Training & Testing Thieme

Nuñez Javier et al. Field Methods to Estimate …  Int J Sports Med 2019; 00: 00–00

Field Methods to Estimate Fat-free Mass in International Soccer

Players

Authors
F. Javier Nuñez1, Diego Munguia-Izquierdo1, Cristian Petri2, Luis Suarez-Arrones1

Affiliations fjnunsan@upo.es
1 University of Pablo de Olavide, Physical Performance &
Sports Research, Seville, Spain Abs tr ac t
2 Experimental and Clinic Medicine, University of Florence,
Based on the high financial and logistical costs associated with
Florence, Italy
the assessment of body composition with dual-energy X-ray
absorptiometry (DXA), this study determined which field meth-
Key words
od has the best correlation with DXA data, and developed an
body composition. DXA, team game, indirect methods
equation to estimate fat-free mass (FFM) using the field anthro-
pometric data in international soccer players. A total of 17 in-

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accepted 19.06.2019 ternational soccer players participated in this study. DXA values
provided a criterion measure of FFM. Correlation coefficients,
Bibliography biases, limits of agreement, and differences were used as valid-
DOI https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0969-8591 ity measures, and regression analyses were used to develop the
Published online: 2019 prediction equation. All field methods used to obtain FFM data
Int J Sports Med showed positive correlations (r from 0.90–0.96) with DXA. Only
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York the equation developed by Deurenberg et al. [6] showed no
ISSN 0172-4622 differences from DXA with a low bias. The main strength of this
study was providing a valid and accurate equation to estimate
Correspondence
FFM specifically in international soccer players.
Dr. F. Javier Nuñez
Department of Sports and Informatics
University of Pablo de Olavide of Sevilla
Carretera de Utrera km 1
41013 Sevile
Spain
Tel.: + 34/606/204 313, Fax: + 34/954/977 534

Introduction greater density and importance of matches, especially at the end

Soccer is a team sport in which the physical stresses of training and of the season, than those who are not international-level [4].
competitive matches across a season modulate players’ body com- The body fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) assessed by du-
position [1–3]. There is considerable variation in the number of al-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) are probably the most eval-
matches played per season in different professional soccer leagues, uated body composition components in soccer [1–3, 6–12]. A re-
but of all of the players of the different leagues, the international cent study showed that during a season, FM was not different be-
soccer players played significantly more matches during the sea- tween squads, whereas FFM was greater in elite professional players
son than those who were not international-level [4]. Nevertheless, compared with elite young players [3]. There is evidence of FFM
Carling and Orhant [5] showed that the relationship between positional differences between goalkeepers and outfield players
matches played and body composition did not demonstrate any [3], but no differences between the specific positions were appar-
significant association in professional soccer players but suggested ent when considering FFM in outfield players [2, 3]. Therefore, an
that variations in body composition across the season are perhaps adequate relative FFM in outfield elite soccer players is needed to
more likely to be linked to the density or importance of matches. satisfactorily execute the high-intensity movement patterns de-
In particular, it is the international soccer players who present a manded during matches and training. Multiple studies have as-

Nuñez FJ et al. Field Methods to Estimate …  Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing Thieme

