dB) or more. After the high-gain amplifier comes a buffer, which is usually an emitter
R follower, and a level shifter. The level shifter is used so that the output voltage is zero
when the input is zero. The last stage of the op amp, the driver, is a large-signal (power)
R
amplifier with a low output resistance-typically 100 2. The driver supplies the output
R
' current and voltage.

Vio Buffer
2 Differential High-gain and
Driver
amplifier amplifier level
20 shifter

Fig. 10.7 Block diagram of an operational amplifier.

ne most popular operational amplifier and the industry standard is the 741 op amp
shown in Fig. 10.8. This analog (also called linear) IC, which is produced by a number
Fig. 10.6 Difference amplifier.
and is available in different types of packages, is 24
from which
ofmanufacturers comprised of
s , l resistors, and 1 capacitor. Power is supplied to device by supply
this voltages
the range of
R,= (R+R)v (10.1) Cc and-VEE: Typically, Vcc= VEE= 15 V. With such supply voltages, 741 1s short
put voltage v, is -10 vSV, or wider. Also the output ofa op amp
connected to
therotected. That is, if the output is accidentally "grounded" (i.e.,
current is limited to 25 mA, and
C e ) , then the resulting short-circuit output
536 Electronics
Typical parameters for
the 741 op amp are
gain A
the device will notbe destroyed. resistance R, 75 M.
= Suppose that v, is the
age at
Operational Amplifiers 537
input resistance R 2 M2, and output is ideal, then terminal
0,000,
=

op amp v, v, Since j, where j=

Also, due to feedback, v, the inputs of an
1,2.3,.. Assuming that the
V, (ideai)
y, and
by KCL at terminal op
2.
amp draw no
curfe
100,000 1000
+15 V
V19iv,
(C
kS2
W
Q18
- -15 V
Q19 2
non inverting
invertine input 40k2 Outpa 100 kQ

input e2 I k3
- Qn
op-amp circuit.
10.9 Practical
Fig. 14
30 pF
24 We can get a more accurate result by not
20 which requires a much
assurming that the opamp is ideal. Doing this,
+Vcc +Vcc greater analysis effort (see Drill Exercise
39 k 10.5). yields
v=100.95v,
which is not significantly different from the
14 the same when rounded otf to three
simpie approach taken above, and is even
significiant digits.

K 15 Q16

50 k2
Q17 Drill Exercise 10.5
For the circuit
2
given in Fig. 10.9, suppose that the ampliñer has
M2, output resistance R,= 75 Q (which is connected in sernesinput
resistance R =

with the dependent

1002 source Av), and gain A 200,000.. Use nodal
=

analysis to get an accurate value for the

output voltage vg
offset
offset -VEE ANSWER 100.95v,
null
null
Fig. 10.8 The 741 op amp. In addition to gain, input resistance, and
output resistance, op amps have other
important parameters. We now discuss some of these, citing typical vahues for the 741
Example 10.5 op amp.
Shown in Fig. 109 is a
circuit, terminal (pin) 2 ispractical amplifier that uses the popular 741 op amp. For 10.2 PARAMETERS OF PRACTICAL OP-AMPS
terminal 6 is the
the inverting
input, terminal 3 is the noninverting lhis
it and
output.
pin 7 has a constant Furthermore, pin 4 has a constant voltage of-15 Vinput,and Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
has a gain of A voltage of+ 15 V applieu
200,000, and input resistanceapplied to it. The 741
=

op amp typrcauy When both inputs of a ditferential amplifer have the same input vy =V2= om Called a
of R,=75 Q. of R 2 M2, and an =

oulput resisa o-node input, the output is v,= A(-v)= Avm- V=OV.Thisproperty
These constant
voltages supply power to the actual terential amplitier is of great practical importance. Because of environmental
analyzed. components forming the op amp and
are
ignored wlhen the op-in nological factors, quite often a desired signal is subject to interference. Such
CSTgnals, referred to as noise, often appear inthe common mode.
538 Electronics
perfectly syinmetrical, Cona. erational Amplifiers 539
In actual practice, a
differential amplifier is not
is applied, the
output will
cquently,
the smaller the
be nonzero-the
ter
t h e
can be made zero."
Fora
7 a , a d e

