Nip Mop Booklet 2

NATIONAL IMMUNIZATION PROGRAM
MANUAL OF OPERATIONS
BOOKLET 2
CHAPTER 2
Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs)
CHAPTER 3
Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance
Cover Photo from DOH Central Office
Chapter 2
VACCINE-PREVENTABLE
DISEASES
CHAPTER 2
Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs)
A. Rationale
Chapter 2 will familiarize you with the characteristics of each vaccine preventable
disease (VPD) in terms of transmission, occurrence and incidence in order to appreciate
the preventive role of immunization. VPD-related information will serve as your handle
when advising clients regarding VPDs and in educating your local officials and other
stakeholders on the importance of vaccination against said diseases.Fifteen (15) VPDs will
be explained below for your reference.
B. Objectives
Chapter 2 lists and describes the common VPDs in the country. After reading this Chapter,
it is hoped that we will be able to:
1. Define and describe each VPD in terms of transmission, occurrence, population at risk
and incidence; and
2. Describe the appropriate immunization and key strategic prevention, control as well
as elimination or eradiction approaches against each of the VPDs.
C. Scope and Coverage

Chapter 2 lists the following VPDs and the vaccines in use to prevent them. Each VPD is
described according to its manifestation, transmission, population at risk, and how each
can be treated, controlled, prevented or eliminated.
• Tuberculosis (TB) • Measles

• Hepatitis B • Mumps
• Poliomyelitis • Rubella and Congenital Rubella Syndrome
• Diphtheria • Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
• Pertussis (whooping cough) • Influenza
• Tetanus • Rotavirus
• Haemophilus Influenza B Disease • Japanese Encephalitis
• Pneumococcal Diseases
Chapter 2 | Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs) 39

D. Common Vaccine – Preventable Diseases
in the Philippines
TABLE 1.
Common VPDs in the Philippines
Disease Agent Reservoir Spread Duration of Risk factors for

Immunity Induced Infection
by Infection
Tuberculosis Bacterium Humans Airborne droplets Not known. Crowding
(Mycobacterium Reactivation Immunodeficiency
tuberculosis) of old infection Malnutrition In
commonly causes adults, alcoholism,
disease diabetes, and HIV
Hepatitis B Virus Humans Mother to newborn, If infection Infected mother
child to child, blood, resolves, lifelong Unsafe injections
sexual. In developing immunity; Unsafe blood
countries, transfusions;
transmission at birth multiple sexual
or early childhood is partners
dominant.
Polio Poliomyelitis Humans Fecal-oral Lifelong type- Poor
virus - serotypes specific immunity environmental
1, 2, 3 hygiene
Diphtheria Toxin-producing Humans Close respiratory Usually lifelong Crowding
bacterium contact or contact
(Corynebacterium with infectious
diphtheriae) material
Pertussis Bacterium Humans Close respiratory No concrete Crowding
(Bordetella contact evidence
pertussis)
Tetanus Toxin-producing Soil Spores enter the None Exposure to animal
bacterium Animal body through feces; infections
(Clostridium intestines wounds with rusty metals
tetani) Untreated wounds
Maternal- Toxin-producing Infected Infection through None Inadequately
Neonatal bacterium mother the umbilical cord trained birth
Tetanus (Clostridium of newborns attendants;
tetani) Lack of supplies
for clean and safe
deliveries
Meningitis and Haemophilus Humans Close respiratory Usually lifelong Over crowding
pneumonia influenzae contact leading to
caused by type b, exposure to the
Haemophilus bacterium infections
influenza type b
Rotavirus Virus Humans Fecal-oral Unknown Globally circulating
virus strain. Poor
environmental
hygiene
Measles Virus Humans Close respiratory Lifelong Crowding
contact and
aerosolized droplets
40 National Immunization Program Manual of Operations

Disease Agent Reservoir Spread Duration of Risk factors for
Immunity Induced Infection
by Infection
Mumps Virus Humans Close respiratory Lifelong Crowding
contact and
airborne droplets
Rubella Virus Humans Close respiratory Lifelong Crowding
contact and airborne
droplets
Japanese Virus Mosquitoes Bite by infected Lifelong Presence of high
Encephalitis Mosquito burden of disease
causing vector
Human Virus Humans Sexual intercourse Not known Unsafe sexual
Papilloma Virus pratices
Influenza Virus Humans Close respiratory Unknown or weak Crowding
contact and immunity
airborne droplets
Pneumococcal Bacteria Humans Close respiratory Some type-specific Crowding
Disease contact and immunity
airborne droplets

D.1 Tuberculosis
What is Tuberculosis?
TB is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. It usually attacks the lungs, but other
parts of the body can also be affected, including the
bones, joints, and brain.
What are the symptoms and signs of TB?

The symptoms of TB include general weakness,
weight loss, fever and night sweats. In pulmonary TB,
the symptoms include persistent cough, coughing of
blood and chest pain. In young children, however, the
only sign of pulmonary TB may be stunted growth or
failure to thrive.
A young TB patient
How is TB transmitted?
TB is spread through the air when a person with the disease coughs, spits, or sneezes.
Because it is highly contagious, it spreads rapidly where people are living in crowded
situations, are poorly nourished, and cannot obtain treatment. Children can contract
tuberculosis any time after birth.
Who are the population at risk?

The disease is most commonly seen in adults but affects infants, children, and adolescents
as well and is often more serious for younger people. Infants are more likely than adults
to contract miliary and meningeal TB, which attack vital organs and are usually fatal.
Countries with high TB burden include less developed countries. The Philippines is a high
TB burden country.
How is TB treated?
Patients with TB requires extensive and long-term care, many people who do not adhere
to their treatment course long enough to be cured becomes resistant to anti-tuberculosis
drugs. In response, the “DOTS” strategy was developed for both treatment and control.
DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Short-Course) is a standardized short course of
chemotherapy.
How is TB prevented?
National routine immunization programs use the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine
to prevent miliary and meningeal TB in the first years of life. BCG vaccine protects infants
infected with TB from progressing to more dangerous forms of the disease and gives them
some protection against recurrence at a later age. BCG does not prevent TB itself and
provides little protection against the pulmonary forms. It is not recommended for adults.

D.2 Hepatitis B
What is hepatitis B?
Hepatitis B is a viral infection of the liver. Acute
infection either resolves or progresses to chronic
infection, which may lead to cirrhosis or liver
cancer several decades later. In developing
countries like the Philippines, hepatitis B infection
usually occurs in childhood, at the time of birth,
during infancy, or in early childhood. Symptoms
are not usually apparent in infected young A boy with hepatitis
people, but the likelihood that an infected child
will develop lifelong chronic infection is higher than if the infection occurs in older
children or adults.
What are the symptoms and signs of hepatitis B?

Acute hepatitis B does not often cause symptoms and signs but when it does, patients
experience fatigue, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and jaundice. Chronic hepatitis B
patients have signs related to liver failure (such as swelling of the abdomen, abnormal
bleeding and changing mental status) as the disease progress.
How is hepatitis B transmitted?

The hepatitis B virus is spread by contact with infected blood and other bodily fluids in
various situations. In the Philippines, the hepatitis B virus is most commonly transmitted to
children by:
• Child-to-child transmission through open wounds or shared instruments/equipment

that contain blood or body fluids. This accounts for the majority of hepatitis B
infections worldwide.
• Exposure of babies to maternal blood or other fluids during delivery, if the mother is a
chronic carrier.
• Use of contaminated needles and syringes for injections.
• In countries where infection occurs later in life, the disease is transmitted through
sexual activity, contaminated needles and syringes, and contaminated blood
products.

Hepatitis B virus infection occurs worldwide and can occur at any age. In many Asian
countries, infection often occurs in infancy and childhood, when infected individuals are
more likely to become chronically infected.
How is hepatitis B treated?

There is no specific treatment for acute hepatitis B. Therefore, care is aimed at
maintaining comfort and adequate nutrition, including replacement of fluids lost from
vomiting and diarrhea.