sessed FFM using DXA in young [3, 7] and professional soccer play- the participant was immobile in the position described previously.
ers [1–3], but we have no evidence of the existence of studies of The mean of two measures was used for analysis.
international soccer players.
DXA provides a reliable method for assessing FFM in elite pro- Anthropometry
fessional soccer players [1–3], but its high costs do not allow fre- Stature was measured with a stadiometer (seca 213; seca, Ham-
quent use [10]. In soccer it is therefore more common to use low- burg, Germany) with an accuracy of 0.5 cm. Body mass was meas-
er-cost methods such as bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and ured with an electronic scale (OHAUS Corp., Florham Park, NJ, USA)
anthropometric measurements (circumference, skinfold, and with an accuracy of 0.1 kg. The formula for the body mass index
breadth) to estimate FFM [7]. Few studies have used anthropomet- (BMI) was body mass (kg) / height (m2). Six circumferences (calf,
ric equations in professional players to predict FFM [5, 13], but only thigh, waist, hip, relaxed arm and flexed arm), eight skinfold thick-
one, which compared its data with DXA, has determined which nesses (medial calf, anterior thigh, iliac crest, abdominal, subscap-
method is more effective in elite youth male soccer players [7]. As ular, supraspinale, biceps, and triceps), and two bone biepicondy-
far as we know, we have no record of the application of these meth- lar breadths (femur and humerus) were measured with a tape, skin-
ods to international soccer players. Consequently, the aims of this fold calliper, and calliper (Holtain, Crymych, United Kingdom),
study were determine which field method has the best correlation respectively. All anthropometric measurements were taken accord-
with DXA FFM data, and to develop an equation to estimate FFM ing to standard methods [16]. The mean of two measures of each
using the field anthropometric data in international soccer players. anthropometric variable was used for analysis. Ten equations were
used to estimate the percentage of FM [8, 17–25]. The Siri equa-
tion [10] was used to estimate the percentage of body fat when the
Materials and Methods body density was calculated from an equation. FM was subtracted

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from body mass to obtain FFM (0.1 kg).
Subjects
Seventeen international soccer players participated in this study. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)
The mean ± SD age, height, body mass and body mass index were A DXA scanner (Hologic QDR Series, Delphi A model; Bedford, MA,
29.3 ± 3.1 years, 1.84 ± 0.06 m, 78.8 ± 4.7 kg, and 23.1 ± 1.1, respec- USA) with software (Hologic APEX software version 13.3:3) was
tively. All players evaluated had played in the entire last season with used to calculate FFM in accordance with the DXA best-practice
their respective senior national teams. Data were collected during guidelines described previously [26]. The participants were in a su-
the end of the domestic competition (i. e., Serie A, Italy). The study pine position with hands level with the hips and feet slightly apart.
procedures were approved by the Ethics Committee of the institu- FFM was obtained by the sum of the lean soft tissue mass and bone
tions involved, and meet the ethical standards of the journal [14]. mineral content, and was calculated from whole-body scans with-
out the head. The FFM coefficient of variation for repeated meas-
Procedure ures was < 3.3 % [27].
This was a cross-sectional validation study in which the height, body
mass, FFM (BIA), skinfolds, circumferences, breadths, and FFM Statistical analyses
(DXA) of the participants were measured using standardized pro- Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable. Relative and
cedures in the aforementioned order. The FFM estimations from absolute technical error of the measurements were calculated [28].
BIA measurements and anthropometric equations were compared The normality of the distribution of the data was verified by the
against DXA to determine the validity of these practical methods Shapiro-Wilk test. To compare FFM between DXA, BIA data and
for use in international soccer players. A multiple regression analy- skinfold equations, the paired t-test, Pearson correlation ( ± 90 %
sis was used to generate an FFM prediction equation in internation- CI), bias, limits of agreement, standardized differences ( ± 90 % CI),
al soccer players. Participants were instructed to follow their stand- and qualitative differences were used. Correlation coefficients were
ard food and fluid protocol, present in a rested, fasted and hydrat- qualitatively ranked by magnitude as follows: trivial, r < 0.1; small,
ed state, finish their last meal at least 2.5 h before the measurement, 0.1 < r < 0.3; moderate, 0.3 < r < 0.5; large, 0.5 < r < 0.7; very large,
and arrive with an empty bladder [15]. Likewise they should avoid 0.7 < r < 0.9; almost perfect, 0.9 < r < 1.0; and perfect r = 1.0 [29].
strenuous exercise, alcohol, stimulants, or depressants for 24 h The effect size of the standardized differences in FFM was deter-
prior to testing [7]. Each participant undertook an identical assess- mined by Cohen’s d statistic, and Hopkin’s scale was used to deter-
ment session for 30–45 minutes on different days. mine the magnitude of the effect size, where 0–0.2 = trivial, 0.2–
0.6 = small, 0.6–1.2 = moderate, 1.2–2.0 = large, and > 2.0 = very
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) large [29]. The probability of a true difference between methods
Before BIA measurement, the participants’ palms and soles were was qualitatively classified as almost certainly not, < 0.5 %; very un-
wiped with an electrolyte tissue. The BIA measurements were taken likely, 0.5–5 %; unlikely, 5–25 %; possibly, 25–75 %; likely, 75–95 %;
using Tanita MC-180 MAIII (Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan) devices. The very likely, 95–99.5 %; and almost certainly, > 99.5 %. A substantial
body mass was measured with the players standing with their soles effect was set at > 75 % [30]. If the chance that the true value
in contact with the foot electrodes of the Tanita MC-180 MAIII is > 25 % beneficial and > 0.5 % chance that it is harmful, the clinical
scales. Participants grasped the hand grips while placing their fin- effect was considered as unclear.
gers in the standard location. The analysis of the FFM started when The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 2010, IBM
SPSS Statistics 19 Core System User’s Guide; SPSS, Inc., Chicago,

