Suez Canal Project
Suez Canal Project
Suez Canal Project
https://www.issmge.org/publications/online-library
ABSTRACT : This paper briefly describes the history of the great Canal at Suez, the engineering and construction challenges and the
enormous obstacles which had to be overcome. The paper also highlights the principal role of De Lesseps, the fight between the
French and English over ruling the world’s most important highway, the many sacrifices made by Egyptians and the evolution of the
art of dredging.
RÉSUME: Ce document décrit enbref l’histoire du Canal de Suez, les défis d’ingénierie et, de construction, et les obstacles qui ont
été surmontés. Il éclaire le rôle principal de De Lesseps, les luttes entre la France et l’Angleterre pour gouverner la voies la plus
importante au monde, les sacrifices des Egyptiens et l’évolution de l’art de dragages.
1 INTRODUCTION for the purpose of transporting wheat from the Nile Valley to
Mecca by water from Cairo to Jeddah via Suez.
In 776 A.D., Abbasi Caliph Abu Jaafar Abdullah al Mansour
The construction of the Suez Canal created the most important ordered the canal to be blocked at the junction between the canal
highway in the world, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the and the Bitter Lakes to hinder the transport of supplies between
Red Sea. The construction of the Canal created three cities; Port- Egypt and the inhabitants of Medina, who were at that time in
Said, Ismailia and Suez; and created two main ports, Port-Said revolt against the Caliphate.
and Suez. The Suez Canal project resulted in Egypt becoming It seems likely that these earlier canals were only navigable
bankrupt in 1876 and being occupied in 1882. The canal was during the seasons of high Nile and that, for the rest of the year,
nationalized in 1956, which led to the 1956 war between France, the level of water, which depended on the level of water in the
England and Israel from one side and Egypt on the other side. Nile, was too low for the passage of ships of any size. Traces of
these early canals were found both by Bonaparte’s surveyors
during the French occupation at the end of the eighteenth century
2 THE HISTORY OF THE CANAL and fifly-five years later, by De Lesseps’ engineers during their
preliminary surveys.
Although these canals were not built for the purpose of
2.1 Antecedent Canals
marine communication between the Mediterranean Sea and the
According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the Pharaoh Nacho of the Red Sea, the knowledge that they had been built served as an
XXVIth dynasty, who ruled Egypt between 609 and 593 B.C. inspiration and example, one thousand and more years later, to
started to build a canal from the Pelusiac branch of the Nile those who began thinking and planning in terms of a canal for
through the way of Wadi Tumulat, a natural depression running this purpose.
east and west between the Nile delta and the Isthmus of Suez.
Herodotus said that 100,000 Egyptians perished in the course of
2.2 The Development o f Plans fo r the Suez Canal
digging this canal.
The Canal was continued after the Persian conquest by The serious contemporary efforts that resulted in the evolution of
Darius Hystapsis (52M 86 B.C.) who again discontinued it the Suez Canal date back to the days of the French expedition. In
fearing that if he cut through the Isthmus, Egypt would be 1798, Bonaparte accompanied by an impressive body of French
flooded by sea water as the Red Sea was believed to be higher scientists, engineers, physicians, zoologists, agronomists,
than mainland Egypt. At that time, the canal reached as far as the archaeologists and many others, formed themselves into an
Bitter Lakes. “Institut d’Egypte” for the purpose of studying, documenting,
The canal was finally completed by Ptolemy II and named and making recommendations about various aspects of Egyptian
Philadelphus (285-246 B.C.). A port called Arsinoe was created life and culture. Among the schemes for the modernization of
near the existing modem Suez. A lock was constructed with Egypt was the Suez Canal. Bonaparte made a personal
double gates between the Red Sea and the canal to prevent the reconnaissance in the Isthmus, accompanied by members of the
influx of salt water to the Nile. “Institut d’ Egypte” and of the “Commission des Sciences et des
This canal does not seem to have remained navigable for long Arts”. He inspected the anchorage at Suez, explored the country
and had become disused by the beginning of the Christian era. between Suez and the Bitter Lakes, and claimed to have
After the Roman conquest it was restored to use in 98 A.D. discovered traces of the old Ptolemaic canal mentioned earlier.
under the Emperor Trajan, when the Nile terminal was moved to On his return to Cairo he appointed the engineer Le Père, to
Babylon, a few miles upstream from modem Cairo, by extending make a detailed preliminary survey.
the canal from the original terminal on the Pelusiac branch, to A serious surveying error was made over the relative levels
the mainstream of the Nile. Trajan’s canal appears to have been of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, which seemed to
used for navigation for about a century, Figure (1). confirm existing tradition and which affected future thinking
Amr Ibn El Aas, the Arab Governor of Egypt, re-opened about the Canal for the next fifty years. Le Père and his
Trajan’s canal in 641-642 A.D., on the order of the Caliph Omar, assistants found, erroneously, that the level of the Red Sea at
2311
Mediterranean sea
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Figure 1: Isthmus of Suez and Delta with the Ancient Canal of Trajan,
The Sweet Water Canal and the Maritime Canal.
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Table (1): The Diffèrent Projects of the Maritime Canal
Avant Projet by M. Mougel & The Project of the The Project o f the The Project o f the
M. Linant Commission International superior counsel o f general contractor
work
Date March 1855 December 1856 1 8 5 8 - 1859 1859
Description Alignment followed by the Suggested to introduce a Proposed by the
natural configuration o f the light slope at the canal bed general contractor
places, avoiding as much as from south to north in o f the project. This
possible curvatures. order to conserve the level alignment had
o f the Bitter lakes at 0.28 many curvatures
m below average elevation
o f the red sea
Width (m) 100 m at water level, 65m at 80 m at water level, 44 m 58 m at water level, 22
bed level at bed level m at bed level
Depth (m) 7.50 to 8.00 8.00
Side Slope 2:1 2:1 2:1 2:1
Locks With two locks Without locks Without locks Without locks
Interior port At Timsah lake At Timsah lake At Timsah Lakes,
Bitter Lakes & Ballah
Lakes
Estimated volume o f 74,679,132 104,477,926 91,177,926 Reduction in soil
excavation (m3) excavation by
11,392,515
Estimation o f total 162,550,000 118,851,595 124,000,000
expenses (Francs)
high tide was thirty feet above that o f the Mediterranean Sea. water infiltrating through the sand, and disruption to the traffic
They deduced from this that a direct cut between the by the lock operations at each end.
Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea was impracticable, and Figure (2) presents the different plans initially prepared for
concluded that a new canal must follow, more or less, the route the Suez Canal layout. Table (1) presents a comparison among
of the old Ptolemaic canal and join the Red Sea to the these different plans. Figure (3) presents the constructed layout
Mediterranean Sea via Nile. and the Sweet Water Canal layout.
In 1840, based on Mohamed A li’s instructions, Linant
published a report on his canal studies. This report assumed the
correctness o f Le Père’s findings about the relative levels o f the 2.3 Concessions by the Egyptian Government
Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. He suggested that the
The main features o f the first concession (1854) were:
difference in head would provide a current running form south to
The period o f the concession is 99 years from the day o f
north. He proposed a canal with locks and with strong banks to
the opening o f the Canal between the two seas.
prevent flooding He therefore suggested the direct route as a
A ll necessary land, will be granted free and exempted from
possible alternative to the classical route via the Nile.
taxes.
In the spring o f 1847 three teams o f engineers from the
The net profit will be divided as follows:
“Société d’Etudes” arrived in Egypt, led by Talabot, Stephenson
15% the Egyptian Government
and Negrelli. Stephenson’s team was to investigate the Gulf o f
10% Founders shares.
Suez, Negrelli’s the Bay o f Pelusium and Talabot’s the interior
75% the Company
of the Isthmus. They recommended the route from Alexandria to
Suez via the Nile. The Company is granted to work all mines and quarries
belonging to the public lands without paying.
As early as 1851 De Lesseps had got in touch with Talabot
The Company is to enjoy free importation o f all machines
who supplied him with information about the work o f the
and materials from abroad for the works o f the Concession.