Chronic hepatitis B infection can be treated with medicines, including oral antiviral agents.
Treatment can slow the progression of cirrhosis, reduce incidence of liver cancer and
improve long term survival.
The WHO recommends the use of oral treatments - tenofovir or entecavir, because these
are the most potent drugs to suppress the hepatitis B virus. They rarely lead to drug
resistance as compared with other drugs, are simple to take (1 pill a day), and have few
side effects and require only limited monitoring.
How is hepatitis B prevented?

The hepatitis B vaccine is the mainstay of hepatitis prevention. WHO recommends that all
infants receive the hepatitis B vaccine as soon as possible after birth.
D.3 Poliomyelitis (Polio)
What is polio?
Polio is a highly infectious disease of the central nervous
system caused by three closely related polioviruses: types 1, 2,
and 3.
What are the symptoms and signs of polio?

Most children infected by poliovirus may never feel ill.
Approximately 5% of people exposed to any of these viruses
have influenza-like symptoms such as fever, loose stools,
sore throat, headache, or upset stomach. Some may have
pain or stiffness in the neck, back, and legs, and 1% become
paralyzed. In paralytic polio, severe muscle pains follow the
milder symptoms, and then paralysis develops, usually in the
first week of illness. The functions of one or both legs or arms
may be lost, and may result in difficulty of breathing. Paralytic polio in a Filipino girl
How is polio transmitted?

Poliovirus is highly communicable. It is spread from person to person by contact with
infected feces. People who do not have symptoms may still be carriers and can spread the
disease. The incubation period is commonly 7 – 10 days
(range : 4 – 35 days).

Every person who is not vaccinated against polio will acquire the infection if the virus is in
the environment, with the following outcomes:
• 95% will show no effect.

• 4% will have a mild flu-like illness.
• 1% will become paralyzed.
• 0.5% will be paralyzed for life.
• 0.1% will die during the acute phase.

Where does polio occur?
Polio can occur anywhere in the world. Currently Polio is endemic in only two regions:
African region (Nigeria) and Eastern Mediterranean region (Pakistan and Afghanistan).
In regions where it has been eliminated (the Americas, Europe, Western Pacific, South East
Asia), control measures and certification-quality polio surveillance must be sustained until
the disease is eradicated worldwide.
How is polio treated?

There is no specific treatment for polio. Treatment consists of supportive, symptomatic care.
How is polio prevented?

Polio can be prevented through Immunization with Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) and/or
Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV).
What are the eradication strategies for polio?

In 1988, the 41st World Health Assembly launched a global initiative to eradicate polio.
There are four core strategies to stop transmission of the wild poliovirus:
• High infant immunization coverage with three doses of OPV in the 1st year of life;
• Supplementary doses of OPV to all children under five years of age during
immunization campaigns;
• Surveillance for polio virus through reporting and laboratory testing of all cases of
acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) among children under 15 years of age;
• Targeted “mop-up” campaign once Polio transmission is limited to specific focal area.
In addition, the DOH recently introduced Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) through the NIP in
2014, and switched the Oral Polio Vaccine from trivalent to bivalent type. The reasons for
this change are that Type 2 Polio has been declared eradicated and to decrease the risk of
emergence of VDPV Type 2.
The inclusion of IPV into the national immunization schedule is part of DOH’s efforts to
protect every Filipino child against the disease and to sustain the country’s Polio-free status.
Vaccine-Derived Under very rare circumstances when the coverage of Polio vaccine is
inadequate, the virus strains in OPV can mutate and regain characteristics
Polio Virus (VDPV): of wild polio virus: the abilities to cause paralytic disease in humans and to
spread from person to person. This phenomenon, known as vaccine-derived
polio virus, has been documented in many countries, most recently in Lao
PDR, Myanmar and in Philippines (2014). In each case, vaccination coverage
was very low in the affected areas. As with wild polio virus, the critical factor
in controlling VDPV is achieving and maintaining high vaccination coverage
rates through a combination of strengthening the routine immunization
system and supplemental vaccination.

D.4 Diphtheria
What is diphtheria?
Diphtheria is a bacterial infection caused by
Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The infection can involve
almost any mucous membrane, but the most common
sites of infection are the tonsils and pharynx. This type of
diphtheria can lead to obstructed breathing and death.
In tropical countries, the disease usually affects the skin
(cutaneous diphtheria) and may result in high levels of
natural immunity against respiratory diphtheria.
What are symptoms and signs of diptheria?

In its tonsillar and pharyngeal form, the early symptoms
are sore throat, loss of appetite and slight fever. Within
two to three days the infection results in the formation
of a bluish-white or grey membrane that can cover the
back of the throat, as seen in the photograph above. A grayish membrane on the pharynx is
a well-known sign of diphtheria
The membrane may bleed and also cause gagging and
difficulty in swallowing and breathing. The incubation
period is usually from 1 – 5 days.
How is diphtheria transmitted?

Diphtheria is transmitted from person to person through close physical and respiratory
contact.

The epidemiology of diphtheria has changed considerably over recent decades due to
improvements in sanitary conditions and immunization coverage. However, in Philippines,
recent evidence shows the increasing trend of the disease in young children, and more
cases with fatality have been seen among pre-school children since 2011.
Where does it occur?

Diphtheria occurs worldwide among unimmunized populations and in industrialized
countries, among populations whose immunity has weakened, largely because of the
lack of routine and booster immunizations for children and adults. In areas with low
coverage of diphtheria immunization, asymptomatic carriers may play an important role in
sustaining the infection.
How is diphtheria treated?

Diphtheria antitoxin (DAT) and antibiotics (erythromycin or penicillin) are prescribed for
suspected cases. Infected persons are isolated and contacts are prescribed prophylaxis
dose of antibiotics and vaccinated with diphtheria toxoid to prevent additional cases.

How is diphtheria prevented?
The most effective way to control diphtheria is to prevent it through immunization of
children in their first year of life with three doses of diphtheria vaccine and appropriate
booster doses.
How is diphtheria controlled?

During diphtheria epidemics, the largest possible proportion of the population group
involved should be vaccinated, with priority given to infants and pre-school children. Those
who have been previously immunized should receive booster doses. Unimmunized infants
and children should receive the primary series of three doses. Patients and close contacts
should be given antibiotics.
D.5 Tetanus
What is tetanus?
Tetanus is caused by the bacterium Clostridium
tetani. The Clostridium tetani bacilli are present in
the soil everywhere. It is the vaccine-preventable
disease that is not spread from person to person.
A typical feature of the spasms associated with
tetanus is the facial expression known as “risus
sardonicus,” or sardonic smile.
What are symptoms and signs of tetanus?

Signs and symptoms of tetanus may appear Muscular spasms and contractions in a neonatal
anytime from a few days to several weeks after tetanus patient
the tetanus bacteria enters the body through a
wound. The bacterium produces a toxin that makes muscles rigid, causes spasms, and
makes breathing difficult or impossible, resulting in death.
The average incubation period is 3 to 21 days. Common signs and symptoms of tetanus, in
order of appearance, are:
• Spasms and stiffness in your jaw muscles

• Stiffness of your neck muscles
• Difficulty swallowing
• Stiffness of your abdominal muscles
• Painful body spasms lasting for several minutes, typically triggered by minor
occurrences, such as a draft, loud noise, physical touch or light
How is tetanus transmitted?

Tetanus is not contagious. The disease can occur in any incompletely immunized person
when tetanus spores in dirt, dung, or ashes enter a person’s body through a break in the
skin. Clusters of cases are sometimes seen among unimmunized populations sharing the
same risk factors (such as living and working in construction sites).

Everyone who is unprotected through immunization is at risk.
Where does tetanus occur?

