Hamlet

The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, often shortened to

Hamlet
Hamlet (/ˈhæmlɪt/), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare
sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest
play, with 29,551 words. Set in Denmark, the play depicts Prince
Hamlet and his revenge against his uncle, Claudius, who has
murdered Hamlet's father in order to seize his throne and marry
Hamlet's mother.

Hamlet is considered among the most powerful and influential

works of world literature, with a story capable of "seemingly
endless retelling and adaptation by others".[1] It was one of
Shakespeare's most popular works during his lifetime[2] and still
ranks among his most performed, topping the performance list of
the Royal Shakespeare Company and its predecessors in
Stratford-upon-Avon since 1879.[3] It has inspired many other
writers and has been described as "the world's most filmed story
after Cinderella".[4]
Hamlet portrayed by the actor Edwin
The story of Shakespeare's Hamlet was derived from the legend Booth, c. 1870
of Amleth, preserved by 13th-century chronicler Saxo Written by William
Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum, as subsequently retold by Shakespeare
the 16th-century scholar François de Belleforest. Though it is
unlikely that Shakespeare read Saxo, it may be possible that he Characters Hamlet
encountered the French language retelling of Belleforest.[5] Claudius

Three different early versions of the play are extant: the First Gertrude
Quarto (Q1, 1603); the Second Quarto (Q2, 1604); and the First Polonius
Folio (F1, 1623). Each version includes lines and passages Ophelia
missing from the others.[6]
Laertes
Horatio

Contents Original language Early Modern

English
Characters Genre Shakespearean
Plot tragedy
Act I Setting Denmark
Act II
Act III
Act IV
Act V
Sources
Date
Texts
Analysis and criticism
Critical history
Dramatic structure
Length
Language
Context and interpretation
Religious
Philosophical
Psychoanalytic
Sigmund Freud
Jacques Lacan
Feminist
Influence
Performance history
Shakespeare's day to the Interregnum
Restoration and 18th century
19th century
20th century
21st century
Film and TV performances
Stage pastiches
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Editions of Hamlet
Secondary sources
External links
Texts
Analysis
Related works

Characters
Hamlet – son of the late king and nephew Voltimand and Cornelius – courtiers
of the present king, Claudius Rosencrantz and Guildenstern – courtiers,
Claudius – king of Denmark, Hamlet's friends of Hamlet
uncle and brother to the former king Osric – a courtier
Gertrude – queen of Denmark and Marcellus – an officer
Hamlet's mother Barnardo – an officer
Polonius – chief counsellor to the king Francisco – a soldier
Ophelia – Polonius's daughter
Reynaldo – Polonius's servant
Horatio – friend of Hamlet
Ghost – the ghost of Hamlet's father
Laertes – Polonius's son Fortinbras – prince of Norway
 Gravediggers – a pair of sextons Player King, Player Queen, Lucianus,
etc. – players

Plot

Act I

Prince Hamlet of Denmark is the son of the recently deceased King Hamlet, and nephew of King Claudius,
his father's brother and successor. Claudius hastily married King Hamlet's widow, Gertrude, Hamlet's
mother, and took the throne for himself. Denmark has a long-standing feud with neighbouring Norway, in
which King Hamlet slew King Fortinbras of Norway in a battle some years ago. Although Denmark
defeated Norway and the Norwegian throne fell to King Fortinbras's infirm brother, Denmark fears that an
invasion led by the dead Norwegian king's son, Prince Fortinbras, is imminent.

On a cold night on the ramparts of Elsinore, the Danish royal castle, the sentries Bernardo and Marcellus
discuss a ghost resembling the late King Hamlet which they have recently seen, and bring Prince Hamlet's
friend Horatio as a witness. After the ghost appears again, the three vow to tell Prince Hamlet what they
have witnessed.

The court gathers the next day, and King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss affairs of state with their
elderly adviser Polonius. Claudius grants permission for Polonius's son Laertes to return to school in
France, and he sends envoys to inform the King of Norway about Fortinbras. Claudius also questions
Hamlet regarding his continuing to grieve for his father, and forbids him to return to his school in
Wittenberg. After the court exits, Hamlet despairs of his father's death and his mother's hasty remarriage.
Learning of the ghost from Horatio, Hamlet resolves to see it himself.

As Polonius's son Laertes prepares to depart for France, Polonius

offers him advice that culminates in the maxim "to thine own self
be true."[8] Polonius's daughter, Ophelia, admits her interest in
Hamlet, but Laertes warns her against seeking the prince's
attention, and Polonius orders her to reject his advances. That night
on the rampart, the ghost appears to Hamlet, tells the prince that he
was murdered by Claudius, and demands that Hamlet avenge the
murder. Hamlet agrees, and the ghost vanishes. The prince confides
to Horatio and the sentries that from now on he plans to "put an
antic disposition on", or act as though he has gone mad. Hamlet
forces them to swear to keep his plans for revenge secret; however, Horatio, Hamlet, and the ghost
he remains uncertain of the ghost's reliability. (Artist: Henry Fuseli, 1789)[7]

Act II

Ophelia rushes to her father, telling him that Hamlet arrived at her door the prior night half-undressed and
behaving erratically. Polonius blames love for Hamlet's madness and resolves to inform Claudius and
Gertrude. As he enters to do so, the king and queen are welcoming Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two
student acquaintances of Hamlet, to Elsinore. The royal couple has requested that the two students
investigate the cause of Hamlet's mood and behaviour. Additional news requires that Polonius wait to be
heard: messengers from Norway inform Claudius that the king of Norway has rebuked Prince Fortinbras
for attempting to re-fight his father's battles. The forces that Fortinbras had conscripted to march against
Denmark will instead be sent against Poland, though they will pass through Danish territory to get there.
Polonius tells Claudius and Gertrude his theory regarding Hamlet's behaviour, and then speaks to Hamlet in
a hall of the castle to try to learn more. Hamlet feigns madness and subtly insults Polonius all the while.
When Rosencrantz and Guildenstern arrive, Hamlet greets his "friends" warmly but quickly discerns that
they are there to spy on him for Claudius. Hamlet admits that he is upset at his situation but refuses to give
the true reason, instead commenting on "What a piece of work is a man". Rosencrantz and Guildenstern tell
Hamlet that they have brought along a troupe of actors that they met while travelling to Elsinore. Hamlet,
after welcoming the actors and dismissing his friends-turned-spies, asks them to deliver a soliloquy about
the death of King Priam and Queen Hecuba at the climax of the Trojan War. Hamlet then asks the actors to
stage The Murder of Gonzago, a play featuring a death in the style of his father's murder. Hamlet intends to
study Claudius's reaction to the play, and thereby determine the truth of the ghost's story of Claudius's guilt.

Act III

Polonius forces Ophelia to return Hamlet's love letters to the prince while he and Claudius secretly watch in
order to evaluate Hamlet's reaction. Hamlet is walking alone in the hall as the King and Polonius await
Ophelia's entrance. Hamlet muses on thoughts of life versus death. When Ophelia enters and tries to return
Hamlet's things, Hamlet accuses her of immodesty and cries "get thee to a nunnery", though it is unclear
whether this, too, is a show of madness or genuine distress. His reaction convinces Claudius that Hamlet is
not mad for love. Shortly thereafter, the court assembles to watch the play Hamlet has commissioned. After
seeing the Player King murdered by his rival pouring poison in his ear, Claudius abruptly rises and runs
from the room; for Hamlet, this is proof of his uncle's guilt.

Gertrude summons Hamlet to her chamber to demand an

explanation. Meanwhile, Claudius talks to himself about the
impossibility of repenting, since he still has possession of his ill-
gotten goods: his brother's crown and wife. He sinks to his knees.
Hamlet, on his way to visit his mother, sneaks up behind him but
does not kill him, reasoning that killing Claudius while he is
praying will send him straight to heaven while his father's ghost is
stuck in purgatory. In the queen's bedchamber, Hamlet and
Gertrude fight bitterly. Polonius, spying on the conversation from
behind a tapestry, calls for help as Gertrude, believing Hamlet Hamlet mistakenly stabs Polonius
wants to kill her, calls out for help herself. (Artist: Coke Smyth, 19th century).

Hamlet, believing it is Claudius, stabs wildly, killing Polonius, but

he pulls aside the curtain and sees his mistake. In a rage, Hamlet brutally insults his mother for her apparent
ignorance of Claudius's villainy, but the ghost enters and reprimands Hamlet for his inaction and harsh
words. Unable to see or hear the ghost herself, Gertrude takes Hamlet's conversation with it as further
evidence of madness. After begging the queen to stop sleeping with Claudius, Hamlet leaves, dragging
Polonius's corpse away.

Act IV

Hamlet jokes with Claudius about where he has hidden Polonius's body, and the king, fearing for his life,
sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to accompany Hamlet to England with a sealed letter to the English
king requesting that Hamlet be executed immediately.

Unhinged by grief at Polonius's death, Ophelia wanders Elsinore. Laertes arrives back from France,
enraged by his father's death and his sister's madness. Claudius convinces Laertes that Hamlet is solely
responsible, but a letter soon arrives indicating that Hamlet has returned to Denmark, foiling Claudius's
plan. Claudius switches tactics, proposing a fencing match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle their
differences. Laertes will be given a poison-tipped foil, and, if that fails, Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned
wine as a congratulation. Gertrude interrupts to report that Ophelia has drowned, though it is unclear
whether it was suicide or an accident caused by her madness.