“Société d ’Etudes”. They believed that D e Lesseps would put his
negotiating ability at the disposal o f the “Société d ’Etudes”. De The main features o f the second concession (1856) were
Lesseps was in disagreement with the “Société d ’Etudes” on two The Canal should be a direct cut between the Red Sea and
fundamental points. From the technical point o f view he appears the Mediterranean Sea;
to have become convinced that the Talabot scheme for a canal There should be a navigable freshwater canal connecting
via the N ile would be impracticable owing to the increasing size the N ile with Lake Timsah and running parallel to the
of the ocean-going steamships which the canal would have to whole length o f the Maritime Canal;
accommodate and as a result a direct cut across the Isthmus was De Lesseps should be President o f the Company for the
practical. From the political point o f view, he seems to have first ten years after the Canal’s completion;
realized that financial backing from the great European banks At least four-fifths o f the workers employed in the
was unrealistic due to the known British opposition. De Lesseps construction o f the Canal shall be Egyptians;
opportunity came in September 1854 when Abbas, the Viceroy The Egyptian Government should give the Company free
of Egypt died and was succeeded by his uncle Mohamed Said, and free o f tax the use o f all public lands necessary for the
an old friend o f De Lesseps. construction o f the Canal and its dependencies;
During that time Mr. Maclean, a well known English The Company will get free o f tax for the first ten years, the
engineer on the British Commission, submitted a proposal which use o f all public land brought into cultivation as a result of
was seriously considered, debated and finally rejected. This was the Company’s operations.
to construct high banks all along the course o f the Canal and
raise the waterline almost to the level o f these banks, confining
the water between locks at both ends. But there were obvious
objections to this scheme; danger o f the banks bursting, or the
2313
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Figure 2: Comparative Different Plans For Several Project of The Maritime Canal
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The difference between the two concessions can be summarized The canal was damaged extensively and was out
as follows: o f operation for several years.
The first concession had been for a period o f 99 years 1975 June The canal was again opened, and since then has
without provision for renewal. The second concession was been maintained and enlarged
also for 99 years but with a provision for renewal up to 500
years subject to an increased take by the Egyptian
Government, 5% increase every 100 years. 3 CONSTRUCTION COST AND EGYPT’S SHARE
The second concession provided that De Lesseps should be
President for ten years from the time that the Canal was According to the Company’s books the total cost o f the Canal
opened, while the first concession provided that the construction at the end o f 1869, was 453,645,000 Francs. Of this
President should be nominated by the Egyptian sum, 200,000,000 was funded from the original capital. All of
Government. which, including the Egyptian Government share holding, had
The first concession made a provision for fortification for been fully paid up by the end of 1869. The balance of
the canal to be erected by the Egyptian Government at their 253,645,000 was paid as follows:
own charge. The second concession made no mention o f
fortification. 1. 100.000.000 Francs obtained from two bonds issued
in 1867-1868.
The supply o f labor was done through corvee and courbash. A 2. 84.000.000 Francs indemnity.
’corvee’ is a draft o f forced labor, pressed into service by the 3. 10.000.000 Francs received from the resale of the
village headmen under the orders o f the Government to perform Wadi Lands to the Egyptian Government (the
public work. A ’courbash’ is a rawhide whip wielded by the Company bought it earlier for 2,000,000 Francs from
overseers on the backs o f the wretched laborers. It was certain the Egyptian Government).
that the only way o f recruiting labor on the scale required would 4. 30.000.000 Francs paid by the Egyptian Government
be by means o f a corvee. Such a corvee would have to be raised to the Company for various physical assets, customer
by the Egyptian Government by an agreement between the and fishing rights, etc., purchased by the Egyptian
Company and the Egyptian Government The Decree appeared Government from the Company in accordance with
to commit the Government to supply on demand all the labor the terms o f a convention signed on 23 April 1869.
which the Company, in its own estimation, might require. 30.000.000 Francs obtained from interest paid by the
Workers should be paid at a rate o f from 2.5 to 3 piastres a day Egyptian Government under the terms o f the March
plus rations to the value o f one piastre a day. A piastre is 1/100 1863 and January 1866 conventions, on amount due
o f the Egyptian Pound. on the Egyptian Government’s ordinary shareholding
and on the indemnity.
2.4 M ilestone E vents o f the Suez Canal
Apart from the sum o f 453,645,000 Francs appearing in the
1854 B y a French initiative, the Viceroy o f Egypt, Company’s books, there were numerous expenses incurred by
Said Pasha, decided to build a canal connecting the Egyptian Government in connection with the Canal as
the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. follows: (1) Cost o f construction o f sweet water canal from
1858 “La Companie Universelle du Canal Maritime Cairo to Ras El Wadi 21,500,000 Francs. (2) Cost of
de Suez” is formed to construct the canal. The construction o f Radoub Basin at Suez 9,000,000 Francs. (3) Cost
company, which was owned by both French and of construction o f port works at Suez 23,395,000 Francs, and (4)
Egyptian interests, agrees to build the canal and Construction o f lighthouses at northern terminal o f Canal
administer it for the following 99 years. After 1,250,000 Francs. The total comes to 55,145,000 Francs.
this time, the ownership would pass to the The money spent by the Egyptian Government on the Canal
Egyptian government. was in the form o f share capital, indemnities, public works
25/4/1859 Construction began. connected with the Canal, the expenses ofNubar’s missions to
17/11/1869 With great splendor, the canal is opened for Paris and Constantinople, and the lavish entertainment which
navigation. Average dimensions were 22 meters accompanied the formal opening o f the Canal in 1869. Most of
in bottom width, 58 meters in surface width, and this money had to be raised by foreign loans. It has been
depth o f 8 meters. estimated that the total amount o f debt incurred by the Egyptian
1875 The British government buys the Egyptian Government in the course o f raising the money spent on the
stocks Canal amounted to some 400,000,000 Francs. The 400,000,000
1888 B y an international convention, the canal was Francs in 1869, mostly loans, continued to grow and represented
opened for ships o f all nations. most o f the Egyptian Government’s total debt o f 2,225 million
1936 Through a treaty, the British received rights to Francs at the time o f Egypt’s bankruptcy in 1876.
keep military forces in the Canal Zone. In return, the Egyptian Government received (1) ordinary
1948 Egyptian authorities introduced regulations share at a par value o f some 87 million Francs. They had
against the use o f the canal by vessels serving surrendered all interest and dividends until 1894, and in 1875,
Israelis ports. sold the shares to the British Government for 100 million Francs,
1954 Agreement between Egypt and Britain provided and (2) 15% o f the net profits o f the Company, which was sold
for British withdrawal within the following 7 in 1880 to the Credit Fancier for a sum o f 22 million Francs.
years. Table (2) presents the annual expenses during the construction
1956 June British troops left and Egyptian forces moved period.
into British installations.
1956 July Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal
31/10/1956 France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, Year Others* Total
Construction
declaring their intention to open up the canal for
Expenses
all vessels. They were forced to withdraw under
1860 3,624,678 5,575,934 9,200,612
U S pressure.
1861 10,830,671 2,535,971 13,366,643
1957 March Reopening o f the canal, following U N action.
1862 9,177,026 7,950,420 17,127,447
1962 A ll original shareholders were paid off
5/6/1967 D ue to the Six-Day War, the canal was closed. 1863 18,348,535 8,988,194 27,336,729
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1864 2 0 ,8 7 0 ,1 4 7 7,967,018 28,8 3 7 ,1 6 6 proposed scheme o f the canal was sixty miles o f passage through
1865 2 2 ,6 0 1 ,2 2 9 8,709,614 31,310,844 lakes and forty miles cut in the land.
1866 3 2,867,559 7,893,214 4 0,760,774
1867 5 4,547,022 14,759,232 69,306,255 4.2 Geology o f the Isthm us
1868 38,515,062 12,545,304 51,060,367
l sl 6 8,8 0 8 ,1 6 0 4 7,258,376 116,066,537
The entire soil o f the Isthmus o f Suez belongs to the Tertiary
sem ester
formation like lower and Middle Egypt and the great plateau of
of 1869
2nd the Libyan Desert. The composition o f the ground o f the Suez
19,783,772 8,650,732 28,-,34,504
Canal consists o f three distinct zones:
sem ester
of 1869 1. The first, the Mediterranean which starts at the salt
Total FF 2 99,9 7 3 ,8 6 7 132,834,015 432,807,882 marsh o f Ballah shore (0 km) to the km 66.