Tetanus occurs worldwide. In the Philippines, there were 10 provinces identified as high risk
for MNT, which became the focus of special immunization activities in the past five years.
The following characteristics may indicate that tetanus is a problem in a particular location:
• Low tetanus toxoid vaccination coverage among women and children

• Poor access to or use of any health service
• Poor access to or use of antenatal care services
• Home deliveries not assisted by skilled birth attendants
How is tetanus treated?

Advance intensive neonatal care and usage of Tetanus Immunoglobulin can reduce the
case fatality rate in neonatal tetanus. Recovery from tetanus does not provide immunity.
How is neonatal tetanus prevented?

Neonatal Tetanus can be prevented if in pregnancy women Maternal and
receive at least two Td doses of vaccine, appropriately Neonatal Tetanus
spaced following the NIP schedule. Elimination –
Definition
What are the strategies to eliminate maternal and
Maternal and neonatal
neonatal tetanus? tetanus elimination is
Because tetanus spores are found in the environment, defined as the reduction of
tetanus cannot be eradicated. However, it can be neonatal tetanus cases to
fewer than one case per
eliminated as a public health problem with appropriate 1000 live births in every
measures such as high immunization coverage and delivery district (100,000 population)
at the health facility. of every country.
The strategy to sustain Tetanus elimination involves:
• Routine vaccination of pregnant women with tetanus toxoid until childhood

immunization with booster doses is fully achieved.
• Routine vaccination of infants with three doses of Pentavalent vaccine.
• School-based vaccination programs with Td in Grade 1 and Grade 7 act as 4th and
5th dose of tetanus vaccine.
• Access to and use of clean delivery services.
• Surveillance to identify high-risk areas, assess service quality, and monitor the
maintenance of elimination status.

D.6 Pertussis
What is pertussis?
Pertussis, also called whooping cough, is a highly
contagious, acute bacterial disease affecting
the respiratory tract. It is caused by the bacteria
Bordetella pertussis.
What are signs and symptoms of pertussis?

Patients usually present with symptoms similar to
common cold: runny nose, watery eyes, sneezing,
fever and a mild cough. The cough worses to
many rapid bursts. At the end of these bursts, the Patient with whooping cough
typical patient takes in air with a high-pitched whoop.
Vomitting and exhaustion often follow after the coughing attacks. The incubation period is
9-10 days (range 6-20 days).
How is pertussis transmitted?

Pertussis is spread in droplets from the nose and throat that are expelled when an infected
person coughs or sneezes. The disease spreads easily among susceptible people who live
in crowded conditions.

Newborns receive minimal antibody protection from their mothers, and it quickly wanes.
Approximately one third of all cases occur in infants under 6 months old and half of all
deaths are in children under one year.
Where does pertussis occur?

Pertussis occurs in any setting.The majority of pertussis cases occurs in areas with low
primary immunization coverage and incidence is high among unimmunized infants. There
are also cases among adolescents and young adults with waning immunity.
How is pertussis treated?

Antibiotics (Erythromycin) may be given to shorten the period of communicability
(approximately three weeks), but they do not cure the disease or even reduce symptoms
unless the pertussis toxin in the body is eliminated.
How is pertussis prevented?

The most effective strategy for preventing pertussis requires the timely delivery of three
doses of vaccine at proper intervals during the child’s first year of life.

D.7 Hib Disease
What is Hib Disease?

Haemophilus influenza type b is a bacterium found
commonly in the nose and throats of children.
What are symptoms and signs of Hib?

The serious diseases caused most frequently by
Hib are pneumonia and meningitis. Children with
pneumonia can have fever, chills, cough, rapid
breathing and chest wall retractions. Children with
meningitis can have fever, headache, sensitivity to
light, neck stiffness and sometimes confusion or
altered consciousness. The time between infection A child with Hib pneumonia
with Hib and the appearance of symptoms is
between 2 and 10 days.
How is Hib transmitted?

Hib is spread from person to person in droplets released when sneezing and coughing.
Children may be healthy carriers without showing any signs and symptoms of the disease
but they can still infect others.

Children under five years of age are at highest risk for Hib disease. The disease is rare in
children older than five years.
Where does Hib occur?

Research and evidence clearly indicates Hib as a cause of pneumonia, meningitis, and
other childhood diseases worldwide.
How is Hib treated?

Antibiotics such as ampicillin, cotrimoxazole, cephalosporins and chloramphenicol are
used for treatment. Drug resistance is now being seen with some antibiotics.
How is Hib prevented?

Hib vaccination of children in the first six months of life is the most effective means of
controlling invasive Hib disease. Hib vaccine will not prevent meningitis and pneumonia
caused by other types of Haemophilus influenzae or other agents

D.8 Pneumococcal Disease
What is pneumococcal disease?

Pneumococcal disease is an infection caused
by the Streptococcus pneumoniae bacterium,
also known as pneumococcus. Infection can
result in pneumonia, infection of the blood
(bacteremia/sepsis), bacterial meningitis
or milder forms such as sinusitis and otitis
media.
What are symptoms and signs of

pneumococcal disease?
As outlined above, pneumococcus can affect
many parts of the body. Symptoms and A child with pneumococcal disease.
signs vary depending on the site of infection.
Fever and shivering or chills can occur with all types of pneumococcal disease. Children
with pneumonia can present with cough, rapid breathing and chest wall retractions;
older patients may complain of shortness of breath and pain when breathing in and on
coughing. Patients with meningitis can present with headaches, sensitivity to light, neck
stiffness, convulsions and sometimes confusion or altered consciousness. Those with otitis
or sinusitis may have pain and tenderness and or discharge from the nose or ears.
How is pneumococcal disease transmitted?

Pneumococcal disease is spread from person to person by coughing, sneezing or close
contact. A person can be infected mainly through pneumococci contained in respiratory
droplets from people who have the bacteria in their noses and/or throats. In some groups,
up to 70% may be healthy carriers.

This high-risk group includes children younger than two years of age and adults 65 years
or older. People with conditions that weaken the immune system (like diabetes, heart
disease, lung disease, and HIV/AIDS), or people who smoke or have asthma are also at
increased risk for getting pneumococcal disease.
Where does pneumococcal disease occur?

Pneumococcal disease occurs around the world. Pneumococcal disease is more common
in developing countries. It is also more common during winter and early spring but occurs
year-round in the tropics.
How is pneumococcal disease treated?

Pnemococcal disease are treated with antibiotics such as amoxicillin and other new
antibiotics as needed and based on particular symptoms. In many cases some commonly
used antibioics are no longer effective since the bacteria has become resistant.

How is pneumococcal disease prevented?
Pneumococcal disease can be prevented by vaccination. Improved living conditions and
nutrition can also reduce the risk.
What are the strategies to control pneumococcal disease?

The DOH now includes routine immunization using the Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine
(PCV) given to children in the country’s health centers. The elderly - at the age of 60 and
65 – are given Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine (PPV) nationwide.
D.9 Measles
What is measles?
Measles is an acute viral infection caused by measles virus.
Measles is one of the most contagious diseases of humans.
What are symptoms and signs of measles?

Measles is characterized by the presence of high fever and
maculopapular rash, and associated “3C’s” - cough, coryza
(runny nose), conjunctivitis. Small white spots (Koplik’s
spots) inside the cheeks is also a sign of measles.
The rash usually appears on the face and upper neck. Over
a few days the rash spreads to the body and then to the
hands and feet. It usually resolves in about 5 to 6 days.
Complications from measles include pneumonia, diarrhea,

blindness, meningitis, encephalitis, SSPE (Subacute Rashes characteristic of measles
sclerosing panencephalitis). SSPE rarely occurs as a delayed
complication several years after measles infection. The incubation period for measles
usually lasts 10 – 14 days (range: 7 – 23 days).
How is measles transmitted?

Measles is extremely infectious. The virus is transmitted through the air by respiratory
droplets expelled by infected individuals or exposure to persons suspected with measles.
When and where does measles occur?