Act V

Horatio has received a letter from Hamlet, explaining that the

prince escaped by negotiating with pirates who attempted to attack
his England-bound ship, and the friends reunite offstage. Two
gravediggers discuss Ophelia's apparent suicide while digging her
grave. Hamlet arrives with Horatio and banters with one of the
gravediggers, who unearths the skull of a jester from Hamlet's
childhood, Yorick. Hamlet picks up the skull, saying "alas, poor
Yorick" as he contemplates mortality. Ophelia's funeral procession
approaches, led by Laertes. Hamlet and Horatio initially hide, but
when Hamlet realizes that Ophelia is the one being buried, he
reveals himself, proclaiming his love for her. Laertes and Hamlet
fight by Ophelia's graveside, but the brawl is broken up.
The gravedigger scene[9] (Artist:
Eugène Delacroix, 1839) Back at Elsinore, Hamlet explains to Horatio that he had
discovered Claudius's letter with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's
belongings and replaced it with a forged copy indicating that his
former friends should be killed instead. A foppish courtier, Osric, interrupts the conversation to deliver the
fencing challenge to Hamlet. Hamlet, despite Horatio's pleas, accepts it. Hamlet does well at first, leading
the match by two hits to none, and Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned glass of wine Claudius
had set aside for Hamlet. Claudius tries to stop her but is too late: she drinks, and Laertes realizes the plot
will be revealed. Laertes slashes Hamlet with his poisoned blade. In the ensuing scuffle, they switch
weapons, and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword. Gertrude collapses and, claiming she
has been poisoned, dies. In his dying moments, Laertes reconciles with Hamlet and reveals Claudius's plan.
Hamlet rushes at Claudius and kills him. As the poison takes effect, Hamlet, hearing that Fortinbras is
marching through the area, names the Norwegian prince as his successor. Horatio, distraught at the thought
of being the last survivor and living whilst Hamlet does not, says he will commit suicide by drinking the
dregs of Gertrude's poisoned wine, but Hamlet begs him to live on and tell his story. Hamlet dies in
Horatio's arms, proclaiming "the rest is silence". Fortinbras, who was ostensibly marching towards Poland
with his army, arrives at the palace, along with an English ambassador bringing news of Rosencrantz and
Guildenstern's deaths. Horatio promises to recount the full story of what happened, and Fortinbras, seeing
the entire Danish royal family dead, takes the crown for himself and orders a military funeral to honour
Hamlet.

Sources
Hamlet-like legends are so widely found (for example in Italy, Spain, Scandinavia, Byzantium, and Arabia)
that the core "hero-as-fool" theme is possibly Indo-European in origin.[10] Several ancient written
precursors to Hamlet can be identified. The first is the anonymous Scandinavian Saga of Hrolf Kraki. In
this, the murdered king has two sons—Hroar and Helgi—who spend most of the story in disguise, under
false names, rather than feigning madness, in a sequence of events that differs from Shakespeare's.[11] The
second is the Roman legend of Brutus, recorded in two separate Latin works. Its hero, Lucius ("shining,
light"), changes his name and persona to Brutus ("dull, stupid"), playing the role of a fool to avoid the fate
of his father and brothers, and eventually slaying his family's killer, King Tarquinius. A 17th-century
Nordic scholar, Torfaeus, compared the Icelandic hero Amlóði (Amlodi) and the hero Prince Ambales
(from the Ambales Saga) to Shakespeare's Hamlet. Similarities include the
prince's feigned madness, his accidental killing of the king's counsellor in
his mother's bedroom, and the eventual slaying of his uncle.[12]

Many of the earlier legendary elements are interwoven in the 13th-century

"Life of Amleth" (Latin: Vita Amlethi) by Saxo Grammaticus, part of Gesta
Danorum.[13] Written in Latin, it reflects classical Roman concepts of
virtue and heroism, and was widely available in Shakespeare's day.[14]
Significant parallels include the prince feigning madness, his mother's hasty
marriage to the usurper, the prince killing a hidden spy, and the prince
substituting the execution of two retainers for his own. A reasonably
faithful version of Saxo's story was translated into French in 1570 by
A facsimile of Gesta
François de Belleforest, in his Histoires tragiques.[15] Belleforest
Danorum by Saxo
embellished Saxo's text substantially, almost doubling its length, and
Grammaticus, which
introduced the hero's melancholy.[16] contains the legend of
Amleth
According to one theory, Shakespeare's
main source is an earlier play—now lost—
known today as the Ur-Hamlet. Possibly
written by Thomas Kyd or even Shakespeare himself, the Ur-Hamlet
would have existed by 1589, and would have incorporated a ghost.[17]
Shakespeare's company, the Chamberlain's Men, may have purchased that
play and performed a version for some time, which Shakespeare
reworked.[18] However, since no copy of the Ur-Hamlet has survived, it is
impossible to compare its language and style with the known works of any
of its putative authors. Consequently, there is no direct evidence that Kyd
wrote it, nor any evidence that the play was not an early version of Hamlet
by Shakespeare himself. This latter idea—placing Hamlet far earlier than
the generally accepted date, with a much longer period of development—
has attracted some support.[a]
Title page of The Spanish
Tragedy by Thomas Kyd The upshot is that scholars cannot assert with any confidence how much
material Shakespeare took from the Ur-Hamlet (if it even existed), how
much from Belleforest or Saxo, and how much from other contemporary
sources (such as Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy). No clear evidence exists that Shakespeare made any direct
references to Saxo's version. However, elements of Belleforest's version which are not in Saxo's story do
appear in Shakespeare's play. Whether Shakespeare took these from Belleforest directly or from the
hypothetical Ur-Hamlet remains unclear.[25]

Most scholars reject the idea that Hamlet is in any way connected with Shakespeare's only son, Hamnet
Shakespeare, who died in 1596 at age eleven. Conventional wisdom holds that Hamlet is too obviously
connected to legend, and the name Hamnet was quite popular at the time.[26] However, Stephen Greenblatt
has argued that the coincidence of the names and Shakespeare's grief for the loss of his son may lie at the
heart of the tragedy. He notes that the name of Hamnet Sadler, the Stratford neighbour after whom Hamnet
was named, was often written as Hamlet Sadler and that, in the loose orthography of the time, the names
were virtually interchangeable.[27][28]

Scholars have often speculated that Hamlet's Polonius might have been inspired by William Cecil (Lord
Burghley)—Lord High Treasurer and chief counsellor to Queen Elizabeth  I. E. K. Chambers suggested
Polonius's advice to Laertes may have echoed Burghley's to his son Robert Cecil.[29] John Dover Wilson
thought it almost certain that the figure of Polonius caricatured Burghley.[30] A. L. Rowse speculated that
Polonius's tedious verbosity might have resembled Burghley's.[31] Lilian Winstanley thought the name
Corambis (in the First Quarto) did suggest Cecil and Burghley.[32] Harold Jenkins considers the idea that
Polonius might be a caricature of Burghley to be conjecture, perhaps based on the similar role they each
played at court, and also on Burghley addressing his Ten Precepts to his son, as in the play Polonius offers
"precepts" to Laertes, his own son.[33] Jenkins suggests that any personal satire may be found in the name
"Polonius", which might point to a Polish or Polonian connection.[34] G. R. Hibbard hypothesised that
differences in names (Corambis/Polonius:Montano/Raynoldo) between the First Quarto and other editions
might reflect a desire not to offend scholars at Oxford University.[b]

Date
"Any dating of Hamlet must be tentative", cautions the New
Cambridge editor, Phillip Edwards.[c] The earliest date estimate
relies on Hamlet's frequent allusions to Shakespeare's Julius
Caesar, itself dated to mid-1599.[42][43] The latest date estimate is
based on an entry, of 26 July 1602, in the Register of the Stationers'
Company, indicating that Hamlet was "latelie Acted by the Lo:
Chamberleyne his servantes".

In 1598, Francis Meres published his Palladis Tamia, a survey of

English literature from Chaucer to its present day, within which
twelve of Shakespeare's plays are named. Hamlet is not among
them, suggesting that it had not yet been written. As Hamlet was
very popular, Bernard Lott, the series editor of New Swan, believes
it "unlikely that he [Meres] would have overlooked ... so significant
a piece".[40]
John Barrymore as Hamlet (1922)
The phrase "little eyases"[44] in the First Folio (F1) may allude to
the Children of the Chapel, whose popularity in London forced the
Globe company into provincial touring.[45] This became known as
the War of the Theatres, and supports a 1601 dating.[40] Katherine Duncan-Jones accepts a 1600–01
attribution for the date Hamlet was written, but notes that the Lord Chamberlain's Men, playing Hamlet in
the 3000-capacity Globe, were unlikely to be put to any disadvantage by an audience of "barely one
hundred" for the Children of the chapel's equivalent play, Antonio's Revenge; she believes that
Shakespeare, confident in the superiority of his own work, was making a playful and charitable allusion to
his friend John Marston's very similar piece.[46]

A contemporary of Shakespeare's, Gabriel Harvey, wrote a marginal note in his copy of the 1598 edition of
Chaucer's works, which some scholars use as dating evidence. Harvey's note says that "the wiser sort"
enjoy Hamlet, and implies that the Earl of Essex—executed in February 1601 for rebellion—was still alive.
Other scholars consider this inconclusive. Edwards, for example, concludes that the "sense of time is so
confused in Harvey's note that it is really of little use in trying to date Hamlet". This is because the same
note also refers to Spenser and Watson as if they were still alive ("our flourishing metricians"), but also
mentions "Owen's new epigrams", published in 1607.[47]