♦Social charge, general administration fees, accessory 2. The second, the middle one, including the lake
materials and administration department costs Timsah, comprises the region between km 67 and km
95.
3. The third starts from km 96 to the Red Sea shore at
4 CANAL PROFILE km 160.
4.1 Topography Figure (4) shows Egypt in the past geological periods. The
Mediterranean Sea or the Red Sea has covered the Isthmus
All along the course o f the Canal, there is a natural depression. region during different geological ages. It is concluded (Ball,
The lowest portion o f which is the basin o f the lakes which had 1938) that between the commencement of the Pleistocene period
long been dry. At only two locations does the ground rise much and now, the lands bordering the Red Sea and Gulf o f Suez have
above the level o f the sea: Chaluf (36 feet) and El Guisr (59 undergone elevation or the sea level has fallen by something like
feet). a hundred meters. Accordingly the final uncovering o f the
The shoreline was very shallow and large ships could not Isthmus o f Suez is related to this geological period. Figure (5)
approach within four or five miles. It was also feared at that time provides Suez geological map.
that as fast as the channel was dredged the sand would slip from
beneath and the whole “tumble in“. The quicksand would
swallow up stones later. However, a point was discovered in the 4.3 M orphology o f Isthmus:
rim o f sand where fully 30 feet o f water could be found within
little more than a mile from the shore. The Nile runs south north through Egypt. It is surrounded almost
A rather curious configuration o f the outline o f the coast is parallelly by two chains o f mountains, which separate it from the
that the sea is separated from a huge lake known as “Lake Libyan Desert and the Red Sea. Near Cairo, the Nile bifurcates
Menezelah” by a long strip o f very soft clay that appears on the into two branches, which embraced the Delta plain. The eastern
map like the rim o f a tea-cup, a few hundred feet wide. This sort mountain chain becomes much lower after crossing the line
of sea-wall stretches across for about forty miles. Somewhere in connecting Suez and Cairo and extends as calcareous hills in a
this rim an opening was to be made for the canal; further a port
northeast direction to the other side o f Lake Temsah.
and a town would have to be formed, with docks to shelter and Between the Red Sea and the Gulf o f Pelusium, there is a
repair vessels, warehouses to store goods and all on a strip o f depression, which is evident by the Bitter Lake and Lake
land. Within ten years this strip o f very soft clay slob has been Temsah. The depression has indeed some undulations between
converted into a thriving town, laid out in regular streets and the bitter lakes and Lake Temsah and further between Lake
squares, having 10,000 inhabitants; a fine port had been created. Temsah and Lake Manzala. With the exception o f the two ridges
The first part o f the canal is “Lake Menezelah”, a shallow which rise from 12 to 15 meters and are very short there is a sort
lake which would have from four to five feet o f depth, and in o f almost horizontal valley along the whole length o f the
which for 29 miles the Canal would have been excavated The isthmus. At the middle o f this longitudinal valley there is a
mainland is then reached at “Kantara” where for about 3 miles it perpendicular depression which extends from the center o f the
proceeds as a small tongue o f land which separates the great lake isthmus to the alluvial lands o f the Delete.
from a smaller one, called “Lake Ballah”, a distance o f about It results from this natural morphology o f the isthmus that the
five miles, and there reaches a tract extending for nearly ten direction o f the canal is marked by nature and that the second
miles and consisting o f a gradually ascending series o f hills in depression which connect Lake Temsah to Belbeys represent the
“El Guisr”. It was expected that the El Guisr excavation would proper connection between the interior navigation o f Egypt with
represent a major challenge and one o f the serious difficulties o f the maritime navigation. Based on the above morphology and
the work. This plateau was about ten miles in length and rose confirmed by finding from the soil investigation, the study
about fifty feet above the waterline. revealed two main geological facts:
After this, comes “Lake Timsah”, where it was proposed to
construct a halfway port. Across this hollow it was now to 1. During great inundation, the Nile water reach the
proceed for four miles. Though called a lake it had been long isthmus in three locations: (a) in the north at Lake
dried up. It is now a great sheet o f water, four miles long by Manzalah through Damietta Branch, (b) the central
three miles wide. Next the Serapeum plateau was encountered, part at Lake Temsah through the valley of Wady
stretching for about seven miles. Its highest point being about 35 Toumilat which is usually flooded during high Nile
feet above the sea level. Had the Canal been carried forward in a levels and filled parts o f Lake Temsah and (c) Bitter
straight line another stiff plateau, that o f Geneffe, would have Lakes by going around the Serapeum ridges during
been encountered; but by following the course o f the lake and exceptionally high N ile floods.
striking o ff to the right it was avoided. The distance through the 2. The intrusion o f the Red Sea to at least the Bitter
Bitter Lakes was about twenty miles. After this bend the straight Lakes as evidenced by the presence o f salt bands and
course was resumed, down to Suez, where another plateau, that the marine shells.
of El Chalouf, was intersected.
The basin o f the Bitter Lakes provided a depth o f twenty feet
of water without cutting for a distance o f about eight miles. The
2317
I
-I n d o f P l i o e e i i e S u b s i d e n c e
( I I n ’ d o l l e d l i n e s \ l m u lIn* | i r e s e n i - d ; t \ c o ; i s i - l i n e l o r e o i n p ; i r i \ o n )
2318
Figure 5 : Isthmus of Suez Geological Map
2319
4.4 Soil Boring A second, boring No. 12, made at the other end of Serapeum,
and on the slope which leads to Lake Timsah, also produced
sand mixed with fine gravel.
The initial soil investigation was two boreholes by M. Lepere as
At Lake Timsah, the southern part was dry. There was a little
part of the work done by the Egyptian Commissioners, at
water only in the northern part because the inundation o f the Nile
stations 16 and 21, respectively. This was followed by 19
was not very great that year and the river did not then reach the
boreholes by De Lesseps Engineers along the some 160
lake. But the signs o f the N ile presence could be seen
kilometers length o f the canal. These 19 boreholes were
everywhere by the slime which been previously left there,
executed between 1854 and 1855. During the actual construction
similar to that o f the plains o f Upper Egypt. It is probable that
additional and confirmation boreholes were drilled at an average
the Red Sea stretched even as far as Lake Timsah as under the
intervals o f 150 meters. Sir Hawkshaw, president o f the
slime, borings showed shells that belong to the Red Sea which
Institution of Civil Engineers, upon reviewing the soil
do not exist in the Mediterranean Sea. Two boreholes No. 15 and
investigation campaign declared that 150-meter apart boreholes
16 made in Lake Timsah, and yielded only sand of different
are not a guarantee. The 19 boreholes were executed in the
color somewhat argillaceous.
following locations:
To the north o f Lake Timsah the ridge o f El Guisr is the
Roadstead of Suez,
highest point o f the Isthmus at 16 meters above the lower level
The ridge separates Suez from the Bitter Lakes,
o f the Mediterranean Sea. It consists o f a great deposit of sand.
The basin of the Bitter Lakes,
Borehole No. 18 was the deepest excuted borehole at depth of
The ridge of Serapeum,
23.35 meters. The soil formation is, from the surface to the
The ridge of El Guisr, the highest point o f the Isthmus, and
bottom, sand alternating with little beds o f clay and o f sulphate
Lake Manzalah.
o f lime; small gravel; fine sand. The last four meters are sand
Two borings were first made near Suez in the course o f the
hardened almost into stone.
future Canal. The first borehole is eleven meters in depth. Soil
From the ridge o f El Guisr to Pelusium, the gravel, has been
formation is as follows from the surface to the bottom, yellow
getting finer and finer, and entirely disappears. Two borings
agglutinated sand, coarse and muddy sand, very fine sand, and
were made in Lake Menzaleh. Borehole (20) yielded Nile slime,
yellow argillaceous sand. The second borehole is twelve meters
sandy clay, and sea sand. Borehole (21) yielded sea sand, muddy
in depth, produced shells, gravel, and coarse agglutinated sand,
sand, and, sandy mud. Figure (6) shows borehole locations and
which forms a hard rock o f 3 'A meters in thickness; fine yellow
soil classification.
sand slightly agglutinated, coarse red sand, and firm sand and
gravel. Except for 3 'A meters o f thickness, where the
agglutinated sand has almost attained the hardness o f stone, the 4.5 Soil Profile
nature o f soil is good for the dredgers to excavate to form the
For summary, along the Maritime Canal o f Suez, in its whole
canal channel. To the north and west o f Suez extends a plain
course o f 157,956 meters, the subsoil conditions are two
mostly covered by sand that appears to consist o f the deposit left
principal kinds: (1) clays, from Suez to the Bitter Lakes; and (2)
by high tides. It is impregnated with a damp salt which makes it
firm sand, from the Bitter Lakes to its termination in the Bay of
compact.