Vis
Cot & 141 op amp, the input offset
o u l p u lv o l t

called
The value
the input offset
the gain Acu for a comm voltage
amp.

a c o m m o n - m o d e input
when differential-input signal
to
node the
op
a nonzero
amp
with
output offset voltage can is typically 1.0 mV.
ratio (CMRR) of the amplifo op et
The ratio ofthe gain 4, for a eof an
be modeled
By
detinilnon, a n

ffs yoltage and a dc voltage source

V, (which can be by
c o m m o n - m o d e rejection efinition,
an
the
called
nput is
shown in Fig. 10.10a. Note that in the
with
a

positive
circuít
CMRR 4p (10.13)
amp

two terminals (pins) labeled

there are
e two
"offset
díagram of the 741 op
p p ( F i g1
. 0.8)

0 V. This is
= = nul." These can be used
14cu 0V
V, V2
when
done
1s cxpressed in decihele. ag is tapped) as shown in g a potentiometer
so the larger the CMRR the better.
Nomally, the CMRR an

resistor that
adjustable resistor

orshort)-typically io kM-is
Fig. t10.106. The
adjusted so that v,=0V when v,=potentiometer
v=0V.
CMRRJB 20 log10
AcM (10.14) r"pot"

The CMRR of an op-amp typically ranges between

80 and 100 dB. oVo offset offset
null
Example 10.6 10-kQ pot null

The two outputs of a differential ampliher measure 8 mV rms

op amp with -
a common-mode input of 1
10
V m s is applied. When a differential
and m rms zero offset

ms is applied to the amplifier, the resulting differential output is s uput o f,

determine the CMRR of this differential amplifier. mV ms. Lal -VEE

The differential output for the common-mode input of1 Vis 10 mv
Thus the common-mode gain has absolute value (a)
=2m Model
Mode
of an op amp with nonzero ofset, and (b) ofiset-nul adijustment

1Acu 2x102x10* Fig.

10.10

Since the
(a)
stage of an op amp is a diferential amplifier, an op amp's iputs are
ases of
of two
two BJ
BJTs. For an op amp to function properly, the input BJTs
Furthermore, the absolute value of the differential gain is the bases
vpically "

sed. Thus, there must be a dc path between each base and the
ypcabe
appropriately
biased.
4pl=5x10-3 must
reference (ground). call
Reca that an ac source acts as a short circuit to dc.) Consequently,
75
Ix10-3 eral.there are input (base) bias currents, albeit small currents, in the rwo input
in genera
Thus
pITs The average value of these currents, when the output is zero due to an applied
CMRR-44 37,500 i s called the input bias current of the op amp. For a 741 op amp, the input bias
ACM AcM 2x10 arent is typically 80 nA. the
The absolute value of the difference berween
offset current, and for 741
two input
thethis current
and
hias currents is known
as input a op amp
nA.
CMRRaB 20 logio(37,500) = 91.5 dB is typically 20

Slew Rate
Drill Exercise 10.6 of the output voltage
The slew rate of an op amp is the maximum rate of change
The two input terminals of an of
when the input is a large-signal step voltage. It is expressed in volts per microseconds
op-amp are connected to voltage signals of
745uV and 740uV respectively. The gain of the strengh (Vlus).
and its CMRR is 80 dB. Calculate the op-amp in differential mode is 5x 10
output voltage. SR d v/us
ANSWER 2.500037125 dt max

change in response to
Offset Voltages and Currents rapidly the output of an op-amp
Slew rate indicates how
can

This is one of the important factors in selecting op-amp

Ifboth input terminals of an op amp are changes in the input frequency. the
frequency. For a 741 op-amp,
0 V. However, since an grounded, then v, =v, 0 V, and ideally, v,
actual op amp is not
=
Tor ac applications, particularly at relatively high
slew rate is typically 0.5 v/us which is very low.
the output
voltage, in general, will be perfectly symmetrical (or balanced),
voltage of the op amp. By applying an nonzero. This is known as the output offset
appropriate voltage Vo, to the input of the op
 Operational Amplifiers 541
540 Electronics cha
0.5 } . In
other words, a
of 20 R2
is typically
the slew rate
typically
would
require 20V 0.5
require