Texts
Three early editions of the text, each different, have survived, making attempts to establish a single
"authentic" text problematic.[48][49][50]
 First Quarto (Q1): In 1603 the booksellers Nicholas Ling and John Trundell published, and
Valentine Simmes printed, the so-called "bad" first quarto, under the name The Tragicall
Historie of Hamlet Prince of Denmarke. Q1 contains just over half of the text of the later
second quarto.
Second Quarto (Q2): In 1604 Nicholas Ling published, and James Roberts printed, the
second quarto, under the same name as the first. Some copies are dated 1605, which may
indicate a second impression; consequently, Q2 is often dated "1604/5". Q2 is the longest
early edition, although it omits about 77 lines found in F1[51] (most likely to avoid offending
James I's queen, Anne of Denmark).[52]
First Folio (F1): In 1623 Edward Blount and William and Isaac Jaggard published The
Tragedie of Hamlet, Prince of Denmarke in the First Folio, the first edition of Shakespeare's
Complete Works. [53]

This list does not include three additional early texts, John Smethwick's Q3, Q4, and Q5 (1611–37), which
are regarded as reprints of Q2 with some alterations.[53]

Early editors of Shakespeare's

works, beginning with Nicholas
Rowe (1709) and Lewis Theobald
(1733), combined material from the
two earliest sources of Hamlet
available at the time, Q2 and F1.
Each text contains material that the
other lacks, with many minor
differences in wording: scarcely
200 lines are identical in the two. The first page of the First Folio
Editors have combined them in an printing of Hamlet, 1623
effort to create one "inclusive" text
that reflects an imagined "ideal" of
Shakespeare's original. Theobald's version became standard for a long
Title page of the 1605
time,[54] and his "full text" approach continues to influence editorial
printing (Q2) of Hamlet
practice to the present day. Some contemporary scholarship, however,
discounts this approach, instead considering "an authentic Hamlet an
unrealisable ideal. ... there are texts of this play but no text".[55] The 2006
publication by Arden Shakespeare of different Hamlet texts in different volumes is perhaps evidence of this
shifting focus and emphasis.[d] Other editors have continued to argue the need for well-edited editions
taking material from all versions of the play. Colin Burrow has argued that "most of us should read a text
that is made up by conflating all three versions ... it's about as likely that Shakespeare wrote: "To be or not
to be, ay, there's the point" [in Q1], as that he wrote the works of Francis Bacon. I suspect most people just
won't want to read a three-text play ... [multi-text editions are] a version of the play that is out of touch with
the needs of a wider public."[60]

Traditionally, editors of Shakespeare's plays have divided them into five acts. None of the early texts of
Hamlet, however, were arranged this way, and the play's division into acts and scenes derives from a 1676
quarto. Modern editors generally follow this traditional division but consider it unsatisfactory; for example,
after Hamlet drags Polonius's body out of Gertrude's bedchamber, there is an act-break[61] after which the
action appears to continue uninterrupted.[62]

The discovery in 1823 of Q1—whose existence had been quite unsuspected—caused considerable interest
and excitement, raising many questions of editorial practice and interpretation. Scholars immediately
identified apparent deficiencies in Q1, which were instrumental in the development of the concept of a
Shakespearean "bad quarto".[63] Yet Q1 has value: it contains stage directions (such as Ophelia entering
with a lute and her hair down) that reveal actual stage practices in a
way that Q2 and F1 do not; it contains an entire scene (usually
labelled 4.6)[64] that does not appear in either Q2 or F1; and it is
useful for comparison with the later editions. The major deficiency
of Q1 is in the language: particularly noticeable in the opening lines
of the famous "To be, or not to be" soliloquy: "To be, or not to be,
aye there's the point. / To die, to sleep, is that all? Aye all: / No, to
sleep, to dream, aye marry there it goes." However, the scene order
is more coherent, without the problems of Q2 and F1 of Hamlet Comparison of the 'To be, or not to
seeming to resolve something in one scene and enter the next be' soliloquy in the first three editions
drowning in indecision. New Cambridge editor Kathleen Irace has of Hamlet, showing the varying
noted that "Q1's more linear plot design is certainly easier [...] to quality of the text in the Bad Quarto,
follow [...] but the simplicity of the Q1 plot arrangement eliminates the Good Quarto and the First Folio
the alternating plot elements that correspond to Hamlet's shifts in
mood."[65]

Q1 is considerably shorter than Q2 or F1 and may be a memorial reconstruction of the play as

Shakespeare's company performed it, by an actor who played a minor role (most likely Marcellus).[66]
Scholars disagree whether the reconstruction was pirated or authorised. It is suggested by Irace that Q1 is
an abridged version intended especially for travelling productions, thus the question of length may be
considered as separate from issues of poor textual quality.[59][67] Editing Q1 thus poses problems in
whether or not to "correct" differences from Q2 and F. Irace, in her introduction to Q1, wrote that "I have
avoided as many other alterations as possible, because the differences...are especially intriguing...I have
recorded a selection of Q2/F readings in the collation." The idea that Q1 is not riddled with error but is
instead eminently fit for the stage has led to at least 28 different Q1 productions since 1881.[68] Other
productions have used the probably superior Q2 and Folio texts, but used Q1's running order, in particular
moving the to be or not to be soliloquy earlier.[69] Developing this, some editors such as Jonathan Bate
have argued that Q2 may represent "a 'reading' text as opposed to a 'performance' one" of Hamlet,
analogous to how modern films released on disc may include deleted scenes: an edition containing all of
Shakespeare's material for the play for the pleasure of readers, so not representing the play as it would have
been staged.[70][71]

Analysis and criticism

Critical history

From the early 17th century, the play was famous for its ghost and vivid dramatisation of melancholy and
insanity, leading to a procession of mad courtiers and ladies in Jacobean and Caroline drama.[72][73]
Though it remained popular with mass audiences, late 17th-century Restoration critics saw Hamlet as
primitive and disapproved of its lack of unity and decorum.[74][75] This view changed drastically in the
18th century, when critics regarded Hamlet as a hero—a pure, brilliant young man thrust into unfortunate
circumstances.[76] By the mid-18th century, however, the advent of Gothic literature brought psychological
and mystical readings, returning madness and the ghost to the forefront.[77] Not until the late 18th century
did critics and performers begin to view Hamlet as confusing and inconsistent. Before then, he was either
mad, or not; either a hero, or not; with no in-betweens.[78] These developments represented a fundamental
change in literary criticism, which came to focus more on character and less on plot.[79] By the 19th
century, Romantic critics valued Hamlet for its internal, individual conflict reflecting the strong
contemporary emphasis on internal struggles and inner character in general.[80] Then too, critics started to
focus on Hamlet's delay as a character trait, rather than a plot device.[79] This focus on character and
internal struggle continued into the 20th century, when criticism branched in several directions, discussed in
context and interpretation below.

Dramatic structure

Modern editors have divided the play into five acts, and each act into scenes. The First Folio marks the first
two acts only. The quartos do not have such divisions. The division into five acts follows Seneca the
Younger, who in his plays, regularized the way ancient Greek tragedies contain five episodes, which are
separated by four choral odes. In Hamlet the development of the plot or the action are determined by the
unfolding of Hamlet's character. The soliloquies do not interrupt the plot, instead they are highlights of each
block of action. The plot is the developing revelation of Hamlet's view of what is "rotten in the state of
Denmark." The action of the play is driven forward in dialogue; but in the soliloquies time and action stop,
the meaning of action is questioned, fog of illusion is broached, and truths are exposed.

The contrast between appearance and reality is a significant theme. Hamlet is presented with an image, and
then interprets its deeper or darker meaning. Examples begin with Hamlet questioning the reality of the
ghost. It continues with Hamlet's taking on an "antic disposition" in order to appear mad, though he is not.
The contrast (appearance and reality) is also expressed in several "spying scenes": Act two begins with
Polonius sending Reynaldo to spy on his son, Laertes. Claudius and Polonius spy on Ophilia as she meets
with Hamlet. In act two, Claudius asks Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy on Hamlet. Similarly, the play-
within-a-play is used by Hamlet to reveal his step-father's hidden nature.