Pelusium. It may be generally stated that the soil profile along
The third borehole was undertaken at 814 kilometers from
the canal consists o f two portions. The higher portion from
Suez, on the first traces o f the canal o f the Pharaohs, on the track
“Lake Menezelah” to about the middle, was formed mainly of
o f the caravans from Egypt to Mecca. The borehole showed ten
sand easy to work with. TTie second portion, the lower half, was
meters o f clay, more or less sandy. The two banks o f the ancient
mainly gravelly, with clay. The soil profile along the Canal is
canal can be recognized and were in some places fifty meters
shown in Figure (7). Detailed soil profile is presented in Figures
apart with height o f five to six meters. The borehole also
(B .l) through (B.4).
indicated some crystallized sulfate o f lime and some pebbles in
Near Serapeum a layer o f rock was found, which in one place
the sand mass. The fourth borehole is about twenty kilometers
and for a length o f eighty yards, increased suddenly form a few
from Suez. The top 2 to 3 meters are sand followed by nothing
inches to a thickness o f seven feet. Figure (B.5) provides a
but clay all the way to depth 16.0 meters. Borings 3 and 4
longitudinal profile along the rock layer found near Serapeum.
therefore, showed plainly that the ridge, which separates the Red
At the bottom of the Bitter Lakes a six feet deep deposit of
Sea from the Bitter Lakes, consists almost entirely o f clay, more
crystallized salts was found. This proves that the Red Sea had
or less compact.
formerly flowed over this basin. Figure (B.6) provides a
The Bitter Lakes, forty kilometers are divided into two
longitudinal profile along the salt band and presents its
basins, a small and a larger basin. Four borings (5th 6th 7th and
disintegration with time.
8th) made in the small basin o f bitter lakes, the superficial soil
were besides sulphate o f lime, sand and shells, and light brown
clay, more or less sandy. This clay has occasionally the
5 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANAL CROSS
appearance o f the slime o f the Nile. The greater basin is about
SECTION AND ITS ALIGNMENT
twenty-five kilometers long. The bottom is covered with sand,
shells, and crystallized sulphate o f lime. A thick bed o f sea salt
The practical breadth o f the canal is its breadth at the bottom. Al
was found in the deepest part o f the lake. Two borings have been
made in the large basin o f Bitter Lakes; these are the 9th and opening, the Suez Canal cross section breadth measured 72 feet
10th. The 9th boring o f depth o f 2.20 meters, presents only from end to end, though for seventy-seven miles (78% o f the
agglutinations o f shell, more than 20 centimeters in thickness, total length) it was double the width. The smaller dimensions
and after this, sulphate o f lime and salt The 10th boring, which were adopted for the heavy cuttings, tg save expense. At the
is 3.5 meters deep, shows nothing but sea salt. At these two opening, the Canal had been excavated mainly according to one
borings, the surface o f the soil is 6.69 meters and 7.35 meters o f the following sections:
below the lowest level o f the Mediterranean. These masses o f
salt are sometimes placed on deposits o f mud from the Nile. 1. 196 feet in width at the surface o f water, 26 feet deep, and
From the middle o f the isthmus at the ridge of Serapeum to 72 feet at the bottom. The slopes are 2 horizontal to 1
the Mediterranean nothing was found but sand, except at Boring vertical, with one or more horizontal benches o f 10 feel in
19, where there is marl. width, according to the depth o f the cutting.
Boring No. 11 made at the boundary between Bitter Lakes 2. 327 feet in width at the surface o f water, with the same
and Serapeum, produced only sand and fine gravel for 8 meters. depth o f 26 feet for width o f 72 feet at the bottom. The
2320
SERAPEliM
PORTSAÏD
MANCALA BA LLA I! TIMS AH
LAKES LAKES LAKES
Medherr»««*»Se* AMERS LAKES RE D SEA
sun rt.AY
'fâ 'îfï cl ^
;/r^q jtn t.4 .
1111! ! S! 11i i ! : Î ! Ì1i II il Ii Ii !1 ! i i ! ! i 1SU î U i î 1 ! :I ì ! i : a n h i !i i i I
2322
j C O M P A C T E D SA N D C A LC A R E O U S SO IL & G Y P S j 1 3 G R A V E L * BO W LD ERS s o r r r o c k U M
1 . 1
L ^ J a g g lo m e r a t e
Entrance o f Amers lakes 95.663 95.963 0.300 Profile (4) with two submerged dikes
95.963 96.673 0.710 Profile (4) with one submerged dike (Africa side)
96.673 98.443 1.770 Profile (5) with immerse dikes
The large Bitter lake 98.443 114.393 15.950 Lagoon
114.393 114.524 0.131 Lagoon
The small Bitter lake 114.524 132.300 17.776 Profile (5) with immerse dikes
The small Bitter lake 132.300 133.500 1.200 Profile (4) with one submerged dike (Africa side)
133.500 134.303 0.803 Profile (4) with two submerged dikes
2323
PROFILE ( I )
ja L a
Ei
2;
N ja
im .
dO S kr - T
<20.20)
PROFILE ( 2 )
8 m i- J,v*ri*H4 "U
3m
PROFILE MODIFICATION
PROFILE ( 3A ) PROFILE ( 3B )
BETW EEN K ILO PO IN T 74.544 & 75.334 AT EL GIIISR
PROFILE ( 4 )
I
2324
H ALF PRO FILE W ITH IM M ERSE BANK
PROFILE ( 5 )
Stalrvel (18:25)
98P5P*
B E
.WID_____•i*.1”.
PROFILE ( 7 )
M O D IFIC A T IO N O F T H E P R O F IL E
NORTH E L C H A L O I F
2325
MODIFICATION OF THE PROFILE
SOUTH EL CHALOUF
PROFILE ( 8B )
PROFILE ( 9 )
PROFILE ( 10 )
2326
Year Cross Section (m)J Depth (m)
1869 304 7.80
Before 1980 1800 16.00
1980 3600 19.50
1994 4000 20.50
Second stage
5000 25.00
(currently)
Figure ( 1 1 ) : Progress o f Suez Canal Cross Section Since Opening in 1869 till N ow 2000
El Chalouf 134.303 137.053 2.750 Profile (6)
137.053 142.382 5.329 Profile (7) + Profiles modification (8A - 8B) at north &
south El Chalouf
At Suez 142.382 148.871 6.489 Profile (9)
Table (6): Comparison between the Three Weirs, El Timsah, Serapeum and Suez Weir
El Timsah Weir Serapeum Weir El Suez Weir
Construction period August 1866 to November December 1868 to February
1866 1869
The filling begin on 12 December 1866 18 Mars 1869 16 August 1869
Name o f the lake to be filled El Timsah Bitter Lakes Bitter Lakes
From Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea Red Sea
Duration o f filling 8 month 5 month before activation o f El Suez Weir and 70 days after the
entrance o f the water o f the Red Sea through El Suez Weir
Table (7): Filling o f Lake Timsah
Dates Elevation o f water in the lake The monthly water rise Average water rise per day
(m) (m) (cm)
12 December 1866 13.80
End o f December 1866 15.08 1.28 6.4
End o f January 1867 15.94 0.86 2.9
End o f February 1867 16.70 0.76 2.7
End o f March 1867 17.29 0.59 2.0
End o f April 1867 17.61 0.32 1.1
End o f May 1867 17.93 0.32 1.0
End o f June 1867 17.99 0.06 0.2
End o f July 1867 18.09 0.10 0.3
15 August 1867 18.20 0.11 0.6
2328
6.2 Geotechnical Engineering Depth o f water at 8m 5.80 to 6.00
(Inauguration day) m
6 .2 .1 Soft C lay Engineering Remainder to be excavated 241 mJ 20000 mJ
The portion from Port-Said to Lake Menezaleh, a 20 miles End o f extraction work March 1870 March 1870
distance, represented the first engineering challenge. This part
was about 5 feet deep with the lake bottom consisting o f slob
6.2.3 Slope Stability o f S a n d
resulting from the rich N ile deposits. The problems were: (1) the
excavation o f the mud (2) the construction and foundation o f the El Guisr plateau is a series o f hills o f sand. The delusion at that
canal banks on very weak soil, and (3) the use o f the excavated time was that cutting through sand the rest will fall and fill up
material for bank construction. the space and the workmen would be buried alive. The
The solution was as simple as utilizing local labor to scoop excavation has to be made to a depth o f nearly 70 feet with a
up large masses and squeezed the water out by pressing it against total volume o f 50 million cubic yards. The work was done using
their chests, then laid it in lumps one over the other. By doing 3 lines o f tramway, 6 large engines and 250 wagons by the
this a small channel 12 feet wide was formed. This channel contractor M. Couvreuxo. Side slopes o f 2:1 proved to be safe
allowed dredgers to work, and the operation soon reached below and stable.