For 741 op amp. due

a
to an
ideal step input
the output voltage
n
Vius=40 us.
Example 10.7
invertingamplifier (sce Fig.10.3)o a non i
()
for an
Ifthe input voltage

(see
10.4) is set
Fig.
to zero,
what results is

oftset
lts is the op-amp
op-amp ocireuit
voltage for this circuit
show mverinlinFigag AVo
Let us
determine the output
R2 10Ah
R

Ri
R

to determine the emect of the dc base curents.

used
Circuit
0.12
Fig10.12

op amp with
op amp with 2
zero offset
non-zero offset

(a)

Fig.10.11 (a) Op-amp circuit with zero input, and (6)

circuit used to determine the effect of the innu
npu ofset volage.
V2

First let us find output voltage v, that is the result ot the op amp's input
voltage V offset
As indicated in Fig. 10.10, let us model the nonideal opane
Fig 10.11a by an ideal op amp and a voltage source Vas as shown in Fig. 10.1.1
alternative model is given in Problem 10.26 at the end of this chapter) Ignorine reduced the effects of the input bias curents.
the Addition of Ra
have that ia. 10.13
effect of the base currents, by KCL, we ig 0A
Case 1. iBI # 0A and ig =

Therefore, the
=0A. so i, ig.
=

then v, 0V. Thus i v/R =

Since v2-Rziz2=0 V,
resulting output voltage v Ri, Rzig1
=
is =

Solving this equation for v, and using the fact that y = Va We get
#0A
Case 2. ip1 0A ign
=
and the output
Thus we have that
then i v/R =-Rzig/R. =

(10.15) Since
v -R3iz2= V1,
R voltage v,2 IS

Next let us determine the effect of the input bias currents iggo1 and ig ag *yRs +y- -Ra:-1R/a
on the output voltage v To do this, we will model the op amp given in Fig. 10.11 as R the input bias
currents is
due to
shown in Fig. 10.12. Since, in essence, v = 0 V, there is no current through R,. Ths two cases, the output voltage
Combining the
means that the current through R, is igj and (10.16)
Y'otYo=Rzis1 - + R i
V,Raie in value, v, can
be made small by making
This output voltage, however, can be reduced by connecting a resistor g t0 n typically close
Since
i and ig are
(10.17)
noninverling input as shown in Fig. 10.13. We procecd by using the principie
superposition.
R
 542 Electronics
that
we casily
determine
Operational Amplifiers 543
rom this cquation,

RR - R, |R
input Output
RR,+ R elfects of the input hbias
V

Amplifier
In other words.
to
minimize the
then from Eq.
currents on
sclect R, =RR If wedo so.
10.17, the the ouu
wtma
voltage is
'n)=R),
Rz'81Rzip: =R;00p1
where is the input
curent
ofset of the op amp. yOutput input
in series with
if a resistor R, 1S placed ne voltage
Notc that ceven Thus, from Eq. 10.15 Fecdback network

10.1source
valid.
Fig. 10.11. Eq.
10.15 will still be and Eq.
voltage v that
results from both
the input offset voltage and
8, the
offset currenm o Series-paralle. feedback amplifier.

(when R; is used) 14
uit shown in Fig. 10.14 is an
op amp is of t shou.
circuit
example of a leedback
feedback amplífiers take.amplifer.
overall

four basic forms that and

The ofthe
+R illustrates
one

ut of
the ack network is connected in series
feedback
In
particular.
with the amplifier
ce the
the
of the 1feedback network is connected in
and 1, cach be positive or negative, the worst-case
case the input paraliel with the amplifer
Since
has an absolute value of
can
output offscl nd of series-parallel feedback (also called
voltage-series
volag . then this tvpe of feedback offers the most benefits for
hck.n voltage-amplifcation
chall see), the other forms of feedback will be relegated to the
pplications (as
(see Problems 10.36 through 10.44) at the end of this chapter.
(10.19
section

roblem of a series-parallel feedback amplifier is shown in Fig. 10.15. The

Anexample

isanan ideal op amp and the feedback network is a

lifer
portion voltage-divider
Drill Exercise 10.7 consisting o f resistors R and R2. The voltage that is being amplifñed by the op
For the circuit given in Fig. 10.13, the op amp has an input offset volt
Ccicuit

is v
V Since the feedback voltage v,is subtracted from the overal input
and input bias currents of 100 nA and 200 nA. Determine R tage of I my smp
this is an example
of negative feedback.
he worse-case voltage Vn ofthe (overall) feedback amplifier, we use the fact that
the gain Ap v/vn
=