There is no subplot, but the play presents the affairs of the courtier Polonius, his daughter, Ophelia, and his
son, Laertes—who variously deal with madness, love and the death of a father in ways that contrast with
Hamlet's. The graveyard scene eases tension prior to the catastrophe, and, as Hamlet holds the skull, it is
shown that Hamlet no longer fears damnation in the afterlife, and accepts that there is a "divinity that
shapes our ends".[81]

Hamlet's enquiring mind has been open to all kinds of ideas, but in act five he has decided on a plan, and in
a dialogue with Horatio he seems to answer his two earlier soliloquies on suicide: "We defy augury. There
is special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it be not to come, it will be
now; if it be not now, yet it will come. The readiness is all. Since no man, of aught he leaves, knows aught,
what is't to leave betimes."[82][83]

Length

The First Quarto (1603) text of Hamlet contains 15,983 words, the Second Quarto (1604) contains 28,628
words, and the First Folio (1623) contains 27,602 words. Counting the number of lines varies between
editions, partly because prose sections in the play may be formatted with varied lengths.[84] Editions of
Hamlet that are created by conflating the texts of the Second Quarto and the Folio are said to have
approximately 39,000 lines;[85] the number of lines vary between those editions based on formatting the
prose sections, counting methods, and how the editors have joined the texts together.[86] Hamlet is by far
the longest play that Shakespeare wrote, and one of the longest plays in the Western Cannon. It might
require more than four hours to stage;[87] a typical Elizabethan play would need two to three hours.[88] It is
speculated that the because of the considerable length of Q2 and F1, there was an expectation that those
texts would be abridged for performance, or that Q2 and F1 may have been aimed at a reading
audience.[89]
That Q1 is so much shorter than Q2 has spurred speculation that G1 is an early draft, or perhaps an
adaptation, a bootleg copy, or a stage adaptation. On the title page of Q2, its text is described as "newly
imprinted and enlarged to almost as much again as it was." That is probably a comparison to Q1.[84]

F1 does not have about 230 lines that are in Q2, and Q2 does not have about 70 lines that are in F1. This is
due to variations in stage directions and dialogue.[90]

Language

Much of Hamlet's language is courtly: elaborate, witty discourse, as

recommended by Baldassare Castiglione's 1528 etiquette guide, The
Courtier. This work specifically advises royal retainers to amuse their
masters with inventive language. Osric and Polonius, especially, seem to
respect this injunction. Claudius's speech is rich with rhetorical figures—as
is Hamlet's and, at times, Ophelia's—while the language of Horatio, the
guards, and the gravediggers is simpler. Claudius's high status is reinforced
by using the royal first person plural ("we" or "us"), and anaphora mixed
with metaphor to resonate with Greek political speeches.[91]

Of all the characters, Hamlet has the greatest rhetorical skill. He uses
highly developed metaphors, stichomythia, and in nine memorable words Hamlet's statement that his
deploys both anaphora and asyndeton: "to die: to sleep—  / To sleep, dark clothes are the outer
perchance to dream".[92] In contrast, when occasion demands, he is precise sign of his inner grief
and straightforward, as when he explains his inward emotion to his mother: demonstrates strong
"But I have that within which passes show, / These but the trappings and rhetorical skill (artist: Eugène
the suits of woe". [93] At times, he relies heavily on puns to express his true Delacroix 1834).
thoughts while simultaneously concealing them. [94] His "nunnery"
remarks[95] to Ophelia are an example of a cruel double meaning as
nunnery was Elizabethan slang for brothel.[96][e] His first words in the play are a pun; when Claudius
addresses him as "my cousin Hamlet, and my son", Hamlet says as an aside: "A little more than kin, and
less than kind."[99]

An unusual rhetorical device, hendiadys, appears in several places in the play. Examples are found in
Ophelia's speech at the end of the nunnery scene: "Th'expectancy and rose of the fair state"[100] and "And
I, of ladies most deject and wretched".[101] Many scholars have found it odd that Shakespeare would,
seemingly arbitrarily, use this rhetorical form throughout the play. One explanation may be that Hamlet was
written later in Shakespeare's life, when he was adept at matching rhetorical devices to characters and the
plot. Linguist George T. Wright suggests that hendiadys had been used deliberately to heighten the play's
sense of duality and dislocation.[102] Pauline Kiernan argues that Shakespeare changed English drama
forever in Hamlet because he "showed how a character's language can often be saying several things at
once, and contradictory meanings at that, to reflect fragmented thoughts and disturbed feelings". She gives
the example of Hamlet's advice to Ophelia, "get thee to a nunnery", which is simultaneously a reference to
a place of chastity and a slang term for a brothel, reflecting Hamlet's confused feelings about female
sexuality.[97]

Hamlet's soliloquies have also captured the attention of scholars. Hamlet interrupts himself, vocalising
either disgust or agreement with himself and embellishing his own words. He has difficulty expressing
himself directly and instead blunts the thrust of his thought with wordplay. It is not until late in the play,
after his experience with the pirates, that Hamlet is able to articulate his feelings freely.[103]
Context and interpretation

Religious

Written at a time of religious upheaval and in the wake of the

English Reformation, the play is alternately Catholic (or piously
medieval) and Protestant (or consciously modern). The ghost
describes himself as being in purgatory and as dying without last
rites. This and Ophelia's burial ceremony, which is
characteristically Catholic, make up most of the play's Catholic
connections. Some scholars have observed that revenge tragedies
come from Catholic countries like Italy and Spain, where the
John Everett Millais' Ophelia (1852)
revenge tragedies present contradictions of motives, since
depicts Lady Ophelia's mysterious
according to Catholic doctrine the duty to God and family precedes
death by drowning. In the play, the
civil justice. Hamlet's conundrum then is whether to avenge his
gravediggers discuss whether
father and kill Claudius or to leave the vengeance to God, as his
Ophelia's death was a suicide and
religion requires.[104][f]
whether she merits a Christian burial.

Much of the play's Protestant tones derive from its setting in

Denmark—both then and now a predominantly Protestant
country,[g] though it is unclear whether the fictional Denmark of the play is intended to portray this implicit
fact. Dialogue refers explicitly to the German city of Wittenberg where Hamlet, Horatio, and Rosencrantz
and Guildenstern attend university, implying where the Protestant reformer Martin Luther nailed the Ninety-
five Theses to the church door in 1517.[105]

Philosophical

Hamlet is often perceived as a philosophical character, expounding

ideas that are now described as relativist, existentialist, and
sceptical. For example, he expresses a subjectivistic idea when he
says to Rosencrantz: "there is nothing either good or bad, but
thinking makes it so".[106] The idea that nothing is real except in
the mind of the individual finds its roots in the Greek Sophists, who
argued that since nothing can be perceived except through the
senses—and since all individuals sense, and therefore perceive
things differently—there is no absolute truth, but rather only
relative truth.[107] The clearest alleged instance of existentialism is
in the "to be, or not to be"[108] speech, where Hamlet is thought by
some to use "being" to allude to life and action, and "not being" to
death and inaction. Philosophical ideas in Hamlet are
similar to those of the French writer
Hamlet reflects the contemporary scepticism promoted by the Michel de Montaigne, a
French Renaissance humanist Michel de Montaigne.[109] Prior to contemporary of Shakespeare's
Montaigne's time, humanists such as Pico della Mirandola had (artist: Thomas de Leu, fl. 1560–
argued that man was God's greatest creation, made in God's image 1612).
and able to choose his own nature, but this view was subsequently
challenged in Montaigne's Essais of 1580. Hamlet's "What a piece
of work is a man" seems to echo many of Montaigne's ideas, and many scholars have discussed whether
Shakespeare drew directly from Montaigne or whether both men were simply reacting similarly to the spirit
of the times.[110][111][109]

Psychoanalytic

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud’s thoughts regarding Hamlet were first published in his

book The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), as a footnote to a discussion of
Sophocles’ tragedy, Oedipus Rex, all of which is part of his consideration
of the causes of neurosis. Freud does not offer over-all interpretations of the
plays, but uses the two tragedies to illustrate and corroborate his
psychological theories, which are based on his treatments of his patients
and on his studies. Productions of Hamlet have used Freud's ideas to
support their own interpretations.[112][113] In The Interpretation of Dreams,
Freud says that according to his experience "parents play a leading part in
the infantile psychology of all persons who subsequently become
Freud suggested that an psychoneurotics," and that "falling in love with one parent and hating the
unconscious Oedipal other" is a common impulse in early childhood, and is important source
conflict caused Hamlet's material of "subsequent neurosis". He says that "in their amorous or hostile
hesitations (artist: Eugène attitude toward their parents" neurotics reveal something that occurs with
Delacroix 1844). less intensity "in the minds of the majority of children". Freud considered
that Sophocles’ tragedy, Oedipus Rex, with its story that involves crimes of
parricide and incest, "has furnished us with legendary matter which
corroborates" these ideas, and that the "profound and universal validity of the old legends" is
understandable only by recognizing the validity of these theories of "infantile psychology".[114]

Freud explores the reason "Oedipus Rex is capable of moving a modern reader or playgoer no less
powerfully than it moved the contemporary Greeks". He suggests that "It may be that we were all destined
to direct our first sexual impulses toward our mothers, and our first impulses of hatred and violence toward
our fathers." Freud suggests that we "recoil from the person for whom this primitive wish of our childhood
has been fulfilled with all the force of the repression which these wishes have undergone in our minds since
childhood."[114]

These ideas, which became a cornerstone of Freud's psychological theories, he named the "Oedipus
Complex", and, at one point, he considered calling it the "Hamlet Complex".[115] Freud considered that
Hamlet "is rooted in the same soil as Oedipus Rex." But the difference in the "psychic life" of the two
civilizations that produced each play, and the progress made over time of "repression in the emotional life
of humanity" can be seen in the way the same material is handled by the two playwrights: In Oedipus Rex
incest and murder are brought into the light as might occur in a dream, but in Hamlet these impulses
"remain repressed" and we learn of their existence through Hamlet's inhibitions to act out the revenge,
while he is shown to be capable of acting decisively and boldly in other contexts. Freud asserts, "The play
is based on Hamlet’s hesitation in accomplishing the task of revenge assigned to him; the text does not give
the cause or the motive of this." The conflict is "deeply hidden".[114]