the mud to the stiff clay. Slob and clay were allowed to dry in 6.2.4 Salt Band o f B itter Lakes
the sun before another layer was added. This provided for
cohesion to increase. When finished, the banks stood six feet At the bottom o f Bitter Lakes, an extraordinary band o f salt,
high above water. The sun cooperated and baked the whole into seven miles long by five miles wide was found. It was feared
a firm solid mass, so firm that the banks were used as roads that it would be dealt with like rock. It turned out that it was
where heavy loads were transported. easily dissolved. The progress o f the salt dissolution is presented
in Figure (B.6).
6.2.2 Reliability o f Soil Investigation
6.2.5 Effect o f Sand D rifting by Tornadoes a n d Whirlwinds
During his visit to the project in 1863, Sir J. Hawkshaw had
before warned o f the danger o f encountering rock layers. In fact, It was believed that such storms could bury an object in an
he predicted the possibility to encounter rock in this particular incredibly short period o f time, filling up the cuttings. The
area. He declared that soundings at such intervals were not a contradiction to this assumption was the existence o f large
guarantee. natural depressions such as Ballah Lake and Timsah Lake. It was
In his notes D e Lesseps wrote “fifteen days before the found that certain banks formed by these whirlwinds protected
inauguration o f the Canal, the engineers came to tell me that, these natural depressions from being buried. This suggested that
between two soundings taken at distance of 150 meters, a hard artificial banks all along the canal would be needed to operate as
rock layer had been discovered, which broke the buckets o f our a protecting measure against filling the canal.
dredgers. We have been blamed for not perceiving it sooner. However, a study by Sir J. Hawkshaw using records from the
Was it possible to take soundings at shorter distances in a length nearby Sweet Water Canal and soil type around the Maritime
of some 102 miles!?” Canal concluded that the sand lying adjacent to the canal was
De Lesseps rushed to the site where the rock layer was 15 generally compacted and, being often covered with small gravel
feel above the proposed bottom o f the canal and leaving only preventing its shifting. Only the portion from Lake Timsah to
nine feet o f water. A s every one began by declaring that there Lake Ballah (22/2 km) and a portion near Serapeum (14 km)
was nothing to be done, De. Lessebs shouted “Go and get would be subject to drifting sand Engineer M. Viilers estimated
powder at Cairo, He cried “powder in masses and then, if we that 30,000 cubic meters o f sand found its way to the Sweet
cannot blow up the rock, w e w ill blow ourselves up”. Water Canal. By proportion, Sir J. Hawkshaw estimated that the
The original design total excavation works at Serapeum was Suez Canal would be subject to 118,000 cubic meters, which
was insignificant.
6,577,235 m3. On 15 October 1869 the total excavated work
stood at 5,903,574 m3. The remainder to be excavated was 6.2.6 R ock Engineering
673,661 m3. After the adaptation o f the minimum profile
During excavation for 9 miles in Lake Ballah, an irregular
tolerance by reducing the amount o f excavation by 200,000 m3,
almost dry swamp, the excavated soil was found to be gypsum
the remainder to be excavated was 473,661 m3. At the end of
which when used for the banks cracked and decomposed. Other
October 1869, two rock layers were discovered at Serapeum, at
material, a combination o f slob and plaster, had to be carried
kilometer 87 and 93, respectively.
from some distance to be used for bank construction.
Table (8) summarizes the rock type, length o f layer and the
In 1865, D e Lesseps concluded that during the eight years
situation o f excavation at Inauguration date. At kilometer 87
they had been exploring and working the line, almost foot by
explosives were utilized using bottles containing 5 kg o f powder
foot, they had never come upon a single layer o f rock, unless it
each, placed on the rock layer at a distance o f 3.50 m to 4.00 m.
might be a very friable marl in the El Guisr cutting. He was also
At explosion, the rock layer was dislocated and broken. This
inclined to confess that close to Suez, in the Chalouf cutting,
method had produced satisfactory results at kilometer 87 and the
they had encountered a regular ledge o f rock, but that the
band had been broken to small pieces and then elevated by
engineers had made a short curve and avoided i t However, Sir J.
dredgers. At kilometer 93 boring was utilized by digging open
Hawkshaw predicted in 1862 the presence o f a rocky formation
pits with variable depth 1.20m to 1.50m on the rock layer and fill
in that area. At the last moment, on the very eve o f opening the
it with cartridges containing variable amount o f powder. The
Canal, a mass o f rock was discovered which had escaped notice
depth o f the open pits varies between 2/3 to 3/4 o f the layer
at the Chalouf cutting, exactly as Sir J.Hawshaw had predicted.
thickness to be dislocated.
At depth o f 17 feet below water line, a thin stratum o f Rock
suddenly increased from a few inches to the thickness o f 7 feet
Table (8) Rock excavation at Serapeum
for about 80 yards. Lying between two trial borings, this layer
kilometer 87 Kilometer 93
was not detected until after the water had been let in. The rock
Type of rock Sandstone Gypsum or was removed by blasting and dredging. Three dredgers were at
Agglomerate work with huge blocks o f stones being brought up by the
Length o f the layer 17m 150m buckets, which were split and broken by the rock. The rock
Depth o f water above the layer 5.50 m 4.50 m
2329
layers extraction at El Chalouf section, from kilo point 132 to £150,000 expense with plans to extend it further 1500 m in the
142, are summarized in Table (9): subsequent years.
Different plans for the design o f Port-Said Port are presented
Table (9): Rock layer extraction at El Chalouf in Figures (D .l) through (D.4). Figure (D. 5) presents the design
From 138.230 138.145 134.800 134.150 o f Suez Port. Figure (D .6) presents the design o f jetties in both
To 138.530 138.230 134.930 134.220 Suez and Port-Said ports.
Length 300 85 130 70
6.3.2 Chem ical Disintegration o f the P iers
(m)
Type of Hard rock Sandstone Hard Sandstone Examining the pier blocks in 1 8 7 3 , the submerged blocks were
rock sandstone encounter very satisfactory as they were covered with shells and weeds and
& ed by marl away from air. The upper blocks however, were exposed to the
Gypsum action o f air and spray which had disintegrated several of them.
Thickness 0.5. to 0.30 to 0.20 to 0.40 to O f the 1459 blocks that were visible, 1059 were broken. Two
(m) 2.60 0.40 0.60 1.40 thirds o f the broken ones show signs o f chemical disintegration.