1 kQ2, and R, 10 k2.

output offset voltage when R,
=
=
ind
deal o0 amp, v, = Vin- V=0V, or vn V Since the inputs of an ideal op amp
ANSWER 909 2, 12 mV foran.
curTent, then by voltage division we have
draw no

10.3 FEEDBACK
Vo
When a portion of the output of a circuit or system is returned to the input, the result is
known as feedback. The consequences of feedback are both useful and important. In
this section, we study some of them.

Series-Parallel Feedback R2
Let us begin by considering the situation
depicted in Fig. 10.14. Shown is an amplifier
that produces an output voltage v, across a load
R. The output voltage is also applied to
the input of some feedback network
(circuit), and the output voltage v,of the feedback
network is returned to the input portion of the
amplifier. If the amplifier's voltage gain R
is vv A, then the
=

voltage gain v,/v, of the overall circuit, in general, will be some

value other than Awhat it is
depends upon the feedback network.
feedback amplifier
Fig. 10.15 Example of a series-parallel
544 Electronics

R+R (1020)
from which

R (10.21)
of
routine application nodal analvsie
result is obtained by a
(Ofcourse, the same
which we define as B v./
B of the feedback network,
=

Note that the gain , by

voltage division,

B= R (10.22)
RtR Ap
in0V

-RoF

R2

R Rop

Fig. 10.16 Circuit for determining the output resistance.

Since the op amp shown in Fig. 10.15 is ideal, the

current. Therefore, the feedback
noninverting input draws no
amplifier (of which the op amp is part) also draws
no current and, hence, the feedback
amplifier also has an infinite input resistance. The
output resistance Rar of the feedback amplifier given in Fig. 10.15 can be determined
from the circuit shown in
Fig. 10.l6. For an ideal op amp, v,= vin =0 V. Thus, i
v/R= 0 A, and since the inverting input of the op amp draws no current, theni, =l
=0A. Consequently, v,
=RitRzi2=0V and, hence, RVji, =0Q. Therefore, 1or
this example, the feedback network has not altered the
input and output resistances.
Nonideal Op Amp
Now suppose that the op
amp shown in Fig. 10.15 is not ideal in
value A. Let us still assume that its that its gain is a hinite
input resistance is R, oo, and its output
R, =0 2
=

(see
Fig. 10.1l). Since v,= Bv, resistauo
feedback network, then where B R,/(R,+R,) is the gain or
v, A(Vinv)= Avin-Av= AVm -ABv,
 Operatlonal Amplfiers 545

the given leedback mmplifler is

(10.23)

lus of4, Ne ave te appnonimation

(10.24)

endent
AYmmes ndepei ot the op-ammP guin. In the limit as A-, this
which is ly. 10.21, as it should be.

Example 10.8
With the use of q. 10.23, we may now demonstrate how negative feedhack produces
a more stable amplitier gain.
l'or the fecedbuck amplifier given in Fig. 10.15, let 4
200.000, R, , R , 0 2 R I k&2, and R, 100k2. We then have that
T000
0.0099
RtR, 1000 +100,000

From Bq. 10.23, the overal gain ofthe foodback amplificr is

200,000 100.959
A
+(0.0099)(200,000)
Now suppose that, bccause of a change temperature, the amplifier gain increases
in
10 per cent to A 220,000. The result of this will be that the feedback amplifier gain
A changes to

200,000
A 100.964
"1+(0.0099)220,000)
of the feedback amplifier. The
which is an inerease of only 0.005 per cent in the gain
is a reduction of voltage gain from
price that we pay for this more stable operation
where nmore gain is necded, further
around 200,000 to about 100. Thus in applications
slages of amplification would be required.