Nuñez FJ et al. Field Methods to Estimate …  Int J Sports Med

IL, USA) was used to perform the stepwise regression analyses. FFM linear regression analysis are shown in ▶Table 5. The main predic-
(DXA) as the dependent variable and the anthropometric variables tor of FFM was relaxed arm circumference. An equation including
that significantly correlated with FFM (DXA) were introduced as the relaxed arm and hip circumference showed an adjusted R2 value
predictor variables to obtain the best model for predicting FFM in of 0.65 (p < 0.05). The developed equation is as follows: FFM
an international soccer-specific equation. Significance was set at (kg) = –66.388 + (1.121 x relaxed arm circumference) + (1.029 × hip
p < 0.05. circumference), where circumferences are expressed in centimetres.

Results Discussion
The physical characteristics of the participants are shown in ▶Table 1. The aims of this study were to determine which field method has
The technical errors of measurements were  ≤ 2.78 % for skinfold the best correlation with DXA FFM data, and to develop an equa-
measurement and  ≤ 0.52 % for circumferences and bone breadths tion to estimate FFM using the field anthropometric data in inter-
(▶Table 2). national soccer players. The main findings of this study were as fol-
Correlations; biases; limits of agreement; systematic, standard- lows: 1) the adult equation developed by Deurenberg et al. [18]
ized, and qualitative differences between DXA FFM; and other prac- applied to international soccer players was accurate and highly cor-
tical estimates of FFM for international soccer players are shown in related with DXA FFM data; 2) the data obtained by Deurenberg
▶ Table 3. All skinfold equations and BIA FFM data showed a posi- equations was the least biased compared to other field methods;
tive correlation (r from 0.90–0.96) with DXA. Only one set of equa- 3) the relaxed arm circumference was the best predictor of FFM in
tions showed no standardized or substantial differences compared our cohort; and 4) relaxed arm and hip circumference variables
with DXA and had the lowest bias [18]. were included in the equation to estimate FFM in international soc-