Excavalio Dry Dry Dry Dry It was recommended to use rubble masonry laid in mortar of
stronger composition to resist the chemical reaction.
n method excavation excavation excavation excavation
Excavated 90,800 20,800 39,490 11,730
Soil (m3)
7 CANAL CONSTRUCTION
Excavated 19,980 120 1,920 1,250
Rock (m3)
7.1 Construction o f the Sw eet W ater C anal
6.3 M arine and Port Engineering The digging o f the Sweet Water Canal, from the end o f the
Zagazig Canal at the head o f Wadi Tumulate to lake Timsah and
6.3.1 Port-Said Entrance then southward to Suez, was quite straight forward and was done
mainly with forced labour and by hand. The cross section of
Work began in April 1859 on the construction o f the artificial
Sweet Water Canal was sixty feet in width by eight feet in depth.
port. A temporary jetty 300 feet long was constructed to receive
It was completed from Ras-El-Wadi to Timsah (twenty miles) in
material by sea, particularly stone from the Mex quarries. Stone
February 1862. The extension to Suez (fifty miles) was
was also made on the spot with a mixture o f one-third hydraulic
completed in December 1863. The stretch from Timsah to Porl-
lime and two-thirds sand, machine mixed with salt water and
Said was at first supplied with fresh water by pipeline, after the
made into blocks 12 cubic yards in size and weighing 22 tons
completion o f the Sweet Water Canal to Timsah, but the
each. Nearly 30,000 o f these blocks were used in the
extension o f the Sweet Water Canal to Port-Said was completed
construction o f piers, jetties and breakwaters.
in 1869. A map and cross sections o f the Sweet Water Canal are
At Port-Said the west mole was completed on 10 September
presented in Figure (3). It was later determined to draw water
1868 to a length o f 1.75 miles, which was exceeded only by that
from the Nile directly instead o f a branch at Zagazig to maintain
o f the breakwaters o f Holyhead, Cherbourg and Marseilles.
the flow during most o f the year. The elevation o f the fresh water
That mole provided the protection essential for the new harbor
canal at Lake Timsah was some fourteen feet above the sea as
but destroyed the equilibrium o f the coastline and led to the
well as the future Suez Canal. The Sweet Water Canal was
accumulation o f a sandbank fifty limes as fast as had been
connected to the lake by two locks.
expected and the formation o f an inner submarine beach. On
The difference in elevation was used to excavate the south
31st January 1869 the less important east mole was completed,
part of the Suez Canal by dredging and to eliminate the effect of
having required only 40% as much concrete as the longer west
Red Sea high tide while dredging to the final depth.
mole. Together those moles created a harbor where few experts
had thought it possible and where no materials existed for its
construction. 7.2 Construction Equipm ent
Port-Said harbor was originally located in an unbroken line The Suez Canal presents an excellent instance -where the
o f coast by constructing two piers forward into the sea. Between difficulties prompted the discovery o f means to overcome them.
them a channel had been dredged out to connect to the Suez The work was fortunate in having as chief contractors two men
Canal. From Damietta branch o f the N ile, lying 25 miles to the o f extraordinary energy and resources, Borel and Lavalley, who
north west o f Port-Said, a stream o f water 3 miles wide filled took over the work in 1865. They recognized that the contract
with suspended fines flows for four to five months every could only be achieved by the aid o f machinery. They
summer during N ile flood time towards Port-Said The 7000 accordingly devised those extraordinary dredgers to suit such
feet long west pier o f Port-Said, disrupts the current by blocking difficulties. The dredgers varied in size according to the work for
the onshore half, and forces it to deflect from the pier at a which they were required, and the disposal o f the dredged
considerable angle and to flow back to meet the offshore half at materials.
the north of the west pier. This resulted in the finer particles The smaller dredgers were 15-horse power. There were also
falling to the bottom and a submarine beach is formed, which intermediate size dredgers, then followed the largest machines of
increases every summer. During winter the north west winds 75-horse power. The largest dredgers were 110 feet in length,
level it down and produce general shallowing o f the mouth o f with 27 feet beam, and having their dru m s 48 feet above the
the harbor. water-line. The cost o f each was £ 20,000.
Comparing the survey o f 1870 to that o f 1873, it was found De Lesseps, said “our dredging machine carried from two to
that during three years more than 5,000,000 cubic yards o f sand three thousand cubic meters a day, and as w e had sixty of them,
and silt had accumulated between the 18 and 30 feet contour w e succeeded in extracting monthly as much as two million
lines. The 30 foot contour line was receded seaward 1200 yards cubic meters (about 2,763,000 cubic yards)”. The consumption
and became 1450 meters from pier head in May 1873. The o f coal came to a total o f £ 40,000 each month. The cost of these
dredgers was nearly £ 2,500,000. The disposal of dredged
coastline o f solid dry sand had advanced 780 feet. The shoal
material took one o f the following forms:
had crept along the entire length o f the 2100 m west pier. The
1. If the dredged materia] was required for reclaiming land,
Company decided to extend the west pier 600 m into the sea at
or for making concrete blocks, the spoil was made to fall
2330
into large boxes, having a capacity of four cubic yards. 7.3 Construction Techniques
Seven o f these fit into a barge, which was moored under
the spout o f the dredger. When all were filled, the barge
7.3.1 Cutting through Serapeum Plateau
was floated under a steam crane, by which the boxes
were lifted out and placed on trucks, running on The cutting in the Serapeum plateau ofTered the most
Iramways. On arriving at their destination, one end of extraordinary difficulties, which the contractor was unable to
these boxes opened on hinges, and the contents were overcome. Manual labor failed to make the enormous cuttings.
thus readily deposited. An intelligent idea was to excavate using dredgers as follows:
2. The greater portion o f the Port-Said dredged material The contractors banked up the Canal at the point to which
was, however, conveyed in large barges (twin screws of the Mediterranean Sea water had been brought,
30-horsepower) some four or five miles out to sea, and Scooped out the remainder to a certain depth by manual
dropped into deep water. These barges were 140 feet labor,
long, with a beam o f 23 feet The dredged material was Banked this up at the end next to Bitter Lakes,
discharged by means o f twelve trapdoors, at the bottom Turned the Fresh Water Canal into the excavation,
of the barge, the opening and closing o f these being Then the dredgers were brought into play, dredgers, which
regulated by chains. were originally forwarded by means o f the Maritime Canal
3. Large proportion o f the dredged material was discharged from Port-Said to Ismailia. There they passed through the
from dredgers into an apparatus which had been named locks into the Fresh Water Canal, which raised them
the long couloir (long duct), one o f the most important seventeen feet above the sea level.
machines. These couloirs varied in length, the longest A cross-cutting was then made from the Fresh Water Canal
being about 75 yards. Their shape was that o f a semi to the line of the works on the Maritime Canal, by which
ellipse, five feet wide and two feet deep. They were the machines were floated into their respective positions at
supported by a tall iron framework resting on the deck of this superior elevation.
a barge, ninety-six feet long by twenty-eight feet beam, The dredged materials were conveyed by lighters into large
and drawing six feet o f water. The dredgings, when artificial lakes, which have been formed for this special
dropped into the elevated end o f the long duct, were purpose in close proximity to the Maritime Canal. These
assisted in their downward progress by a strong current lakes were made in November 1866, the level o f the Nile
then being at its highest point at that season. They contain
of water, which was supplied by a rotary pump driven by
a separate engine. In addition to this, when the dredged 5,000,000 cubic yards o f water and were capable o f
receiving 2,800,000 cubic yards o f dredgings.
material were found to be of tenacious nature, scrapers
or sweepers were employed. This apparatus consisted of
an endless chain, which was made to pass along the When these dredgers had dredged to the required depth, the
center o f the couloir. On this, scrapers were fixed at connection with the Fresh Water Canal was closed and the dam
intervals, fitting the shape o f the couloir. With the in the line o f Suez Canal was removed. By this means the level
assistance o f waterpower, the long couloirs could deliver o f the Fresh Water Lake fell to that o f the sea level. The dredgers
their dredged material almost on a horizontal line. The descending at the same time continued to dredge the canal to its
longest couloirs were used with the largest class of final prescribed depth.
dredging machines. The upper end was about twelve 7.3.2 Extending to Suez
yards and the lower about six yards above the water-line,
thus easily clearing the low banks previously formed by The final stretch of 12 miles near the Red Sea towards Suez was
smaller dredgers. The shorter couloirs were placed on the also dredged using fresh water through a junction with the Fresh
dredging machine itself, and were balanced by a Water Canal. In doing so, the dredgers were independent o f the
counterweight on the opposite side. high tide of the Red Sea.