Drill Exercise 10.8

For the feedback amplifiergiven in lFig. 10.15, supposethat the op amp has R, o,
0 92, and A1 100,000. The gain of this fecdback amplifier is to be A =
200.
R
when R, = 50 kl2.
(a) Determine R, when RT kS2 (6) Determine R,
ANSWER (a) 199 2, (b) 251 L2
 546 Electronics Resistar

Output
and
Efectetof Feedback n lInput
Is investigate wohat fthe
hapyens to the input resistance R ofithe feedback
cplacing the
pli
is finite, R fier
the op amp
Nent. let us inves resistance R,, ot is
given in Fig. 10.15 when the
input thal ils
oulput
ce
resistance
R, = * We
still
assunning However, sino
op amp with itsmodel (but Ky " i .
definilion,

Fig. 10.17. By
shown in
inuit
then
n R (10.25)
into Eq. 10.25.
10.25 yields
have that V/A. Substituting this
From the fact that = h,, we

Ri A (10.26)

Av

R2

R
Fig. 10.17 Circuit for determining the input resistance of the feedback amplifier
For the (typical) case that R> Ri, from
Eq. 10.23, we have the approximate formula
yA1 +AB). Substituting this into Eq. 10.26 results in
R (1 +AB)R
(10.27)
Thus we see that the input resistance Rip of the feedback
input resistance R, of the op amp and the factor (1
amplifier is the product of the
+AB). This,
negative feedback can be used to increase the input resistance oftherefore,
shows how
Now let us consider the
an
amplifier.
output resistance R, of the op amp in Fig. 10.15, and see
how it affects the
output resistacne Rar of the feedback
we replace the
op amp with its model and set the
amplifier. To determine R,F
circuit is shown in Fig. 10.18, where input voltage to zero. The resulting
a typical situation. Ro=v,Ji,
Let
Then, by voltage division, we the
us assume that
R >> R, which is
get approximation
R v.= Bv
R,+R
 Operational Amplifiers 547

A V,*Av,V-v
, R R R
R
y. R /(R +R,)V,_ AB
R2 R
R+R
R R+R

Ro
W
RT
o R

R2 12
WW

10.18 Circuit for determining the output resistance of the feedback amplifier.

oher words, Rr is equal to the parallel combination of R/(1 +AB) and R, +R.
hat 1S,

R (R, +R,AB (10.28)

, ypicaly,R +R >> R/(1 + AB). Whereas negative feedback caused the input
Ssance of an op amp to be multiplied by the factor (1 + AB), we now see that it
ass the
output resistance to be divided by that same factor
Example 10.9
the feedback amplifier given in Fig. 10.15, suppose that the op amp has A
For
200,000, R,,=2 MO, and R,=75 Q. WhenR, = 1 k2 and R, = 100 k2, then R>
=

R, and
1000
B= R = 0.0099
R +R 1000+100,000
From Eq. 10.27, the input resistance of the feedback amplifier is
 548 Electronics 10s_.
Operational Amplifiers 549
x
3960M 1
R (1 +ABR,
=

[| + (200,000)(0.0099)](2

resistance
cdback aamplificr
ofthe feedback is A Ap
while from Eq. 10.28, the output
75 = 0.038 Q
14 AB 1+ AB)yo 1+
OHF
RoF Rg
AB 1+(200,000)(0.0099)
A B is the
1 + AB)
+ dback-amplifier
gain for low and middle
ApA(I

ain), gain),
(1 +ABXo s the
aand HF= frequencies
upper cutoffi frequency
Drill Exercise 10.9
where dc
ier. T
feedbackamplifier.
the Therefore,
h as was indicated in Eq. for the
caled
in 10.23, when placed in the
ppose that-
given in kig. 10.15, suppose that the shown Fig. 10.15, the de gain A of the
op amp is divided
For the feedback amplifier 50 kO
op amp Kowever, the upper cuto frequency oy (and, hence, by
100 S2, R, = I kS2, and R2
=

100,000, R,n 1 M2, R,

=
=

Determine hasAp, RiA f a c t o r1 +AB

ltiplied by the factor ItAB. Thus the use of anm

the bandwidth)
op amp as part of a
and RoF amplifier drastically can increase an amplifier's bandwidth.
1960 M2, 0.051
2
ANSWER 51, kedback

feedback are considered in Problems 10 3 Product

other forms of
in-Bandwidth

As mentioned earlier,
10.44 at the end of this chapter. gain-bandwid
product f ofan op amp is just the product of its dc gain A and
through frequency (bandwidt S# given in given in hertz. That is,
Theuppercutof.