Hamlet is able to perform any kind of action except taking revenge on the man who murdered his father
and has taken his father's place with his mother—Claudius has led Hamlet to realize the repressed desires of
his own childhood. The loathing which was supposed to drive him to revenge is replaced by "self-
reproach, by conscientious scruples" which tell him "he himself is no better than the murderer whom he is
required to punish".[116] Freud suggests that Hamlet's sexual aversion expressed in his "nunnery"
conversation with Ophelia supports the idea that Hamlet is "an hysterical subject".[116]

Freud suggests that the character Hamlet goes through an experience that has three characteristics, which he
numbered: 1) "the hero is not psychopathic, but becomes so" during the course of the play. 2) "the
repressed desire is one of those that are similarly repressed in all of us." It is a repression that "belongs to an
early stage of our individual development". The audience identifies with the character of Hamlet, because
"we are victims of the same conflict." 3) It is the nature of theatre that "the struggle of the repressed impulse
to become conscious" occurs in both the hero onstage and the spectator, when they are in the grip of their
emotions, "in the manner seen in psychoanalytic treatment".[117]

Freud points out that Hamlet is an exception in that psychopathic characters are usually ineffective in stage
plays; they "become as useless for the stage as they are for life itself", because they do not inspire insight or
empathy, unless the audience is familiar with the character's inner conflict. Freud says, "It is thus the task of
the dramatist to transport us into the same illness."[118]

John Barrymore's long-running 1922 performance in New York, directed by Thomas Hopkins, "broke new
ground in its Freudian approach to character", in keeping with the post-World War I rebellion against
everything Victorian.[119] He had a "blunter intention" than presenting the genteel, sweet prince of 19th-
century tradition, imbuing his character with virility and lust.[120]

Beginning in 1910, with the publication of "The Œdipus-Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet's Mystery:
A Study in Motive"[121] Ernest Jones—a psychoanalyst and Freud's biographer—developed Freud's ideas
into a series of essays that culminated in his book Hamlet and Oedipus (1949). Influenced by Jones's
psychoanalytic approach, several productions have portrayed the "closet scene", where Hamlet confronts
his mother in her private quarters, in a sexual light.[122] In this reading, Hamlet is disgusted by his mother's
"incestuous" relationship with Claudius while simultaneously fearful of killing him, as this would clear
Hamlet's path to his mother's bed. Ophelia's madness after her father's death may also be read through the
Freudian lens: as a reaction to the death of her hoped-for lover, her father. Ophelia is overwhelmed by
having her unfulfilled love for him so abruptly terminated and drifts into the oblivion of insanity.[123][124]
In 1937, Tyrone Guthrie directed Laurence Olivier in a Jones-inspired Hamlet at The Old Vic.[125] Olivier
later used some of these same ideas in his 1948 film version of the play.

In the Bloom's Shakespeare Through the Ages volume on Hamlet, editors Bloom and Foster express a
conviction that the intentions of Shakespeare in portraying the character of Hamlet in the play exceeded the
capacity of the Freudian Oedipus complex to completely encompass the extent of characteristics depicted in
Hamlet throughout the tragedy: "For once, Freud regressed in attempting to fasten the Oedipus Complex
upon Hamlet: it will not stick, and merely showed that Freud did better than T.S. Eliot, who preferred
Coriolanus to Hamlet, or so he said. Who can believe Eliot, when he exposes his own Hamlet Complex by
declaring the play to be an aesthetic failure?"[126] The book also notes James Joyce's interpretation, stating
that he "did far better in the Library Scene of Ulysses, where Stephen marvellously credits Shakespeare, in
this play, with universal fatherhood while accurately implying that Hamlet is fatherless, thus opening a
pragmatic gap between Shakespeare and Hamlet."[126]

Joshua Rothman has written in The New Yorker that "we tell the story wrong when we say that Freud used
the idea of the Oedipus complex to understand Hamlet". Rothman suggests that "it was the other way
around: Hamlet helped Freud understand, and perhaps even invent, psychoanalysis". He concludes, "The
Oedipus complex is a misnomer. It should be called the 'Hamlet complex'."[127]

Jacques Lacan
In the 1950s, the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan analyzed Hamlet to illustrate some of his concepts.
His structuralist theories about Hamlet were first presented in a series of seminars given in Paris and later
published in "Desire and the Interpretation of Desire in Hamlet". Lacan postulated that the human psyche is
determined by structures of language and that the linguistic structures of Hamlet shed light on human
desire.[128] His point of departure is Freud's Oedipal theories, and the central theme of mourning that runs
through Hamlet.[128] In Lacan's analysis, Hamlet unconsciously assumes the role of phallus—the cause of
his inaction—and is increasingly distanced from reality "by mourning, fantasy, narcissism and psychosis",
which create holes (or lack) in the real, imaginary, and symbolic aspects of his psyche.[128] Lacan's theories
influenced some subsequent literary criticism of Hamlet because of his alternative vision of the play and his
use of semantics to explore the play's psychological landscape.[128]

Feminist

In the 20th century, feminist critics opened up new approaches to

Gertrude and Ophelia. New Historicist and cultural materialist
critics examined the play in its historical context, attempting to
piece together its original cultural environment.[130] They focused
on the gender system of early modern England, pointing to the
common trinity of maid, wife, or widow, with whores outside of
that stereotype. In this analysis, the essence of Hamlet is the central
character's changed perception of his mother as a whore because of
her failure to remain faithful to Old Hamlet. In consequence, Ophelia is distracted by grief.[129]
Feminist critics have explored her
Hamlet loses his faith in all women, treating Ophelia as if she too
descent into madness (artist:
were a whore and dishonest with Hamlet. Ophelia, by some critics,
Henrietta Rae 1890).
can be seen as honest and fair; however, it is virtually impossible to
link these two traits, since 'fairness' is an outward trait, while
'honesty' is an inward trait.[131]

Carolyn Heilbrun's 1957 essay "The Character of Hamlet's

Mother" defends Gertrude, arguing that the text never hints that
Gertrude knew of Claudius poisoning King Hamlet. This analysis
has been praised by many feminist critics, combating what is, by
Heilbrun's argument, centuries' worth of misinterpretation. By this
account, Gertrude's worst crime is of pragmatically marrying her
brother-in-law in order to avoid a power vacuum. This is borne out
by the fact that King Hamlet's ghost tells Hamlet to leave Gertrude
out of Hamlet's revenge, to leave her to heaven, an arbitrary mercy
to grant to a conspirator to murder.[132][133][134] This view has not Hamlet tries to show his mother
been without objection from some critics.[h] Gertrude his father's ghost (artist:
Nicolai A. Abildgaard, c. 1778).
Ophelia has also been defended by feminist critics, most notably
Elaine Showalter.[136] Ophelia is surrounded by powerful men: her
father, brother, and Hamlet. All three disappear: Laertes leaves, Hamlet abandons her, and Polonius dies.
Conventional theories had argued that without these three powerful men making decisions for her, Ophelia
is driven into madness.[137] Feminist theorists argue that she goes mad with guilt because, when Hamlet
kills her father, he has fulfilled her sexual desire to have Hamlet kill her father so they can be together.
Showalter points out that Ophelia has become the symbol of the distraught and hysterical woman in
modern culture.[138]

Influence
Hamlet is one of the most quoted works in the English language, and is often included on lists of the
world's greatest literature.[i] As such, it reverberates through the writing of later centuries. Academic Laurie
Osborne identifies the direct influence of Hamlet in numerous modern narratives, and divides them into
four main categories: fictional accounts of the play's composition, simplifications of the story for young
readers, stories expanding the role of one or more characters, and narratives featuring performances of the
play.[139]

English poet John Milton was an early admirer of Shakespeare

and took evident inspiration from his work. As John Kerrigan
discusses, Milton originally considered writing his epic poem
Paradise Lost (1667) as a tragedy.[140] While Milton did not
ultimately go that route, the poem still shows distinct echoes of
Shakespearean revenge tragedy, and of Hamlet in particular.
As scholar Christopher N. Warren argues, Paradise Lost's
Actors before Hamlet by Władysław Satan "undergoes a transformation in the poem from a Hamlet-
Czachórski (1875), National Museum in like avenger into a Claudius-like usurper," a plot device that
Warsaw. supports Milton's larger Republican internationalist
project.[141] The poem also reworks theatrical language from
Hamlet, especially around the idea of "putting on" certain
dispositions, as when Hamlet puts on "an antic disposition," similarly to the Son in Paradise Lost who "can
put on / [God's] terrors."[142]

Henry Fielding's Tom Jones, published about 1749, describes a visit to Hamlet by Tom Jones and Mr
Partridge, with similarities to the "play within a play".[143] In contrast, Goethe's Bildungsroman Wilhelm
Meister's Apprenticeship, written between 1776 and 1796, not only has a production of Hamlet at its core
but also creates parallels between the ghost and Wilhelm Meister's dead father.[143] In the early 1850s, in
Pierre, Herman Melville focuses on a Hamlet-like character's long development as a writer.[143] Ten years
later, Dickens's Great Expectations contains many Hamlet-like plot elements: it is driven by revenge-
motivated actions, contains ghost-like characters (Abel Magwitch and Miss Havisham), and focuses on the
hero's guilt.[143] Academic Alexander Welsh notes that Great Expectations is an "autobiographical novel"
and "anticipates psychoanalytic readings of Hamlet itself".[144] About the same time, George Eliot's The
Mill on the Floss was published, introducing Maggie Tulliver "who is explicitly compared with
Hamlet"[145] though "with a reputation for sanity".[146]

L. Frank Baum's first published short story was "They Played a New Hamlet" (1895). When Baum had
been touring New York State in the title role, the actor playing the ghost fell through the floorboards, and
the rural audience thought it was part of the show and demanded that the actor repeat the fall, because they
thought it was funny. Baum would later recount the actual story in an article, but the short story is told from
the point of view of the actor playing the ghost.