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Only the relaxed arm, flexed arm, hip circumferences, and hu- cer players.
merus breadth showed a significantly large to very large positive cor- Skinfold thickness equations and BIA data were similar predic-
relation with DXA-derived FFM (r from 0.53 to 0.71; all p < 0.05) tors of DXA-derived FFM but underestimated FFM compared with
(▶Table 4). All skinfolds and all sums of skinfolds showed no corre- DXA-derived FFM in international soccer players. However, it seems
lation with DXA-derived FFM. The different models for the stepwise relevant to emphasize that these equations were developed from
data collected on more heterogeneous samples with a low range
of FFM. All field estimations of FFM used in this study showed al-
▶Table 1 Physical characteristics of the participants (n = 17).
most perfect correlation values with DXA FFM data, but the biases
Mean SD indicate that we should be cautious when using them for FFM esti-
Age (y) 29.3 3.1
Weight (kg) 78.8 4.7 ▶Table 2 Coefficient of variation, absolute and relative technical error of
Height (cm) 184 6 measurement for anthropometric variables in international-level elite
BMI (kg/m2) 23.3 1.1 soccer players (n = 17).
 %FM by DXA with head 13.6 1.8
Absolute Relative
FFM by DXA without head 68.1 4 (mm) ( %)
Skinfolds (mm) Skinfolds
Triceps 7.1 2.1 Triceps 0.14 1.64
Subscapular 8.2 0.9 Subscapular 0.12 3.95
Biceps 3.1 0.4 Biceps 0.12 2.06
Iliac crest 8.4 1.6 Iliac crest 0.19 2.25
Supraspinale 5.7 0.8 Supraspinale 0.13 2.66
Abdominal 4.8 0.9 Abdominal 0.22 2.99
Anterior thigh 7.4 1.7 Anterior thigh 0.22 3.73
Medial calf 6 0.9 Medial calf 0.22 3.73
Circumferences (cm) Circumferences (cm)
Arm relaxed 28.9 1.7 Arm relaxed 0.26 0.91
Arm flexed 30.7 1.5 Arm flexed 0.16 0.53
Waist 76.6 2.4 Waist
Hip 94.9 1.7 Hip 0.21 0.27
Thigh 53.9 1.5 Thigh 0.23 0.42
Breadths (cm) Breadths (cm)
Humerus 6.31 0.74 Humerus 0.03 0.54
Femur 7.66 0.36 Femur 0.04 0.55

BMI = body mass index;  %BF = percentage of body fat; FFM = fat-free BMI = body mass index;  %BF = percentage of body fat; FFM = fat-free
mass; DXA = dual X-ray absorptiometry. mass; DXA = dual X-ray absorptiometry.

Nuñez FJ et al. Field Methods to Estimate …  Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing Thieme

▶Table 3 Cross-sectional validity between criterion (DXA) fat-free mass and other practical estimates of fat-free mass in international-level elite soccer
players (n = 17).

Estimates of Correlation (90 % CI) Bias ( ± LoA) Standardised Qualitative assessment

fat-free mass differences (90 % CL)
BIA Tanita 0.93 (0.85;0.97) 7.59 * ( ± 3.34) 1.74 (0.15) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Slater et al. 0.96 (0.90;0.98) –16.48 * ( ± 2.73) –4.65 (0.12) Almost certainly 0/0/100
Oliver et al. 0.95 (0.89;0.98) 9.38 * ( ± 2.62) 2.13 (0.10) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Durnin et al. 0.95 (0.89;0.98) 6.21 * ( ± 2.62) 1.44 (0.11) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Faulkner et al. 0.95 (0.90;0.98) 7.45 * ( ± 2.79) 1.72 (0.13) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Carter et al. 0.94 (0.87;0.98) 10.24 * ( ± 2.98) 2.31 (0.14) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Deurenberg et al. 0.90 (0.78;0.96) 0.53 ( ± 3.46) 0.13 (0.18) Unclear 0/100/0
Withers et al. 0.95 (0.89;0.98) 9.17 * ( ± 2.65) 2.09 (0.12) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Lohman et al. 0.94 (0.87;0.98) 10.32 * ( ± 3.04) 2.33 (0.13) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Reilly et al. 0.95 (0.88;0.98) 8.06 * ( ± 2.80) 1.85 (0.13) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Yuhasz et al. 0.95 (0.87;0.98) 9.26 * ( ± 2.89) 2.11 (0.13) Almost certainly 100/0/0

Significant differences between criterion (DXA) fat-free mass and others practical estimates of fat-free mass using paired t-test * . CI = confidence
interval; LoA = level of agreement; CL = confidence level; BIA = bioelectrical impedance analysis.