Frequency Response
to this point, we have assumed that S=Al (1031)
discussion of operational amplifiers prior values otA 200,000
andfr=1 MHz, we obtain
=

741 op amp typical

In our In actuality, the gain 141
constant A for all frequencies. Usingthe
a nonideal op amp's gain is some of frequencies. Since it is a de
a limited range 1x10
constant only over
A of an op amp is
of an op amp is zero. As frequency increases, the
=
5 Hz 2 10m=31.4rad/s
amplifer, the lower cutoff frequency However, the upper cut
2x10
transistors become more signiticant. part of the feedback amplifier shown inFig.10.15, where R,=
internal capacitances of added capacitance. an p amp
is
can be determined by
an appropriately If such
off frequency of an op amp 100 ks2, then
circuit diagram given
=

shown in the 741 op-amp k2and R2

(An example is the 30-pF capacitance an op-amp frequency
1000
in Fig. 10.8). Furthermore,
such a capacitance can produce R = 0.0099

to a sinple low-pass
filter (e-g, see Fig. 5.8). BR+R 1000+100,000
response that is essentially equivalent
amp, the gain, referred to as the (bandwidth) is
Specifically, for such an internally compensatedus denote this function by A. Then A
op
upper cutoff frequency
Let and the resulting
is a function of frequency.
open-loop gain, (1+AB)0=[1 +(200,000)%0.0099)(10m)
has the form HF
=6.22 x 10* rad/s
(10.29)
A
1+jo/0 Or

where O is the upper cutoff frequency. HE = 9,9x 10 9.9 kHz

Now suppose that the op amp in the feedback amplifier
shown in Fig. 10.15 has JHF 21T
feedback gain
an open-loop gain in the form of Eq. 10.29. Thus, from Eq. 10.23, the gain Ap of the and R, we can change the value of the
By changing the values of R, +AB).Although
feedback amplifier is also a function of frequency, which is given by feedback-amplifier dc gainA=A/(1
B=R/R+ Rz), and hence, the (bandwidth) o4F
upper cutoff frequency
this means that the feedback-amplifier
ofthe gain andbandwidth
A
the product
+ ABy, will change,
L1+ jo/0H (10.30) (tAB)O 21f4r= 21(1
A +ABeA B
of the feedback amplifier is
(10.32)
"|1+ jo/o4S A
1+ABy Afu Sr
AsH4AB
AbHE
of the feedback
ampifier is constant and
is

where B- R/R +
R). Simplifying Eq. 10.30, we get Other
ucqual words, the gain-bandwidth product
the op amnp
to the gain-bandwidth product of
Ap
(1+ AB)+j(1+AB)|1+j
(1+ AB)0H
550 Electronics

PROB
LEMS
SOLVED
ADDITIONAL

Find ont the Thévenin equivalent of the op

10.1
SP 10.1. V0 V
amp cirrit (with no load) shown in Pig. R
R
and the Thévenin cquivale
Fig. SP 10.1(a) is the ofthe
Fig. SP 10.1(b). (ideal) voltag op-Sourceamp dare
R
10.2 Find out
the tput voltage
Vnc the input voltage v for the v,n te
Fig. SP 10.2a. op-amp circut h

2F
-tVR
Fig. SP 10.1 Thévenin's theorem applied to an op-
amp circuit. Vc V=0 V
Solution: We have already seen (Eq. 10.6) that Vo

R (a)
To find the output resistance Ro. we set v, to zero and
take the ratio R, = v,i, as depicted in Fig. SP10.1(a).
'()=-dvt)

By KCL dt

- 0
i0
R R2
2 R2

OV
(b)
Fig. SP 10.2 (a) Differentiator circuit, and (b) its
output voltage.
Solution: Because the inverting input is ata
of 0 V, then vc=v. Thus potesti

Fig. SP 10.1(a) Determination of output resistance. i= c=2d

dt dt
a Since the inputs of an op-amp draw no cuent, i
and

Henr
Fig. SP 10.1(b) Thévenin-equivalent circuit.
Finally, by KVL we have that v, =-
VR.

from which dv
dt
 tmut voltage v,)is the derivative Operational Amplifiers 551
) (multiplied by the constant -1). Solutlon: Voltage
a circuit a differentiator. gain with feedback
A
om
he output voltage , in terms of
t h e

the op-amp cireuit shown in

AF AB
i n a

t
1000
333.33
.