In the 1920s, James Joyce managed "a more upbeat version" of Hamlet—stripped of obsession and
revenge—in Ulysses, though its main parallels are with Homer's Odyssey.[143] In the 1990s, two novelists
were explicitly influenced by Hamlet. In Angela Carter's Wise Children, To be or not to be[108] is reworked
as a song and dance routine, and Iris Murdoch's The Black Prince has Oedipal themes and murder
intertwined with a love affair between a Hamlet-obsessed writer, Bradley Pearson, and the daughter of his
rival.[145] In the late 20th century, David Foster Wallace's novel Infinite Jest draws heavily from Hamlet
and takes its title from the play's text; Wallace incorporates references to the gravedigger scene, the
marriage of the main character's mother to his uncle, and the re-appearance of the main character's father as
a ghost.
 There is the story of the woman who read Hamlet for the first time and said, "I don't see why
people admire that play so. It is nothing but a bunch of quotations strung together."

     — Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Guide to Shakespeare, p. vii, Avenal Books, 1970

Performance history

The day we see Hamlet die in

Shakespeare's day to the Interregnum
the theatre, something of him
dies for us. He is dethroned
Shakespeare almost certainly wrote the role of Hamlet for Richard
by the spectre of an actor, and
Burbage. He was the chief tragedian of the Lord Chamberlain's Men,
we shall never be able to
with a capacious memory for lines and a wide emotional
keep the usurper out of our
range.[148][149][j] Judging by the number of reprints, Hamlet appears
dreams.
to have been Shakespeare's fourth most popular play during his
lifetime—only Henry IV Part 1, Richard III and Pericles eclipsed it.[2]
Shakespeare provides no clear indication of when his play is set; Maurice Maeterlinck in La
however, as Elizabethan actors performed at the Globe in Jeune Belgique (1890).[147]
contemporary dress on minimal sets, this would not have affected the
staging.[153]

Firm evidence for specific early performances of the play is scant. It is sometimes argued that the crew of
the ship Red Dragon, anchored off Sierra Leone, performed Hamlet in September 1607;[154][155][156]
However, this claim is based on a 19th-century insert of a 'lost' passage into a period document, and is
today widely regarded as a hoax (not to mention the intrinsic unlikelihood of sailors memorising and
performing the play) . More credible is that the play toured in Germany within five years of Shakespeare's
death;[156] and that it was performed before James I in 1619 and Charles I in 1637.[157] Oxford editor
George Hibbard argues that, since the contemporary literature contains many allusions and references to
Hamlet (only Falstaff is mentioned more, from Shakespeare), the play was surely performed with a
frequency that the historical record misses.[158]

All theatres were closed down by the Puritan government during the Interregnum.[159] Even during this
time, however, playlets known as drolls were often performed illegally, including one called The Grave-
Makers based on Act 5, Scene 1 of Hamlet.[160]

Restoration and 18th century

The play was revived early in the Restoration. When the existing stock of pre-civil war plays was divided
between the two newly created patent theatre companies, Hamlet was the only Shakespearean favourite
that Sir William Davenant's Duke's Company secured.[161] It became the first of Shakespeare's plays to be
presented with movable flats painted with generic scenery behind the proscenium arch of Lincoln's Inn
Fields Theatre.[k] This new stage convention highlighted the frequency with which Shakespeare shifts
dramatic location, encouraging the recurrent criticism of his failure to maintain unity of place.[163] In the
title role, Davenant cast Thomas Betterton, who continued to play the Dane until he was 74.[164] David
Garrick at Drury Lane produced a version that adapted Shakespeare heavily; he declared: "I had sworn I
would not leave the stage till I had rescued that noble play from all the rubbish of the fifth act. I have
brought it forth without the grave-digger's trick, Osrick, & the fencing match".[l] The first actor known to
have played Hamlet in North America is Lewis Hallam Jr., in the American Company's production in
Philadelphia in 1759.[166]
 John Philip Kemble made
his Drury Lane debut as
Hamlet in 1783.[167] His
performance was said to be
20 minutes longer than
anyone else's, and his
lengthy pauses provoked
the suggestion by Richard
Brinsley Sheridan that
"music should be played
between the words".[168]
Sarah Siddons was the first Title page and frontispiece for
actress known to play Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: A
David Garrick expresses Hamlet's Hamlet; many women have Tragedy. As it is now acted at the
shock at his first sighting of the since played him as a Theatres-Royal in Drury-Lane and
ghost (artist: unknown). breeches role, to great Covent-Garden. London, 1776
acclaim.[169] In 1748,
Alexander Sumarokov
wrote a Russian adaptation that focused on Prince Hamlet as the embodiment of an opposition to Claudius's
tyranny—a treatment that would recur in Eastern European versions into the 20th century.[170] In the years
following America's independence, Thomas Apthorpe Cooper, the young nation's leading tragedian,
performed Hamlet among other plays at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, and at the Park
Theatre in New York. Although chided for "acknowledging acquaintances in the audience" and
"inadequate memorisation of his lines", he became a national celebrity.[171]

19th century

From around 1810 to 1840, the best-known Shakespearean performances

in the United States were tours by leading London actors—including
George Frederick Cooke, Junius Brutus Booth, Edmund Kean, William
Charles Macready, and Charles Kemble. Of these, Booth remained to make
his career in the States, fathering the nation's most notorious actor, John
Wilkes Booth (who later assassinated Abraham Lincoln), and its most
famous Hamlet, Edwin Booth.[172] Edwin Booth's Hamlet at the Fifth
Avenue Theatre in 1875 was described as "... the dark, sad, dreamy,
mysterious hero of a poem. [... acted] in an ideal manner, as far removed as
possible from the plane of actual life".[173][174] Booth played Hamlet for
100 nights in the 1864/5 season at The Winter Garden Theatre,
inaugurating the era of long-run Shakespeare in America.[174]

In the United Kingdom, the actor-managers of the Victorian era (including A poster, c. 1884, for an
Kean, Samuel Phelps, Macready, and Henry Irving) staged Shakespeare in American production of
a grand manner, with elaborate scenery and costumes.[175] The tendency of Hamlet (starring Thomas W.
actor-managers to emphasise the importance of their own central character Keene), showing several of
did not always meet with the critics' approval. George Bernard Shaw's the key scenes
praise for Johnston Forbes-Robertson's performance contains a sideswipe at
Irving: "The story of the play was perfectly intelligible, and quite took the
attention of the audience off the principal actor at moments. What is the Lyceum coming to?"[m]
In London, Edmund Kean was the first Hamlet to abandon the regal finery usually associated with the role
in favour of a plain costume, and he is said to have surprised his audience by playing Hamlet as serious and
introspective.[177] In stark contrast to earlier opulence, William Poel's 1881 production of the Q1 text was
an early attempt at reconstructing the Elizabethan theatre's austerity; his only backdrop was a set of red
curtains.[52][178] Sarah Bernhardt played the prince in her popular 1899 London production. In contrast to
the "effeminate" view of the central character that usually accompanied a female casting, she described her
character as "manly and resolute, but nonetheless thoughtful ... [he] thinks before he acts, a trait indicative
of great strength and great spiritual power".[n]

In France, Charles Kemble initiated an enthusiasm for Shakespeare; and leading members of the Romantic
movement such as Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas saw his 1827 Paris performance of Hamlet,
particularly admiring the madness of Harriet Smithson's Ophelia.[180] In Germany, Hamlet had become so
assimilated by the mid-19th century that Ferdinand Freiligrath declared that "Germany is Hamlet".[181]
From the 1850s, the Parsi theatre tradition in India transformed Hamlet into folk performances, with dozens
of songs added.[182]

20th century

Apart from some western troupes' 19th-century visits, the first professional performance of Hamlet in Japan
was Otojirō Kawakami's 1903 Shinpa ("new school theatre") adaptation.[183] Tsubouchi Shōyō translated
Hamlet and produced a performance in 1911 that blended Shingeki ("new drama") and Kabuki styles.[183]
This hybrid-genre reached its peak in Tsuneari Fukuda's 1955 Hamlet.[183] In 1998, Yukio Ninagawa
produced an acclaimed version of Hamlet in the style of Nō theatre, which he took to London.[184]

Konstantin Stanislavski and Edward Gordon Craig—two of the 20th century's most influential theatre
practitioners—collaborated on the Moscow Art Theatre's seminal production of 1911–12.[o] While Craig
favoured stylised abstraction, Stanislavski, armed with his 'system,' explored psychological motivation.[186]
Craig conceived of the play as a symbolist monodrama, offering a dream-like vision as seen through
Hamlet's eyes alone.[p] This was most evident in the staging of the first court scene.[190][q] The most
famous aspect of the production is Craig's use of large, abstract screens that altered the size and shape of the
acting area for each scene, representing the character's state of mind spatially or visualising a dramaturgical
progression.[192] The production attracted enthusiastic and unprecedented worldwide attention for the
theatre and placed it "on the cultural map for Western Europe".[193][194]