In tropical zones, most cases of measles occur during the dry season. In temperate zones,
incidence peaks during late winter and early spring. In large, crowded areas with low
measles vaccine coverage, incidence of measles can be much higher. Children younger
than nine months can be affected before they are old enough to be vaccinated. The
frequency of measles outbreaks depends on the density of people susceptible to the
disease and the probability of exposure to infectious cases. In countries with low coverage,
epidemics occur every two to three years. In countries with good coverage, epidemics may
occur at five- to seven-year intervals.

How is measles treated?
There is no specific antiviral treatment for measles. Antibiotics should be prescribed only
for bacterial ear infection and pneumonia. Supportive care includes general nutritional
support and treatment of dehydration and complications.
Vitamin A supplementation reduces the number of deaths from measles. Measles seriously
depletes vitamin A in children, making them more susceptible to complications. All children
in developing countries diagnosed with measles should receive two doses of vitamin A
supplement given 24 hours apart.
How is measles prevented?

Measles vaccination is one of the most effective preventive measures available.
Maintaining coverage above 95% can have a major impact in controlling measles.
What should be the response to a measles outbreak?

Measles importation should be expected even in areas that have eliminated the disease,
and when outbreaks occur, control can be difficult because many susceptible people
can be infected before a vaccination campaign can be organized. Health services can
respond effectively by treating complications, providing Vitamin A supplementation and
investigating cases to determine how to prevent recurrence. Routine measles vaccination
coverage, supplemented by campaigns, should be the focus of management efforts to
prevent outbreaks from occurring at all.
Supplemental campaigns are taken by the national authorities with consultation with
regional units and by reviewing the epidemiological evidence of the outbreak.
A related reference is in the chapter on VPD surveillance, in the section on measles

outbreak response.

D.10 Mumps
What is mumps?
Mumps is an infection caused by a virus. It is
sometimes called infectious parotitis, and it primarily
affects the salivary glands. Mumps is mostly a mild
childhood disease, often affecting children between
5-9 years old. But the mumps virus can infect adults
as well. When it does, complications are more likely
to be serious.
What are the symptoms and signs of mumps?

Almost one third of children infected with the
mumps virus have no symptoms. If symptoms Swelling of the salivary glands in a patient with
mumps.
appear, they usually begin 14 to 21 days after
infection. Swelling of the salivary glands, just below and in front of the ears, is the most
prominent symptom. The swelling may occur on one or both sides of the neck. Other
symptoms include pain when chewing or swallowing, fever, weakness, and tenderness
and swelling in the testicles. A person who has mumps can infect others from about six
days before to about nine days after swelling in the neck appears.
How is mumps spread?

Mumps virus is present throughout the world. It is spread by airborne droplets released
when an infected person sneezes or coughs and by direct contact with an infected person.
What are the complications of mumps?

Complications from mumps are rare, but they can be serious. In men and teenage boys, an
inflammatory condition called orchitis may cause swelling and pain in one or both testicles
and sometimes can cause sterility. Encephalitis, meningitis and hearing loss are other rare
complications that can occur in people infected at any age.
What is the treatment for mumps?

There is no specific treatment for mumps. Supportive treatment should be given to relieve
the symptoms.
How is mumps prevented?

Mumps vaccines are highly effective and safe.
People who get mumps and recover are thought to have lifelong protection against the
virus.

D.11 Rubella and Congenital Rubella Syndrome
What is rubella?
Rubella is an infection caused by a virus and is
usually mild in children and adults. Congenital
rubella syndrome (CRS) is an important cause of
severe birth defects. When a woman is infected
with the rubella virus during the first trimester
of pregnancy, she has a 90% chance of passing
the virus on to her fetus. This can cause
the death of the fetus, or it may cause CRS.
Deafness is the most common, but CRS can also
An adult female with rubella infection, showing
cause defects in the eyes, heart, and brain. rashes on the arms and face
What are the symptoms and signs of rubella?

Symptoms are often mild, and between 20% and 50% of infected people may notice no
symptoms at all. In children, a maculopapular rash is usually the first sign; other signs
include low-grade fever and swollen lymph nodes in the neck. The rash most often begins
on the face and spreads from head to foot. It usually lasts for about three days. The rash
is pink, and fainter than measles. Many rashes mimic rubella, and a rash should not be
considered a sure sign of infection with the rubella virus. Infants who are born with CRS
usually show symptoms such as cataracts and loss of hearing in infancy, but they may not
show symptoms for two to four years. The incubation period for rubella is about 14 days.
How is rubella spread?

Rubella is spread in airborne droplets when infected people
sneeze or cough. Once a person is infected, the virus
spreads throughout the body in about five to seven days.
During this time, pregnant women may pass the virus on
to their fetuses. Infected people are most likely to pass on
the virus when the rash is developing but the virus may be
spread from seven days before to about seven days after
the rash appears. Infants with CRS can transmit the virus
for a year or more.
What are the complications of rubella?

Complications tend to occur more often in adults than in
children. About 70% of adult women who are infected Congenital rubella syndrome in
may develop pain in their joints or arthritis, especially a 4-month old baby. The baby
has congenital heart disease and
in the fingers, wrists, and knees. Encephalitis occurs in cataracts.
about one in 5,000 cases and is most common in adult
women. Problems with bleeding occur in about one in 3,000 cases, usually among
children. Complications from CRS include deafness, cataracts, heart defects, and mental
retardation.
What is the treatment for rubella?

There is no specific treatment for rubella or for CRS. Supportive measures should be taken
to alleviate symptoms. Infants with CRS are treated for their specific problems.

How is rubella prevented?
Rubella and CRS are prevented with safe and effective rubella vaccine. For infant
immunization, these are usually given in combination with measles-rubella (MR) and/
or measles, mumps and rubella (MMR). For prevention of congenital rubella syndrome
(CRS), women of childbearing age are the primary target group for rubella immunization.
Immunizing women between 15-49 years old will rapidly reduce the incidence of CRS
without affecting childhood transmission of the virus.
D.12 Rotavirus Gastroenteritis
What is rotavirus gastroenteritis?

Rotavirus gastroenteritis is a highly infectious diarrheal
disease caused by strains of rotavirus infecting small
intestine.
Rotaviruses are a leading cause of severe diarrhoeal

disease and dehydration in infants and young children
throughout the world.
What are the symptoms and signs of rotavirus?

Rotavirus gastoenterits can range from mild loose
stools to severe watery diarrhea and vomiting leading
to dehydration. Fever and vomiting can occur before
diarrhea.
The incubation period can range from one to three

A child with rotavirus gastroenteritis
days. The diarrhea can last from three days to a week.
How is rotavirus transmitted?

Rotavirus spreads by the fecal to oral route. Large quantities of virus can be shed in the
feces of an infected child. Shedding can occur from 2 days to 10 days after the onset
of symptoms. Rotavirus is stable in the environment and can spread via contaminated
food,water and objects.

Most symptomatic episodes occur in young children between the ages of three months
and two years.
Where does rotavirus occur?

The disease occurs worldwide. In low income countries the median age of the primary
rotavirus infection ranges from six to nine months (with 80% occurring among infants
less than a year old). In high income countries, the first episode may occasionally be
delayed until the age of 2–5 years, though the majority still occur in infancy (65% occur
among infants less than a year old). In most low income countries in Asia and Africa,
rotavirus epidemics are characterized by one or more periods of relatively intense rotavirus
circulation against a background of year-round transmission. In high income countries with
temperate climates, outbreaks usually occur in winter.

How is rotavirus treated?
There is no specific drug treatment for rotavirus infection. As with other causes of diarrhea,
key supportive measures are fluid replacement with oral rehydration solution (ORS) and
treatment with zinc supplementation. Severe dehydration may require intravenous infusion
of fluids in addition to ORS.
How is rotavirus prevented?