When open 1+1000 x0.002

loop gain is reduced by 15%, then
A
2 =(1-0.15) x1000 850
Voltage gain with feedback is
NY-0V
1+ A'B

850
= 314.8

Integrator
circuit, 1+850x0.002
GP 10.3 Percentage change in overall gain will be
Sincev, =0 V then i =2v. Since the input

ArAp 100
Won:

als ofthe
op amp
draw no current, hen
ic=i =
AF
Mus

333.33-314.8 100
eed-52»0)a = 5.6%
333.33

10.6 Show that the circuit shown in Fig. SP 10.6 is

K1L - V c Hence
a
non-inverting integrator with

RC
R
the output voltageis the integral of the input voltage -
muliplied by the constant-1). For this reason such a R
rouit is known as an integrator. This type of circuit M-
extremely useful because it is the backbone of the
R
malog computer.
104 The CMRR of a differential amplifier is
dB. If its gain in differential mode is 1200 then R
alculate its gain in common mode.
Solution: -i

Ap
CMRRaB 20 10810A
Aem Fig. SP 10.6
1200
55 20 loS10 Solution: Using the concept of virtual ground at
Acm
node A andB
Am2.13
W. A
negative feedback of B 0.002 is applied
=

mplifier of gain 1000. Caleulate the change in

0-VAA-V,)
R R
voltage at node A Val
=

all gain of the feedback amplifier if the internal

hber is
subjected to a gain reduction of 15% or V)= 2V, or V,= )
2
552 Electronics

V,] nC) Rc Operational Amplifiers 553

[voltage at node B
=

dt
Also n -ti Or the op-amp circuit shown in
(a) v, and
R (b) the resistance Fig. P10.1, find
hn
vi,
R R R 4

As 52
W
3Q
0- v1)+ +R, 2
2

20
2 F gP10.3
nD ccircuit
i r c u i t shown in Fig. P104 is
0p-aimp

1ne
a s a ative-impedance converter. For this
negative-

SUMMARY 10.4
nd(b)
(b) the resistance vji
known
find (a) V,
and
Fig. P10.7
fabricated 5. An op amp typicaly has a differential R
Direct-coupled (dc) amplifiers are easily circuit,
1.
on IC chips. single-ended output. erential input and 10.8 For the
and (b) the
op-amp circuit in Fig. P10.8, find (a)
V
2. Differential amplifiers are dc amplifiers that are 6. The industry standard is the 741 op a resistance vi,
amn
typically the first stages in operational amplifiers (op 7. Negative feedback can be used t
amps). amplifier stability. It also can be
3. Differential amplifiers and, hence, op amps, have
used
voltage ampifier's input and output che aprove 20
the ability to reject common-mode signals cost is a reduction of gain.
(noise). .The W W
This ability is expressed in terms of the common-mode 8. The
gain-bandwidth
is a constant.
product of afeedback R
rejection ratio (CMRR).
4. An ideal operational amplifier has infinite gain,
amplifier
amr

) 52
infinite input resistance, and zero output resistance.

PROBLEMS
R
10.1 For the circuit shown in Fig. P10.1, find v, when
the ideal amplifier (a) is an op Fig. P10.8
amp, and (6) has finite Fig. P10.4
gain A.
10.9 For the op-ump circuit shown in Fig. P10.9, find
0.5 For the op-amp circuit shown in Fig. P10.5, find
the resistance vji,. Vo
(a) , and (5)
32
W
19 29

Fig. P10.2 49 R
Fig. P10.1
10.3 For the op-amp circuit shown in
Fig. P10.3, find
10.2 For the op-amp circuit
shown in Fig. P10.2, find (a) o, and (6) i
(a) v, and (b) i, R
Fig. P10.5
For the op-amp circuit shown in Fig. P10.5,
0.6
mlerchange the 1-2 and 2-Q resistors, and nna (a) o
Fig. P10.9
and (b) the
resistance vi