4. The elevator was introduced in situations where dredges
were far below the level o f embankments. This machine 7.4 Construction Sequence
resembled in principle the couloir, but the inclination of
the plane was in the opposite direction, i.e. upwards The withdrawal of the forced labour during May 1864 compelled
instead o f downwards. This duct consisted o f an inclined the Company to increase its European employees and to
plane, about fifty-two yards long, and carrying two lines mechanize its operations as much as possible. At that time, the
of tram rail. The inclination was one in four, and it was excavation was limited to 18,500,000 cubic yards, or 15% o f the
supported in the middle by an iron frame. When this reduced cube o f excavation. The Company divided the work of
machine was at work, the lower extremity o f the duct excavation into four large contracts, (1) with Alphonse Couvreux
was three yards above the water, whereas the upper end on 1 October 1863 for the El-Guisr cutting, (2) with Dussaud
is about fifty-two yards distant, with an elevation o f Brothers on 20 October 1863 for the harbour moles o f Port-Said
twelve yards, thus reaching over the embankments. (3) with William Aiton on 13 January 1864 for the thirty-seven
Seven boxes of dredged material were floated under the miles from Port-Said to El Guisr and (4) with Borel & Lavalley
lower extremity o f the elevator. Each box was raised in on 26 March 1864 for the whole o f the fifty-four miles from El
succession by an endless steel wire rope, and it then Guisr to the Red Sea.
travels to the upper end o f the incline. On reaching this The main contract was that o f Aiton since all the others were
point the box swings vertically, then the door opened, dependent on its execution. Aiton had successfully dredged most
and the contents were thus completely emptied. of the Clyde but was almost ruined by the high cost o f dredging
o f Lake Menzaleh and surrendered his contract to Borel &
Figures ( 12) and (13) present a schematic for the basic Lavalley. Thus the Company entrusted ninety miles to a single
excavation system. Figure ( 14) shows a plan and elevation of a great contractor, Borel & Lavalley.
large dredger with a 70m couloir. Figure (15) shows elevation Borel and Lavalley, were both graduates o f the Ecole
for the CouvTeux Excavator. In addition, Figures (C .l) through Polytechnique. They got involved in 1864 but had successfully
(C.7) show schematic plans and elevations of different dredgers adapted their techniques to the conditions o f the Isthmus and
and equipment used for excavation o f the Canal. perfected the construction of the most powerful bucket-dredgers
ever built. Their share o f the work was increased from one-third
to three-quarters. They gave employment to 20,000 men and
excavated 74,000,000 cubic yards along ninety miles o f the
2331
Î STAGE OF EXCAVATION
REMOVAL OF SOIL BY THE HANGING WHEELBARROW
2d STAGE OF EXCAVATION
REMOVAL OF SOIL BY THE WHEELBARROW
Not to scale
12.00
Not to scale
10 REFERENCES
8 OPENING CEREMONY
Badger G.P., (1862), "A Visit to the Isthmus o f Suez Canal
The fixing o f the opening date o f the Suez Canal to 17 Works", Smith, London, 67.
November 1869 raised the Company’s shares 23 per cent above Ball J., (1939), "Contributions to the Geography o f Egypt",
par value to 615 francs and createdasensationinE ngland.lt
Government Press, Cairo.
stopped owners o f sailing ships from buying new vessels and Bradsham’s Railmay (1857), "Through Route and Overland
created a marked recession to the business o f steam shipping, Guide to India, Egypt and China", Adams, London.
especially in Marseilles, Trieste, Genoa, Odessa, Barcelona, Bradsham's (1860), "Hand-Book to the Bengal Presidency",
Amsterdam and Liverpool. On 28th September 1896 De Lesseps Adams, London.
made the first direct trip from the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Brunlees J. and Webb E.B., (1859) "Proposed Ship-Railway
Sea in fifteen hours. Across the Isthmus o f Suez", Reed, London.
Voisin Bey carried the works to their triumphant conclusion Charles Beatty, (1956), "Ferdinand D e Lesseps a biographical
and earned the highest reputation in civil engineering by his nine study", Eyre & Spottiswoode . Publishers .LTD.
years of service in the Isthmus. Colquhoun, British Consul- Dassi G.F., (1860), "Notes on Sueis", Naples, 8.
General in Egypt, wrote “It is clear that De Lesseps was a man Dicey E., (1902), "The Story o f the Khedivate", Rivingtons,
of immense vitality, great persuasiveness, and supreme self- London, 36.
confidence”. Douin G., (1937) "Historie du Regne du Khedive Ismail", ii 309-
Ismail, Egypt Viceroy at the time o f Canal construction, 742.
invited to the opening ceremony all the Moslem princes o f Asia Emerit M., (1952), "La Crise Syrienne et l'Expansion
and Africa as well as all the Christian princes o f Europe and Rconomique Franqaise en I860", Revue Historique, 217,
America, but not the Turkish Sultan whose presence would have 220 .
deprived Ismail o f the opportunity to play host to his fellow Famie D.A., (1969) "East n West o f Suez; the Suez canal in
monarchs. The Viceroy made the necessary arrangements for history 1854- 1956” Clarendon Press, Oxford.
receiving 6000 foreign guests. Sheds were constructed in a few
days to hold 6000 persons, with tables constantly replenished
2337
Fitzgerald P., (1876) "the great canal at Suez: its political,
Engineering, and financial history", Volume (1) and (2);
Tinsley Brothers, London.
Goncourt J., (1862), "journal des Goncourt", Charpentier, Paris
ii. 23-4.
Hansard, (1860) "The English in Egypt", Commons Debates,
Mildmay, 2 2 1 ,2 4 9 -5 0 ,4 5 5 .
Hansard, (1861), "Lords Debates", Lord Carnarvon, 1555.
Illustrated London N ew s (1863), 31 January 1863,125,130.
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Lesseps F., LTsthme de Suez.
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Lesseps F., (1877), Lettres, iii 381-2, 391-2.
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2 1 0 4 5 ,6 6 7 -8 8 .
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7634,
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HaymarkeL
The Economist (1869), 26th June 1 8 6 9 ,749ii.
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2338
2339
mnKkiiurrh
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2340
2341
Figure B .l: Longitudinal G eological Cross Section o f the M aritim e Canal (1)
a
2342
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Figure B.2: Longitudinal Geological Cross Section of the M aritime Canal (2)
ro
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1 0 0 1 0 5 1 1 0 1 1 5
( I CALC,a r i . o i s so u . a c y w (' " " . ' j A G GLO M ERA TE
2] c»Avr,L*Bot.!Uas:RSi HAND RO CK
Figure B.3: Longitudinal Geological Cross Section o f the M aritime Canal (3)
RED SEA
Average level
2344
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1 2 5 1 3 0 1 3 5 1 4 0 1 4 5 1 6 0 1 5 5 1 6 0
„„J. ...U. ...L. ..J .. ..J . ...L . ..i. - 4 -
Figure B.4: Longitudinal Geological Cross Section o f the M aritim e Canal (4)
R O C K LA Y E R E X T R A C T IO N
EL CHALOUF SECTION WORKS
A T SE R A P E U M
_ZL Z ZA \/\/V ¥ X ^ -
_ -------------- ^ --------------------7 -------------- r -----------------------n r _ ----------------- -— — ^ :T T ~
T r r x x v ~¥~7~
s?« BP 85* W f (SÎÏ U K 155»
PROFILES
GENERAL PLAN OF THE ROCK LAYER EXTRACTION SITE
KILO 138
0 RIGHT PLAN
zziM i
.. ------ --
PROFILE OF K1LOPOINT 87 MO .........k~
s
x.-xsxss^^'.
m - -M
£=
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N O RTH SO U T H
.......rvrKw*r»jKorr»r.iA?«Ai. SO IL B E F O R E EXCA V A TIO N (2 0 4 8 )
-- tr.sfrvrrtipnorut *rni»awJM!«u*
L O N G ITU DINA L PRO FILE OF TH E SALT BAND L O N G ITU DINA L PR O FILE S FOR THE SALT BAND ON THE LIGH THO USE C EN TER LINE
2.35 6.40
11.00
v a r ia b le len g t h
2351
ELEVATION
2352
17.M
SECTION A-A
PLAN
t.iV
1856
i t r'tJtJ
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u tr .C jt)
2354
PORT-SAID PORT
t h e s u p e r io r c o u n c il p r o j e c t
1859
'e S .V
7*
s .v
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A t
T E N T S
d e r r " 'X
2355
THE EXECUTED PROJECT
1869
u \ y
y \ v.
it t ttx
MENZALEH LAKE
2356
Figure D.4: Port Said Plan
2357
r e u rouR e
Petite bouee
MouiHige
► Du
P re cu n e u r
« Bouee rouge
Figure D.6: Channels and Jetties Profiles of Port Said Port and Suez Port
SECTION B-B SECTION A-A
4. SO . 9-«> . »•*<> •■90 2 0 .0 0
4.10
2360
ELEVATION SECTION
NEEDLE
PL A N
N5
co
CT>
Efj
A
SECTION B -B
SECTION C-C
VIEW PLAN
D O W N ST R E A M
f F D Q T BR ID G E
2362
IPifrSKAM fLOOR
IT '
Figure E.3: Serapeum Weir
m m m w m u m
H i
1 C H A N N E L B E I W E E N P O R T SA I D
AN D M K N Z A LU I LA KE.