Prevention consists of improved nutrition, good hygiene (handwashing) and sanitation.
Two oral, live, weakened rotavirus vaccines, Rotarix™ and RotaTeq™, are available
internationally. Both are considered safe and effective in preventing gastrointestinal
disease.
What are the strategies to control rotavirus?

It is recommended that rotavirus vaccines should be included in all national immunization
programmes and considered a priority particularly in countries in Southeast Asia and sub-
Saharan Africa. WHO continues to recommend that the first dose of either RotaTeq™ or
Rotarix™ be administered as soon as possible after six weeks of age, along with PENTA
vaccination. A second dose should be given after four weeks. Because rotavirus disease
mainly affects very young children, vaccination after 24 months is not recommended.
WHO emphasizes that the use of rotavirus vaccines should be part of a comprehensive
strategy to control diarrhoeal diseases with scaling up of both prevention (such as
promotion of early and exclusive breastfeeding, handwashing with soap, improved water
and sanitation) and treatment packages (including low-osmolarity ORS and zinc).
D.13 Japanese Encephalitis (JE)
What is Japanese encephalitis?

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an infection
of the brain caused by a virus carried by
mosquitoes. It is found in Asia, Pacific
Islands and Northern Australia. In recent
decades outbreaks of JE have occurred in
several areas previously non-endemic for
the disease.
What are the symptoms and signs of JE?

The majority of infections result only in
Heavy sequela observed in a JE patient
mild symptoms or no symptoms at all. On
average, only one in 300 people infected
with the virus show symptoms. These usually appear within four to 14 days after infection,
are flu-like, with sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, tiredness, nausea, and vomiting.
In children, gastrointestinal pain may be the most prominent symptom during the early
stage of the illness. Signs of confusion or coma occur after three or four days. Children
often have seizures.

How is JE transmitted?
JE is spread by Culex mosquitoes. The virus normally infects birds and domestic animals,
especially pigs and wading birds. Children get the disease when a mosquito that has
bitten an infected animal bites a person. In tropical and subtropical areas, the incidence
of disease is highest during and shortly after the rainy season. People living in rural areas,
especially where rice is grown, are at risk of getting the disease.
Recent surveillance data suggests that JE is endemic in Philippines, with a large number of
positive cases being reported from all over the country.
What are the complications of JE?

The illness can progress to a serious infection of the brain (encephalitis) and is fatal
in about 20% of cases. Of those who survive the disease, 30% to 50% will have brain
damage and paralysis. In areas where the disease exists all the time, about 85% of cases
occur in children younger than 15 years old. Although JE is often a mild disease, leading
to an uneventful recovery, some cases rapidly progress to severe encephalitis with mental
disturbances, and progressive coma. A very high percentage of the JE infection survivors
are left with neurological and psychiatric sequelae, requiring extensive care. Most fatalities
and residual sequelae occur in children aged over 10 years.
What is the treatment for JE?

There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis. Supportive treatment for
encephalitis is indicated. Antibiotics are NOT effective against the JE virus.
How is JE prevented?
Immunization is the important measure to control Japanese encephalitis. There are four
types of JE vaccines. Experiences in many countries suggests that environmental control
of JE transmission is not an effective method. Although socioeconomic improvements and
changes in agricultural practices are likely to reduce viral transmission in some places,
large-scale vaccination of affected populations with effective and affordable vaccines
appears to be the logical control measure.
D.14 Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
What is HPV?
HPV is the most common sexually
transmitted infection which infects
the skin and mucous membranes
of the genital areas of men and
women. There are more than 100
types of HPV. It is of particular
concern in women since it is now
known to be the cause of 99% of
cervical cancers. Normal cervix (left) and cervical cancer (right)

What are symptoms and signs of HPV?
Most HPV infections do not cause symptoms or disease and usually clear within a few
months. About 90% of infections clear within the two years but some infections continue.
Infection that continues can progress to cervical cancer.
Symptoms and signs of cervical cancer include abnormal vaginal bleeding (after sexual
intercourse and/or between menstrual periods); pelvic, back and/or leg pain; vaginal
discharge; fatigue and weight loss. Anemia, renal failure and fistula can also occur in
advanced stages of cervical cancer.
How is HPV transmitted?

HPV spread easily by skin to skin contact. Almost all sexually active individuals become
infected with it at some point, usually early in their sexual lives.

More than 80% of sexually active women will have been infected by age 50. People are
more prone if they have risk factors such as cigarette smokers, high parity, increased
age, immune suppression, long-term oral contraceptive use, co-infection with other
sexually transmitted diseases (e.g., HIV, gonorrhoea), other host factors (diet, genetics),
endogenous hormones.
Where does HPV occur?

HPV occurs worldwide. Cervical cancer is the most common cancer among women
worldwide. In 2012, approximately 270,000 women died from cervical cancer; more than
85% of these deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries.
How is HPV treated?

If cervical cancer is caught early by screening methods such as Pap smear or other
methods, it can be removed and cured effectively with localized treatment (such as
cryotherapy). Treatment of advanced cancer is complicated and usually involves a
combination of surgery, drugs and radiation.
How is HPV prevented?

Comprehensive cervical cancer prevention and control is through: a) primary prevention
by HPV vaccination for girls nine to 13 years of age and, for both girls and boys, health
education warning against tobacco use, sexuality education and promotion of condom
use, and male circumcision; b) secondary prevention in women aged 30–49 years with a
screen and treat approach, since vaccination does not protect against all cancer-causing
HPV types; and c) tertiary prevention by treatment of invasive cancer at any age.

D.15 Influenza
What is influenza?
Seasonal Influenza is a respiratory disease
caused by influenza viruses A and B. Globally,
seasonal influenza can affect 5–10% of adults
and 20–30% of children each year.
What are the symptoms and signs of

influenza?
It is characterized by sudden onset of high
fever, myalgia, headache and severe malaise,
non-productive cough, sore throat, and rhinitis.
Signs of severe disease in children include
difficulty breathing, increased respiratory
rate, poor feeding, irritability, dehydration and
decreased alertness.
The incubation period is usually about one to four days.
How is influenza transmitted?

The virus is transmitted easily from person to person via droplets and small particles
produced when infected people cough or sneeze. Influenza tends to spread rapidly in
seasonal epidemics.
Who are at risk?

Children under five years of age, pregnant women, the elderly (over 65 years of age) and
people with HIV/AIDS, asthma, and other chronic heart or lung conditions are at greater
risk.
Where does influenza occur?

It occurs worldwide. In temperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres, the
main influenza season falls around the winter months (November – April for the Northern
hemisphere, May – October for the Southern hemisphere) with sporadic infections at other
times. In regions closer to the equator influenza may occur throughout the year and some
tropical countries may experience two peaks of activity annually.
How is influenza treated?

Antiviral agents are used within the first two days. Supportive measures include adequate
rest, increased oral intake of fluids and nutritious food. Symptoms such as fever can be
treated with antipyretics, antibiotics should only be given to complications of influenza
(such as pneumonia and otitis media)
How is Influenza prevented?

Annual vaccination is the principal measure for preventing influenza particulary for those
in high-risk, particularly children and the elderly. Good personal health and hygiene such
as frequent hand washing (with soap and water, or with alcohol-based hand rubs);
proper coughing and sneezing; avoiding close contact with sick people; and staying
isolated when sick.