▶Table 4 The relationship between criterion (DXA) whole-body fat-free

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mass and the different anthropometric variables in elite youth male soccer mates in international soccer players. Similar results were obtained
players (n = 17).
in an analysis of youth male soccer players [7] in which three skin-
Correlation P value fold equations were suggested to assess FFM. Our findings suggest
Skinfolds that the equation proposed by Deurenberg et al. [18] is a more valid
Triceps  − 0.18 0.485 practical method for use in international soccer players. Skinfolds
Subscapular 0.14 0.570 do not seem to be appropriate to predict FFM in international soc-
Biceps 0.07 0.769
cer players because they were not included in the equation pro-
posed by Deurenberg et al. [18] or our international soccer-specif-
Iliac crest  − 0.05 0.842
ic prediction equation. The FFM in international soccer players was
Supraspinale 0.07 0.771
better determined by other anthropometric parameters, most like-
Abdominal  − 0.25 0.327
ly because this population is characterized by low FM [3, 10, 31]
Anterior thigh 0.09 0.726
and tends to remain relatively FM-stable throughout the inter-sea-
Medial calf  − 0.25 0.316
son [5, 32].
Σ4 skinfolds (triceps, subscapular,  − 0.10 0.691
Hip, relaxed and flexed arm circumferences, and humerus
supraspinale, abdominal)
breadths showed large significant correlations with DXA FFM data.
Σ4 skinfolds (triceps, subscapular,  − 0.08 0.748
The statistical relationships from circumferences can be explained
biceps, iliac crest)
because they are influenced by the conditioning and training re-
Σ4 skinfolds (triceps, abdominal,  − 0.14 0.576
anterior thigh, medial calf)
ceived by soccer players during the season’s phases [2]. Milanese
et al. [2] argued that the maximal strength training and endurance
Σ5 skinfolds 0.03 0.892
strength conditioning focused on the lower limbs during the pre-
Σ6 skinfolds  − 0.08 0.756
season, but limited changes in lower limbs and significantly in-
Σ7 skinfolds  − 0.08 0.751
creased FFM in the trunk and upper limbs were found at mid- and
Σ8 skinfolds  − 0.07 0.762
end-season time points. Despite being a relatively stable sample in
Circumferences (cm)
terms of its anthropometric variables [31, 32], it could be possible
Arm relaxed 0.70 0.002
that the time chosen for the anthropometric measurement (i. e.
Arm flexed 0.57 0.017 mid- and end-season) could have influenced the data obtained
Waist 0.07 0.789 [2, 5].
Hip 0.68 0.003 The relative FFM values in the lower limbs, trunk, and upper
Thigh 0.39 0.112 limbs in soccer players, are very important to execute the locomo-
Breadths (cm) tor activities, jumps, kicks and flight that the game demands
Humerus 0.51 0.037 [16, 31]. Nevertheless, only relaxed arm and hip circumference var-
Femur 0.06 0.813 iables were included in the equation to estimate FFM in interna-
Σ5 skinfolds = triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest, anterior thigh; Σ6
tional soccer players. This equation explains more than 65 % of the
skinfolds = subscapular, triceps, supraspinale, abdominal, anterior thigh, variance in DXA FFM, although additional research is needed to re-
medial calf; Σ7 skinfolds = biceps, subscapular, triceps, supraspinale, duce errors and increase accuracy in estimating FFM in this popu-
abdominal, anterior thigh, medial calf; Σ8 skinfolds = biceps, subscapular, lation.
triceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, anterior thigh, medial calf.

Nuñez FJ et al. Field Methods to Estimate …  Int J Sports Med

▶Table 5 Stepwise regression analysis predicting fat-free mass (DXA without head) from anthropometric variables in international-level elite soccer play-
ers (n = 17).

Model R R2 Adjusted R2 SEE R2 change F F change Significant F

change
1 0.697 0.485 0.451 2.893 0.485 14.149 14.149 0.002
2 0.807 0.652 0.602 2.463 0.166 13.102 6.689 0.022

Model 1: relaxed arm circumference. Model 2: relaxed arm circumference, hip circumference. R2 = coefficient of determination; SEE = standard error of
the estimate.

The present study does have several limitations. DXA FFM as- [6] Lopez-Taylor JR, Gonzalez-Mendoza RG, Gaytan-Gonzalez A,
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Torres-Naranjo F. Accuracy of anthropometric equations for estimating
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[8] Reilly T, George K, Marfell-Jones M, Scott M, Sutton L, Wallace JA. How
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Conflict of Interest
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