2 LA N D IN G ST A G E O K LK N G T H M M
A T 1 1 I E W E S T JE T T V .
3 P O R T SA ID E ST A B L I SH M E N T
\ A W \ Wh
Figure F.l: Construction Sequence of the Maritime Suez Canal ( 1859 )
2363
M ED IT ER R A N EA N
1 LA N D IN G ST A G E O K LE N G T H 40M
2 E A S T JE T T V O K L E N G T H 2 7 5 M
3 H I E B A C K F IL L O K P O R T SA ID ( I I V
* Wii»'
4 T H E EXC A V A T IO N O K T H E K IR ST
ST A G E O K T H E N A V IG A T I O N C H A N N E L
K R O M P O R I SA I D T O R A S E L E C H
5 T H E B E G I N N I N G O K B A SI N
E X C A V A T I O N I N P O R T SA I D
2364
1 LANDING STAGE (WEST JETTY)
Of LENGTH I»4M
2 E A S T JE T T Y O F L E N G T H 3 3 0 M
3 T H E C O N ST R U C T I O N O E A F E N C E
IN T H E E A ST SI D E F O R T H E
P R O T E C T I O N O F T H E E A ST C O A ST
4 t h e C O N ST R IC T IO N O F T H E ISLA M )
A T A D IS TA N C E O F I500M FR O M
T H E C O A ST W IT H L E N G T H 65M
A N D L A R G E 2IIM
5 T H E E XC A V A T IO N O F
T H E N A V IG A T IO N C H A N N E L
6 T H E EXC A V A TIO N O F T H E
SE R V IC E CH A N N E L
ÌHITtMÌAK
7 T H E I M P R O V E M E N T O F I *' S T A G E
O F T H E P O T A BLE W A T ER FR O M
Z A G A Z I G T O G A SSA S SI N E .T H E
EXC A V A T IO N O F T H E f ' s T A G E O F
T H E C A N A L O F P O T A BLE W A TER
F R O M G A S S A S S I N E T O I I M SA II
LA KE
8 T H E C O N S T R U C T I O N O F E L G U 1 SR
E ST A B L I SH M E N T
9 T H E C O N T I N U A T I O N O F E XC A V A T IO N
W O R K IN P O R T S A I D B A SI N &
NAVAL D O CKYA RD
J b .
2365
11 s n « i: /> i r A * j,
v s' >C\ m m m m m u m
> %
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2 T H E C O N T I N U A T I O N O K E XC A V A T I O N
/ MM % IN P O R T S A I D B A SI N
4<i
ï £rt*r:
-j
j I U K C O N T IN U A T IO N O K T H E
L i f N A V IG A T IO N C H A N N E L 1 0 E L
KERD A N E
4 T H E C O N T I N U A T I O N O F T H E ISLA N D
5 T H E C O N ST R U C T I O N O F A B A N D
A L O N G T H E N A V IG A T IO N A N D
T H E SE R V I C E C H A N N E L KO R
P R O T E C T IO N
6 T H E EXC A V A T IO N O K T H E
N A V IG A T IO N C H A N N E L KR O M
E L K E R D A N E T O T IM SA II
L A K E (IN A SI A SI D E )
7 T H E EXC A V A T IO N O K T H E
N A V IG A T IO N C H A N N E L KR O M
T I M SA H L A K E T O T O U SSO U M
W IT H T H E W H O L E W ID T H O F
T H E M A R IT IM E C A N A L
8 T H E IM P R O V EM EN T O F T H E
P O T A BLE W A TER C A N A L
9 T H E E XC A V A T IO N W O R K T O
E X T E N D T H E P O I A B LE W A TER
C A N A L T O N E F I C H A (SU E Z )
\V\ (I-
Figure F.4: Construction Sequence o f the M aritim e Suez C anal ( 1862 )
2366
„ "* * - "111" *,
*-*&*• ,, *; ■ I . MI MTEBBi NI MI
SCI
1 T H E W E ST JE T T Y L E N G T H W A S 4 0 0 M
2 T H E C O N T I N U A T I O N O F E XC A V A T I O N
W O R K I N P O R T S A I D B A SI N
3 T H E C O N T I N U A T I O N O F T H E I SLA N D
4 R E C O N S T R U C T I O N O F T H E B A N D IN
SO M E P A R T S
5 T H E IM P R O V E M E N T O F P O T A BLE
W A T ER C A N A L F R O M G A SSA SSIN E
T O ISM A IL IA
6 T H E C O N ST R U C T IO N O F P O T A BLE
W A T E R C A N A L SU R R O U N D I N G
ISM A IL IA C IT Y
7 T H E EXC A V A T IO N O F T H E P O T A B LE
W A T E R C A N A L T O SI E Z
8 E ST A B L ISH M E N T A T E L C H A L O L F
9 T H E C O N ST R U C T I O N O F A
SP I L L W A Y A T N E F I C H A ( SU E Z )
1 0 T H E C O N ST R U C T I O N O K A D U C T
O K POT A B LE WA T E R FRO M
ISM A ILIA TO KM U ON T HE
M A R IT IM E C A N A L
2367
MI MTI I MNI M
SEI
1 CONTINUATION OK BASIN
EXCAVATION AT PORT SAID
2368
K M K N M E W I
8W
1 rilE EXTENTION OF JETT IES BV
THE ARTIFICIAL BLOCKS
3 nd
11'
2 DI CI OK POTABLE WATER
TO EL CAP
10 EXCAVATION OF 1* STAGE OF
ISMA1LIA CANAL FROM CAIRO
TO ABASCE1 0 GASSASSINE
2369
1 WEST JETTY OU T S(. I ll 22(H) M
(ART IKK IA1 BLOCKS)
.•«Airsr.
2 E A S T JE T T Y O K L E N G T H *>50 VI
(A R T I F I C I A L B L ( X K S )
3 B A S I N W I D E N I N G IN P O R T SA I D
4 T H E EXC A V A T IO N O K T H E SW E E T
W A T ER C A N A L (ISM A IL IA ( A N A L)
F R O M C A IR O T O A B A SC E
IM T C U C «
5 H IE EXC A V A T IO N O F T H E SW E E T
W A TER C A N A L FR O M A B A SC E TO
I SM A I L I A
ISM.MLI
6 IM P R O V E M E N T O F T H E ( A N A L
FR O M A B A SC E T O G A SSA SSIN E
7 SH E P R EP A R A T IO N F O R D R E D G E R S
8 H IE W ID E N IN G W O R K S A LO N G
T H E M A R IT IM E ( A N A L
Triad
2 TH E CONTINI A I lON OF
EXC A\ V1TON WORK Al PORT
SAI!) BASIN (l)EPTH 6.5-7VI)
3 EINLSIHNGOK THE IM PR O V E-
VIE NT <>l T H E CANAL Al Ei.
PERDANE (I.EN G TH 6 KM )
2371
■/ R liW lY v I llK A P S B P
T
3 m
FINISHING OF THE 1 STAGE OF
THE CANAL FROM PORT SAU) TO
AMKRS LAKES (100 kM)
7 FINISHING OF SI FZ PORI
;.raM 2 F IN IS H IN G O F T H E A C C E S S
am** % C H A N N E L A T P O K I S A ID
toKT-SXi
R O C K LAYER AT SE R A PE l M
4 t h e E XC A V A T IO N W O R K A T
T H E L A ST 4 KM O F T H E C A N A L
U.WLVi»J
&wii4aom*
Tmsii
2373