Chapter 3
VACCINE-PREVENTABLE
DISEASE SURVEILLANCE
CHAPTER 3
Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance
A. Rationale
The role of disease surveillance in achieving the goals of the NIP cannot be
overemphasized. According to the Philippine Integrated Disease Surveillance and
Response (PIDSR) Manual, disease surveillance is recognized as the cornerstone of public
health decision-making and practice. Data gathered provide information which can be
used for priority setting, policy decisions, planning, implementation, resource mobilization
and allocation, prediction and early detection of epidemics. A surveillance system can
also be used for monitoring, evaluation and improvement of disease prevention and
control programs.
B. Objectives
Chapter 3 provides an overview of the importance and role of disease surveillance in
achieving the goal of the NIP. After reading this Chapter, we will be able to:
1. Describe the vital role of disease surveillance in the overall management and
implementation of the NIP;
2. Define your tasks as a program manager and/or service provider in VPD surveillance;
and
3. Specify appropriate measures you need to undertake in response to increasing VPD
cases in your locality.
C. Scope and Coverage

Chapter 3 contains the following topics:
• Definition of disease surveillance and a brief history of the development of VPD

surveillance in the country.
• Role of VPD surveillance to achieve NIP goal/s, particularly toward polio eradication
and elimination of measles and neonatal tetanus.
• Core VPD surveillance activities and expected tasks as NIP coordinator and service
provider.
• Types of surveillance activity to be undertaken and measures in response to common
VPDs in the country.
Chapter 3 | Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance 63

D. VPD Surveillance
D.1 Disease Control, Elimination and Eradication
Elimination and eradication of diseases are the ultimate goals of public health. This requires
high commitment and participation of public and private health workers, dedicated focal
point persons at the national and sub-national levels and strengthened linkages to health
facilities through sensitive and efficient system and rapid response capability.
Disease surveillance has three components.
Control: The reduction of disease incidence, prevalence, sickness or death to a locally

acceptable level as a result of deliberate efforts. Continued intervention measures are
required to maintain the reduction.
Elimination: Reduction to zero of the incidence of a specified disease in a defined

geographical area as a result of deliberate efforts. Continued intervention measures are
required.
Eradication: The extinction of the pathogen that causes a particular infectious disease. So
long as a single member of the species survives, eradication has not been accomplished.
In other words, eradication is the reduction to zero of the worldwide incidence of infection
caused by a specific agent, the complete interruption of transmission and the extinction
of the causative agent so that it no longer exists in the environment. Hence, intervention
measures are no longer needed.
Three NIP goals are targeted toward the eradication and elimination of the following
VPDs: Poliomyelitis, Measles and Neonatal Tetanus. Surveillance of these diseases is
described in the Philippine Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (PIDSR).
D.2 Definition of VPD Surveillance
VPD surveillance refers to the intensive case-based surveillance for VPDs targeted for
eradication and elimination - cases of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) or suspected polio,
measles and neonatal tetanus (NT). It also includes the surveillance of adverse events
following immunization (AEFI) cases discussed in the AEFI section under Injection Safety
measures.
VPD surveillance is a process of systematic collection, consolidation, analysis,

interpretation and dissemination of data on VPDs for policy development, guidelines
formulation, decision making, planning for public health intervention, advocacy and health
promotion, program implementation and program monitoring, assessment and evaluation.

D.3 Brief History of VPD Surveillance in the Country
Key development milestones in the history of VPD surveillance in the country would include:
• Start of case-based reporting for measles surveillance in the Philippines in 1982

in selected sentinel sites under the National Epidemic Sentinel Surveillance System
(NESSS). Since 1992, the DOH started sending case-based reports to the WHO.
With the expansion of the sentinel sites in 1996, measles surveillance became
geographically representative. Laboratory confirmation of all reported measles
cases began.
• Start of AFP surveillance in 1993. In 2003, measles was integrated with AFP and
neonatal tetanus (NT) surveillance and was called EPI Surveillance.
• Development of the Philippine Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (PIDSR)
in 2007. It replaced NESSS in 2008 and measles, NT and AFP surveillance became
an integral part of PIDSR with reporting units expanded beyond the sentinel sites. At
present, cases are now being reported from RHUs to epidemiology and surveillance
units (ESUs) at regional, provincial and city levels for investigation by designated
staff.
• Under the PIDSR, the name for EPI surveillance was changed to Vaccine Preventable
Disease Surveillance. Likewise, surveillance for AEFI was added and staffing at the
national level was increased.
• In 2012, laboratory-based surveillance for rubella was integrated with measles
surveillance. This was considered as the most cost-effective approach in controlling
rubella. Since then, data collected became a significant source of information to
determine patterns of measles transmission and identify high risk areas based on
susceptibility to measles outbreak and quality of measles surveillance. From 2016
onward parallel testing of Measles and Rubella was started for any suspected case
of acute fever and rash.
D.4 Purpose of Surveillance Activities of Selected VPDs
VPD surveillance varies depending on the level or stage of goals set for each VPD. The
following targets are contained in the 2016-2022 NIP Strategic Plan:
• eradicate polio
• eliminate maternal-neonatal tetanus
• eliminate measles and rubella
• accelerate the control of Hep B
• control other VPDs (e.g. diphtheria, pertussis)

Each target is guided by the following criteria:
Polio Eradication
• Maintain certification standards in polio-free countries;

• No cases of clinical poliomyelitis associated with wild poliovirus; and,
• No wild poliovirus found worldwide despite intensive surveillance.
Measles Elimination
• Absence of endemic measles virus transmission for a period of 12 months or more, in

the presence of adequate surveillance; and,
• Reduced incidence of measles to <1/1,000,000 population so that it is no longer a
health threat.
Neonatal Tetanus Elimination
• Achieve and maintain <1 NT case per 1,000 live births (LB) in every province/ city/
municipality every year.
The table below summarizes the common VPDs in our country with corresponding goal
and the different purposes of surveillance activities.

TABLE 2.
Case Definitions of AFP, MR, NT and AMES
ACUTE MENINGITIS
ACUTE FLACCID NEONATAL TETANUS
MEASLES-RUBELLA ENCHEPHALITIS
PARALYSIS (AFP) (NNT)
SYNDROME (AMES)
Any child under 15 years Measles - Suspected Neonatal tetanus case A case of suspected
of age with acute onset case: Any individual, classification is based AMES is any person
of floppy paralysis, OR regardless of age, with solely on clinical criteria. who at any time of the
a person of any age in the following signs and year had sudden onset
whom poliomyelitis is symptoms: A suspected case is any of fever and one of the
suspected by a physician. neonatal death from following:
• fever (38°C or more) or 3 to 28 days of age
• Acute: sudden onset hot to touch; and in which the cause of • Change in mental
of paralysis. Usually death is unknown, OR status (including
• maculopapular rash
the interval from the any neonate reported symptoms such as
(non-vesicular); and
first sign of muscle as having suffered from altered consciousness,
weakness to inability • at least one of the neonatal tetanus from 3 confusion,
to move the affected following: cough, to 28 days of age and not disorientation, coma,
limb(s) takes 3-4 days coryza (runny nose) investigated. or inability to talk)
but may extend to two or conjunctivitis (red
• New onset of seizures
weeks eyes). A confirmed case is any
(excluding simple
neonate that sucks and
• Flaccid: loss of muscle febrile seizures)
cries normally during the
tone of the affected
The clinical diagnosis of first two days of life, and • Neck stiffness of other
limb(s) giving it a
measles is supported by becomes ill from three meningeal signs
floppy appearance (as
the presence of Koplik’s to 28 days of age and
opposed to spastic or • Case diagnosed
spots and if the rash develops both an inability
rigid) by physician either
progresses from the head to suck and diffuse
as encephalitis or
• Paralysis: reduced or to the trunk and to the muscle rigidity (stiffness),
meningitis
lost ability to move the extremities. which may include
affected limb(s) trismus, clenched fists or
Rubella - Suspected feet, continuously pursed
• If an AFP case is less
case: Any individual lips, and/or curved back
than 5 years of age
regardless of age with (opisthotonus), OR
with less than 3 OPV
the following signs and a neonate from three to
doses and had fever at
symptoms: 28 days of age diagnosed
onset of asymmetrical
as a case of tetanus by a
paralysis OR if the
• fever (38°C or more) or physician.
client has L20B+
hot to touch; and
isolate, the case is
considered a “Hot • maculopapular rash
Case”. (non vesicular); and/or
• one of the
following: post
auricular or axillary
lymphadenopathy
and/or joint pain and/
or conjunctivitis