Hamlet is often played with contemporary political overtones. Leopold Jessner's 1926 production at the
Berlin Staatstheater portrayed Claudius's court as a parody of the corrupt and fawning court of Kaiser
Wilhelm.[195] In Poland, the number of productions of Hamlet has tended to increase at times of political
unrest, since its political themes (suspected crimes, coups, surveillance) can be used to comment on a
contemporary situation.[196] Similarly, Czech directors have used the play at times of occupation: a 1941
Vinohrady Theatre production "emphasised, with due caution, the helpless situation of an intellectual
attempting to endure in a ruthless environment".[197][198] In China, performances of Hamlet often have
political significance: Gu Wuwei's 1916 The Usurper of State Power, an amalgam of Hamlet and Macbeth,
was an attack on Yuan Shikai's attempt to overthrow the republic.[199] In 1942, Jiao Juyin directed the play
in a Confucian temple in Sichuan Province, to which the government had retreated from the advancing
Japanese.[199] In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of the protests at Tiananmen Square, Lin Zhaohua
staged a 1990 Hamlet in which the prince was an ordinary individual tortured by a loss of meaning. In this
production, the actors playing Hamlet, Claudius and Polonius exchanged roles at crucial moments in the
performance, including the moment of Claudius's death, at which point the actor mainly associated with
Hamlet fell to the ground.[199]
Notable stagings in London and New York include Barrymore's 1925
production at the Haymarket; it influenced subsequent performances by
John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier.[200][201] Gielgud played the central
role many times: his 1936 New York production ran for 132 performances,
leading to the accolade that he was "the finest interpreter of the role since
Barrymore".[202] Although "posterity has treated Maurice Evans less
kindly", throughout the 1930s and 1940s he was regarded by many as the
leading interpreter of Shakespeare in the United States and in the 1938/39
season he presented Broadway's first uncut Hamlet, running four and a half
hours.[203] Evans later performed a highly truncated version of the play that
he played for South Pacific war zones during World War II which made the
prince a more decisive character. The staging, known as the "G.I. Hamlet",
was produced on Broadway for 131 performances in 1945/46.[204]
Olivier's 1937 performance at The Old Vic was popular with audiences but
not with critics, with James Agate writing in a famous review in The Mignon Nevada as Ophelia,
Sunday Times, "Mr. Olivier does not speak poetry badly. He does not speak 1910
it at all."[205] In 1937 Tyrone Guthrie directed the play at Elsinore,
Denmark, with Laurence Olivier as Hamlet and Vivien Leigh as Ophelia.

In 1963, Olivier directed Peter O'Toole as Hamlet in the inaugural performance of the newly formed
National Theatre; critics found resonance between O'Toole's Hamlet and John Osborne's hero, Jimmy
Porter, from Look Back in Anger.[206][207]

Richard Burton received his third Tony Award nomination when he played his second Hamlet, his first
under John Gielgud's direction, in 1964 in a production that holds the record for the longest run of the play
in Broadway history (137 performances). The performance was set on a bare stage, conceived to appear
like a dress rehearsal, with Burton in a black v-neck sweater, and Gielgud himself tape-recorded the voice
for the ghost (which appeared as a looming shadow). It was immortalised both on record and on a film that
played in US theatres for a week in 1964 as well as being the subject of books written by cast members
William Redfield and Richard L. Sterne.

Other New York portrayals of Hamlet of note include that of Ralph Fiennes's in 1995 (for which he won
the Tony Award for Best Actor)—which ran, from first preview to closing night, a total of one hundred
performances. About the Fiennes Hamlet Vincent Canby wrote in The New York Times that it was "... not
one for literary sleuths and Shakespeare scholars. It respects the play, but it doesn't provide any new
material for arcane debates on what it all means. Instead it's an intelligent, beautifully read ..."[208] Stacy
Keach played the role with an all-star cast at Joseph Papp's Delacorte Theatre in the early 1970s, with
Colleen Dewhurst's Gertrude, James Earl Jones's King, Barnard Hughes's Polonius, Sam Waterston's
Laertes and Raul Julia's Osric. Sam Waterston later played the role himself at the Delacorte for the New
York Shakespeare Festival, and the show transferred to the Vivian Beaumont Theatre in 1975 (Stephen
Lang played Bernardo and other roles). Stephen Lang's Hamlet for the Roundabout Theatre Company in
1992 received mixed reviews[209][210] and ran for sixty-one performances. David Warner played the role
with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1965. William Hurt (at Circle Rep Off-Broadway, memorably
performing "To Be Or Not to Be" while lying on the floor), Jon Voight at Rutgers, and Christopher Walken
(fiercely) at Stratford CT have all played the role, as has Diane Venora at the Public Theatre. The Internet
Broadway Database lists sixty-six productions of Hamlet.[211]

Ian Charleson performed Hamlet from 9 October to 13 November 1989, in Richard Eyre's production at
the Olivier Theatre, replacing Daniel Day-Lewis, who had abandoned the production. Seriously ill from
AIDS at the time, Charleson died eight weeks after his last performance. Fellow actor and friend, Sir Ian
McKellen, said that Charleson played Hamlet so well it was as if he had rehearsed the role all his life;
McKellen called it "the perfect Hamlet".[212][213] The performance garnered other major accolades as well,
some critics echoing McKellen in calling it the definitive Hamlet performance.[214]

21st century

Hamlet continues to be staged regularly. Actors performing the lead role have included: Simon Russell
Beale, Ben Whishaw, David Tennant, Tom Hiddleston, Angela Winkler, Samuel West, Christopher
Eccleston, Maxine Peake, Rory Kinnear, Oscar Isaac, Michael Sheen, Christian Camargo, Paapa Essiedu
and Michael Urie.[215][216][217][218]

In May 2009, Hamlet opened with Jude Law in the title role at the Donmar Warehouse West End season at
Wyndham's Theatre. The production officially opened on 3 June and ran through 22 August
2009.[219][220] A further production of the play ran at Elsinore Castle in Denmark from 25 to 30 August
2009.[221] The Jude Law Hamlet then moved to Broadway, and ran for 12 weeks at the Broadhurst
Theatre in New York.[222][223]

In October 2011, a production starring Michael Sheen opened at the Young Vic, in which the play was set
inside a psychiatric hospital.[224]

In 2013, American actor Paul Giamatti won mixed reviews for his performance on stage in the title role of
Hamlet, performed in modern dress, at the Yale Repertory Theater, at Yale University in New Haven,
Connecticut.[225][226]

The Globe Theatre of London initiated a project in 2014 to perform Hamlet in every country in the world
in the space of two years. Titled Globe to Globe Hamlet, it began its tour on 23 April 2014, the 450th
anniversary of Shakespeare's birth, and performed in 197 countries.[227]

Benedict Cumberbatch played the role for a 12-week run in a production at the Barbican Theatre, opening
on 25 August 2015. The play was produced by Sonia Friedman, and directed by Lyndsey Turner, with set
design by Es Devlin. It was called the "most in-demand theatre production of all time" and sold out in
seven hours after tickets went on sale 11 August 2014, more than a year before the play opened.[228][229]

A 2017 Almeida Theatre production, directed by Robert Icke and starring Andrew Scott, was a sold out hit
and was transferred that same year to the West End's Harold Pinter Theatre, to five star reviews.[230]

Tom Hiddleston played the role for a three-week run at Vanbrugh Theatre that opened on 1 September
2017 and was directed by Kenneth Branagh.[231][232]

In 2018, The Globe Theatre's newly instated artistic director Michelle Terry played the role in a production
notable for its gender-blind casting.[233]

An upcoming production by Bristol Old Vic starring Billy Howle in title role, Niamh Cusack as Gertrude,
Mirren Mack as Ophelia is set to open on October 13, 2022.[234]

Film and TV performances

The earliest screen success for Hamlet was Sarah Bernhardt's five-minute film of the fencing scene,[235]
which was produced in 1900. The film was an early attempt at combining sound and film, music and words
were recorded on phonograph records, to be played along with the film.[236] Silent versions were released
in 1907, 1908, 1910, 1913, 1917, and 1920.[236] In the 1921 film Hamlet, Danish actress Asta Nielsen
played the role of Hamlet as a woman who spends her life disguised as a man.[236]

Laurence Olivier's 1948 moody black-and-white Hamlet won Best Picture and Best Actor Academy
Awards, and is, as of 2020, the only Shakespeare film to have done so. His interpretation stressed the
Oedipal overtones of the play, and cast 28-year-old Eileen Herlie as Hamlet's mother, opposite himself, at
41, as Hamlet.[237]

In 1953, actor Jack Manning performed the play in 15-minute segments over two weeks in the short-lived
late night DuMont series Monodrama Theater. New York Times TV critic Jack Gould praised Manning's
performance as Hamlet.[238]

The 1964 Soviet film Hamlet (Russian: Гамлет) is based on a translation by Boris Pasternak and directed
by Grigori Kozintsev, with a score by Dmitri Shostakovich.[239] Innokenty Smoktunovsky was cast in the
role of Hamlet.

John Gielgud directed Richard Burton in a Broadway production at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre in 1964–
65, the longest-running Hamlet in the U.S. to date. A live film of the production was produced using
"Electronovision", a method of recording a live performance with multiple video cameras and converting
the image to film.[240] Eileen Herlie repeated her role from Olivier's film version as the Queen, and the
voice of Gielgud was heard as the ghost. The Gielgud/Burton production was also recorded complete and
released on LP by Columbia Masterworks.

The first Hamlet in color was a 1969 film directed by Tony Richardson
with Nicol Williamson as Hamlet and Marianne Faithfull as Ophelia.