E. VPD Surveillance Activities
This section summarizes the key steps in VPD surveillance and provides basic information
on each step. Note that the details of each step including the forms to be used are all
contained in the PIDSR.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7
Case Case Case Data Case Feedback Response

Detection Investigation Confirmation Management Reporting
and and
Notification Utilization
E.1 Case Detection and Notification
1. Identify cases using standard case definitions
1.1 A standard case definition for surveillance is a set of criteria used to determine if
a person has a particular disease, syndrome or condition and if the case should
be included in reporting or investigation. This ensures that every case is detected
and reported in the same way, regardless of where and when it occurred or who
identified it.
1.2 VPD cases are expected to be seen in the different health care facilities. Barangay
Health Stations (BHS), Rural Health Units (RHUs), Municipal/City Health Offices
(M/CHOs), government and private hospitals, clinics, laboratories and quarantine
stations are called Disease Reporting Units (DRUs).
1.3 Detection of VPD cases is everyone’s responsibility. You are encouraged to notify
the Epidemiology and Surveillance Unit (ESU) of the next higher level within 24
hours of all suspect cases for complete case investigation.
2. Classify the case accordingly, carefully taking note of all the presenting signs and
symptoms for each case.
2.1 Suspected Case: Indicative clinical picture without being a confirmed or probable
case
2.2 Probable Case: Clear clinical picture, or linked epidemiologically to a confirmed
case. Note that a “case with an epidemiological link” is a case that has either
been exposed to a confirmed case, or had the same exposure as a confirmed case
(e.g. eaten the same food, stayed in the same hotel, in the same periphery of the
confirmed infected person).
2.3 Confirmed Case: Verified by laboratory analysis. Note that the classification on
these different levels might vary according to the epidemiology of the individual
diseases. Unless specifically stated, persons with symptoms are to be reported.
Persons without symptoms are to be regarded as cases, however, if the infection
has therapeutic or public health implications.

E.2 Case Investigation
The first and most important step to sensitive and timely surveillance is the immediate
notification of any AFP, measles-rubella or NT case from a health facility or the
community. Case investigation and specimen collection should be done within 48 hours
upon notification. Once a Case Investigation Form (CIF) is completed by the CESU/PESU,
this is submitted to the ESU of the next higher level (RESU) through the fastest means of
communication.The CIF also serves as the laboratory request form; thus, a copy should
be sent to the Research Institute for Tropical Medicine (RITM) along with the specimen/s.
The following are the generic steps in conducting a case investigation of AFP, measles
and NT cases:
1. Verify if the case satisfies the case definition for AFP, Measles, NT, AMES or other VPDs.
2. Interview and examine the case.
3. Collect additional information by reviewing client’s records and/or discussing the case
with the attending physician.
4. Collect specimen(s) from each case.
5. Submit the completed CIF, client’s medical chart and laboratory results.
6. Search for additional cases.
7. Conduct 60-day follow-up examination (ONLY FOR AFP).
E.3 Case Confirmation
The RITM Department of Virology is accredited by the WHO as the National Reference
Laboratory for AFP, Measles, Rubella, and Japanese Enchephalitis surveillance. All
specimens are tested in the laboratory free of charge. Laboratory test results serve as
proof to confirm or rule out a reported case. To ensure the efficiency of the laboratory test
and accuracy of laboratory results, specimens should be properly collected, stored and
transported to the laboratory in optimal condition.
For AFP: Poliovirus is shed in the stools at maximum quantity during the first two weeks
after the onset of paralysis. Stools should thus be collected within 14 days of paralysis
onset to increase the likelihood of isolating the virus. Two stool specimens should be
collected at least 24 hours apart. It is important that all stool specimens from AFP cases
are maintained in a “reverse cold chain” (that is, kept cold from the moment of collection
until arrival in the National Polio Reference Laboratory). Otherwise, the virus may no
longer be viable for culture.
For Measles/Rubella: Laboratory confirmation of suspect measles or rubella cases is very

important since clinical diagnosis is not sufficient to confirm the infection. Documenting
the results of laboratory tests provides evidence of the country’s progress in eliminating
measles and rubella and in maintaining that elimination status. It is important to collect
serum specimen from every Acute Fever and Rash cases that is suspected for Measles
and Rubella.

For AMES: Japanese Encephalitis is confirmed by conducting an ELISA test in the serum
sample or Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The identification of JEV specific Immunoglobulin M
(IgM) is the confirmatory factor for JE.
E.4 Data Management
Data management is one of the core activities in VPD surveillance. It supports efficient
data capture and information flow that can provide a master list of up-to-date case-based
information. The data will be used for control activities of the disease under surveillance.
Analyzed and disseminated surveillance data is also essential for development of policies
and programs.
Five Basic Components of Data Management

Data management is a routine process that consists of the following basic functions.
1. Data Collection
Be aware of the established deadlines for reporting and submitting reports. Data
should be submitted weekly by ESUs and DRUs.
Consolidation
2.
Ensure that forms submitted by ESUs/DRUs are compiled if the unit encodes data
from the lower levels. Data review and validation must be done on a weekly basis,
especially before performing data analysis.
3. Data Analysis
Data analysis should be performed on a weekly basis. This includes:
Epidemiological Analysis. This begins with summary of the data according to time,
place and person.
Surveillance Indicators. Surveillance indicators are categorized into two: (i) core
performance indicators; and (ii) secondary indicators.
• Core performance indicators are primarily for monitoring of surveillance
performance. It is important that the system is sensitive to detect all cases of
AFP, measles and NT.
• Seconday (System) indicators are necessary to make sure that all data collected
are complete, accurate and timely submitted so that appropriate analysis can be
made.
4. Production of Reports
Surveillance data should be reported in a regular or on-going basis. However, during
outbreaks or any unusual health conditions, reports should be provided promptly for
rapid and efficient response.
5. Dissemination
Surveillance reports should be disseminated to program implementers and policy
makers who can use the data to take public health action. The findings should be
reviewed regularly and reported back to the ESUs and DRUs where the data was
gathered from. This is called feedbacking and will be discussed below.

Data Utilization
Surveillance provides “information for action”. Evidence-based decision making is based

on careful analysis of accurate data and proven research findings.
1. Surveillance data should be analyzed at all levels of the health system in the timeliest
manner possible to determine the public heath response required from each level.
2. Public health programs must ensure that surveillance data are presented so that they
can be used for public health action rather than mere transmission or dissemination
of surveillance results to others.
E.5 Case Reporting
Cases are reported weekly, monthly or, in some situations, an immediate notification to
higher level is needed.
Zero Case Reporting: This refers to the regular, scheduled reporting of “zero case” when
no cases have been detected by the reporting unit. As manager/ coordinator, ensure
that your health facility reports zero cases on a weekly basis using the Weekly Notifiable
Disease Report Summary Page Form.
Ensure that your health facility is not one of the “silent” Disease Reporting Units. This is
a health facility that does not report VPD cases, including failure to maintain zero case
reporting for two or more weeks. When a silent disease reporting unit is identified, the
disease surveillance officer should conduct active surveillance in that health facility to
determine the reason for non-reporting.
VPD cases identified as immediately notifiable diseases such as AFP, Measles etc at
the DRUs are to be reported simultaneously to the CESU and PESU, Regional ESU
and Epidemiology Bureau (EB) within 24 hours of detection through the fastest means
possible. Initial notification can be verbal using telephone, text message, facsimile or
email, followed by the completely filled out CIF once available.
The other VPDs or vaccine related condition that are notifiable within 24 hours are
Adverse Events Following Immunization (AEFI), Meningococcal Disease, Neonatal
Tetanus, and Rabies.
E.6 Feedback
Feedbacking is a process where the output or findings are notified to guide the next action
or to verify accuracy of information. Regular and timely feedback is the key element in
maintaining the surveillance system. Feedback such as laboratory results to the clinicians
from the reporting hospital should be monitored carefully from the respective department
in the Regional and Provincial level.
It is IMPORTANT that laboratory results of referred samples from DRUs especially

hospitals are timely and properly sent back. The relationship among different levels of the
health care system is shown in the figure.

FIGURE 2.
Flow of Information
Feedback for VPD Epidemiology Bureau
Surveillance
Regional ESUs
Provincial / City ESUs
Municipal ESUs
Disease Reporting Unit
Legend Weekly reporting flow Feedback reporting flow
E.7 Response
Appropriate actions and recommendations are needed when there are outbreaks of VPDs.
The details of these responses will be included in the VPD Outbreak Response Manual, as
well as various DOH Memorandum and AO which have been formulated and shared for
some specific VPD outbreak. Please refer to the appropriate manuals and guidelines from
DOH.
1. Investigation and Response to Poliomyelitis

A suspicion of wild poliovirus importation merits immediate investigation. A single
wild poliovirus (WPV) detection or detection of vaccine derived poliovirus (VDPV) is
considered a national public health emergency.
The detection of Vaccine Derived Polio Virus is an equally emergency situation arising
from low OPV coverage and resulting in low immunity in the population.
The responses to confirmed wild or vaccine derived poliovirus importation must be

composed of:
• Strengthened Surveillance and Risk Assessment
• Assessment of the Risk of Transmission
• Enhanced Laboratory Surveillance for Polioviruses
• Enhanced Immunization Program

A detailed description of the steps to follow after an outbreak and the roles and

responsibilities of the relevant level of Immuniation and surveillance department is
contained in Administrative Order No. 2011-0016.
2. Investigation and Response to Measles

Measles is a highly infectious disease. One of the objectives of measles surveillance is
to provide information about measles transmission so that the needed action can be
initiated to interrupt measles transmission.
All identified measles outbreaks require field investigations to search for additional
cases in the community; determine the extent of the outbreak; and to implement
effective action to immediately interrupt transmission. A single suspected measles
case requires a full case-based investigation with laboratory confirmation and field
investigation to determine if there are more cases in the community.
A detailed description of the steps to follow after an outbreak and the roles and
responsibilities of the relevant level of Immunization and surveillance department is
contained in Administrative Order No. 2014-0039.
Measles outbreak: The definition of an outbreak will vary according to the phase of
measles control.
• Measles Elimination setting:

In a setting where a country is focusing on measles elimination a single case of
laboratory confirmed measles is defined as measles outbreak. The outbreak
immunization response to this scenario can be adopted as per the AO 2014-0039.
If the Measles cases increase in number, this memo refers to intensive response
strategy, the National level and regional level along with the local government units
would have to consult and arrange for the necessary operational and logistics
preparations including enough Measles containing vaccines.
• Measles Endemic setting:

If a country is in a state where there is continuous transmission of indigenous
measles cases and country is more focused on the mortality reduction strategy,
guide from World Health Organization mortality reduction would recommend two
different definitions for measles outbreak depending on whether the country has
conducted nationwide catch up SIAs or not.
For countries (or regions/provinces of large countries) that have completed

nationwide catch-up measles SIAs: A suspected outbreak of measles is defined as
the occurrence of five or more reported suspected cases of measles in one month
per 100 000 population living in a geographical area (e.g. barangay/municipality).
A confirmed measles outbreak is defined as the occurrence of three or more

confirmed measles cases (at least two of which should be laboratory-confirmed;
IgM positive) in a barangay/municipality (approximate catchment population of 100
000) in a month.
For countries (or regions/provinces of large countries) that have not yet
completed nationwide catch-up SIAs: A suspected measles outbreak is defined as

For countries (or regions/provinces of large countries) that have completed
nationwide catch-up measles SIAs: A suspected outbreak of measles is defined as
the occurrence of five or more reported suspected cases of measles in one month
per 100 000 population living in a geographical area (e.g. barangay/municipality).

IgM positive) in a barangay/municipality (approximate catchment population of 100
000) in a month.
For countries (or regions/provinces of large countries) that have not yet
completed nationwide catch-up SIAs: A suspected measles outbreak is defined as
“an increase in the expected number of suspected measles cases being reported in
a specific geographical area”.
An increase in the number of suspected measles cases means a substantial

increase in incidence compared to non-epidemic years, or incidence similar to the
incidence in an epidemic year.

IgM positive) in a health facility/city/municipality (approximate catchment
population of 100 000) in a month.
Outbreak response immunization is recommended depending upon the number of the

measles cases. The immunization response needs to be conducted swiftly and can be
selective (vaccinating only the defaulters who have missed routine measles doses) or
non-selective (vaccinate irrespective of the history of measles vaccination).
Once outbreak is confirmed it is important to know the age group affected, the place
affected and the potential for spread. The immunization program managers can
analyze the routine measles immunization coverage of the area for the past 3 to 4
years to find out the number of susceptible children that have missed the routine
measles immunization since the last SIA. Then the strategy can be to immunize all
the defaulter children that have missed the routine measles vaccine in the age group
of 9months to 59 months (selective outbreak response) or in a scenario where there
are large accumulation of susceptible due to low routine vaccination coverage then
vaccinating all the children with in the age group of 9 months to under 59 months
can be considered (nonselective outbreak response). WHO recommends that in large
measles outbreak where children below 9 months are also infected in large numbers,
measles vaccination can be considered from the age of 6 months and above.

3. Investigation and Response to other common VPD outbreaks in the Philippines
In recent years there have been many VPD outbreaks in Philippines, some of which
are confined to certain regions while others are more widespread nationally. This
requires that the outbreaks should be adequately investigated, reported to higher
authorities and responded to appropriately.
Please refer to the specific Memorandum or Admintrative Order for specific guidelines.
For Diptheria outbreak refer to Department Memorandum No. 2016-0337.

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NATIONAL IMMUNIZATION PROGRAM

C. Scope and Coverage

• Tuberculosis (TB) • Measles

Chapter 2 | Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs) 39

Disease Agent Reservoir Spread Duration of Risk factors for

40 National Immunization Program Manual of Operations

Chapter 2 | Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs) 41

What are the symptoms and signs of TB?

Who are the population at risk?

42 National Immunization Program Manual of Operations

What are the symptoms and signs of hepatitis B?

How is hepatitis B transmitted?

• Child-to-child transmission through open wounds or shared instruments/equipment

Who are the population at risk?

How is hepatitis B treated?

Chapter 2 | Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs) 43

How is hepatitis B prevented?

D.3 Poliomyelitis (Polio)

What are the symptoms and signs of polio?

How is polio transmitted?

Who are the population at risk?

• 95% will show no effect.

44 National Immunization Program Manual of Operations

How is polio treated?

How is polio prevented?

What are the eradication strategies for polio?

Chapter 2 | Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs) 45

What are symptoms and signs of diptheria?

How is diphtheria transmitted?

Who are the population at risk?

Where does it occur?

How is diphtheria treated?

46 National Immunization Program Manual of Operations

How is diphtheria controlled?

What are symptoms and signs of tetanus?

• Spasms and stiffness in your jaw muscles

How is tetanus transmitted?

Chapter 2 | Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs) 47

Where does tetanus occur?

• Low tetanus toxoid vaccination coverage among women and children

How is tetanus treated?

How is neonatal tetanus prevented?

The strategy to sustain Tetanus elimination involves:

• Routine vaccination of pregnant women with tetanus toxoid until childhood

48 National Immunization Program Manual of Operations

What are signs and symptoms of pertussis?

How is pertussis transmitted?

Who are the population at risk?

Where does pertussis occur?

How is pertussis treated?

How is pertussis prevented?

Chapter 2 | Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPDs) 49

What is Hib Disease?

What are symptoms and signs of Hib?

How is Hib transmitted?

Who are the population at risk?

Where does Hib occur?

How is Hib treated?

How is Hib prevented?

50 National Immunization Program Manual of Operations