In 1990 Franco Zeffirelli, whose Shakespeare films have been described as

"sensual rather than cerebral",[241] cast Mel Gibson—then famous for the
Mad Max and Lethal Weapon movies—in the title role of his 1990 version;
Glenn Close—then famous as the psychotic "other woman" in Fatal
Attraction—played Gertrude,[242] and Paul Scofield played Hamlet's
father.

Kenneth Branagh adapted, directed, and starred in a 1996 film version of

Hamlet that contained material from the First Folio and the Second Quarto.
Branagh's Hamlet runs for just over four hours.[243] Branagh set the film
with late 19th-century costuming and furnishings, a production in many
Sarah Bernhardt as Hamlet,
ways reminiscent of a Russian novel of the time;[244] and Blenheim Palace,
with Yorick's skull
built in the early 18th century, became Elsinore Castle in the external
(photographer: James
scenes. The film is structured as an epic and makes frequent use of
Lafayette, c. 1885–1900).
flashbacks to highlight elements not made explicit in the play: Hamlet's
sexual relationship with Kate Winslet's Ophelia, for example, or his
childhood affection for Yorick (played by Ken Dodd).[245]

In 2000, Michael Almereyda's Hamlet set the story in contemporary Manhattan, with Ethan Hawke playing
Hamlet as a film student. Claudius (played by Kyle MacLachlan) became the CEO of "Denmark
Corporation", having taken over the company by killing his brother.[246]

The Northman, released on April 22, 2022, and directed by the American director Robert Eggers who also
co-wrote the script with Icelandic author Sjón, is based in the original Scandinavian legend that inspired
Shakespeare to write Hamlet.
There have also been several films that transposed the general storyline of Hamlet or elements thereof to
other settings. For example, the 2014 Bollywood film Haider is an adaptation set in Kashmir.[247] There
have also been many films which included performances of scenes from Hamlet as a play-within-a-film.

Stage pastiches

There have been various "derivative works" of Hamlet which recast the story from the point of view of
other characters, or transpose the story into a new setting or act as sequels or prequels to Hamlet. This
section is limited to those written for the stage.

The best-known is Tom Stoppard's 1966 play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, which retells many
of the events of the story from the point of view of the characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern and gives
them a backstory of their own. Several times since 1995, the American Shakespeare Center has mounted
repertories that included both Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, with the same actors performing
the same roles in each; in their 2001 and 2009 seasons the two plays were "directed, designed, and
rehearsed together to make the most out of the shared scenes and situations".[248]

W. S. Gilbert wrote a short comic play titled Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, in which Hamlet's play is
presented as a tragedy written by Claudius in his youth of which he is greatly embarrassed. Through the
chaos triggered by Hamlet's staging of it, Guildenstern helps Rosencrantz vie with Hamlet to make Ophelia
his bride.[249]

Lee Blessing's Fortinbras is a comical sequel to Hamlet in which all the deceased characters come back as
ghosts. The New York Times reviewed the play, saying it is "scarcely more than an extended comedy
sketch, lacking the portent and linguistic complexity of Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are
Dead. Fortinbras operates on a far less ambitious plane, but it is a ripping yarn and offers Keith Reddin a
role in which he can commit comic mayhem".[250]

Caridad Svich's 12 Ophelias (a play with broken songs) includes elements of the story of Hamlet but
focuses on Ophelia. In Svich's play, Ophelia is resurrected and rises from a pool of water, after her death in
Hamlet. The play is a series of scenes and songs, and was first staged at a public swimming pool in
Brooklyn.[251]

David Davalos's Wittenberg is a "tragical-comical-historical" prequel to Hamlet that depicts the Danish
prince as a student at Wittenberg University (now known as the University of Halle-Wittenberg), where he
is torn between the conflicting teachings of his mentors John Faustus and Martin Luther. The New York
Times reviewed the play, saying, "Mr. Davalos has molded a daft campus comedy out of this unlikely
convergence,"[252] and Nytheatre.com's review said the playwright "has imagined a fascinating alternate
reality, and quite possibly, given the fictional Hamlet a back story that will inform the role for the
future."[253]

Mad Boy Chronicle by Canadian playwright Michael O'Brien is a dark comedy loosely based on Hamlet,
set in Viking Denmark in 999 AD.[254]

Notes and references

Notes
a. In his 1936 book The Problem of Hamlet: A Solution Andrew Cairncross asserted that the
Hamlet referred to in 1589 was written by Shakespeare;[19] Peter Alexander,[20] Eric
 Sams[21] and, more recently, Harold Bloom[22][23] have agreed. However Harold Jenkins,
the editor of the second series Arden edition of the play, considers that there are not grounds
for thinking that the Ur-Hamlet is an early work by Shakespeare, which he then rewrote.[24]
b. Polonius was close to the Latin name for Robert Pullen, founder of Oxford University, and
Reynaldo too close for safety to John Rainolds, the President of Corpus Christi College.[35]
c. MacCary suggests 1599 or 1600;[36] James Shapiro offers late 1600 or early 1601;[37] Wells
and Taylor suggest that the play was written in 1600 and revised later;[38] the New
Cambridge editor settles on mid-1601;[39] the New Swan Shakespeare Advanced Series
editor agrees with 1601;[40] Thompson and Taylor, tentatively ("according to whether one is
the more persuaded by Jenkins or by Honigmann") suggest a terminus ad quem of either
Spring 1601 or sometime in 1600.[41]
d. The Arden Shakespeare third series published Q2, with appendices, in their first volume,[56]
and the F1 and Q1 texts in their second volume.[57] The RSC Shakespeare is the F1 text
with additional Q2 passages in an appendix.[58] The New Cambridge Shakespeare series
has begun to publish separate volumes for the separate quarto versions that exist of
Shakespeare's plays.[59]
e. This interpretation is widely held,[97] but has been challenged by, among others, Harold
Jenkins.[98] He finds the evidence for a precedent for that interpretation to be insufficient and
inconclusive, and considers the literal interpretation to be better suited to the dramatic
context.[98]
f. See Romans 12:19: Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith the Lord.
g. See the articles on the Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein and Church of
Denmark for details.
h. "There is a recent 'Be kind to Gertrude' fashion among some feminist critics"[135]
i. Hamlet has 208 quotations in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations; it takes up 10 of 85
pages dedicated to Shakespeare in the 1986 Bartlett's Familiar Quotations (14th ed. 1968).
For examples of lists of the greatest books, see Harvard Classics, Great Books, Great Books
of the Western World, Harold Bloom's The Western Canon, St. John's College reading list,
and Columbia College Core Curriculum.
j. Hattaway asserts that "Richard Burbage ... played Hieronimo and also Richard III but then
was the first Hamlet, Lear, and Othello"[150] and Thomson argues that the identity of Hamlet
as Burbage is built into the dramaturgy of several moments of the play: "we will profoundly
misjudge the position if we do not recognise that, whilst this is Hamlet talking about the
groundlings, it is also Burbage talking to the groundlings".[151] See also Thomson on the first
player's beard.[152]
k. Samuel Pepys records his delight at the novelty of Hamlet "done with scenes".[162]
l. Letter to Sir William Young, 10 January 1773, quoted by Uglow.[165]
m. George Bernard Shaw in The Saturday Review on 2 October 1897.[176]
n. Sarah Bernhardt, in a letter to the London Daily Telegraph.[179]
o. For more on this production, see the MAT production of Hamlet article. Craig and
Stanislavski began planning the production in 1908 but, due to a serious illness of
Stanislavski's, it was delayed until December 1911.[185]
p. On Craig's relationship to Symbolism, Russian symbolism, and its principles of monodrama
in particular, see Taxidou;[187] on Craig's staging proposals, see Innes;[188] on the centrality
of the protagonist and his mirroring of the 'authorial self', see Taxidou[189] and Innes.[188]
 q. A brightly lit, golden pyramid descended from Claudius's throne, representing the feudal
hierarchy, giving the illusion of a single, unified mass of bodies. In the dark, shadowy
foreground, separated by a gauze, Hamlet lay, as if dreaming. On Claudius's exit-line the
figures remained but the gauze was loosened, so that they appeared to melt away as if
Hamlet's thoughts had turned elsewhere. For this effect, the scene received an ovation,
which was unheard of at the MAT.[191]

References

All references to Hamlet, unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Arden Shakespeare Q2.[56] Under
their referencing system, 3.1.55 means act 3, scene 1, line 55. References to the First Quarto and First Folio
are marked Hamlet Q1 and Hamlet F1, respectively, and are taken from the Arden Shakespeare Hamlet:
the texts of 1603 and 1623.[57] Their referencing system for Q1 has no act breaks, so 7.115 means scene 7,
line 115.

1. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, p. 74.

2. Taylor 2002, p. 18.
3. Crystal & Crystal 2005, p. 66.
4. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, p. 17.
5. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, p. 66-67.
6. Shakespeare, William. Weiner, Albert B. editor. William Shakespeare, Hamlet; The First
Quarto 1603. Barrons Educational Series. 1962.
7. Hamlet 1.4.
8. Trilling 2009, p. 8.
9. Hamlet 5.1.1–205
10. Saxo & Hansen 1983, pp. 36–37.
11. Saxo & Hansen 1983, pp. 16–25.
12. Saxo & Hansen 1983, pp. 5–15.
13. Saxo & Hansen 1983, pp. 1–5.
14. Saxo & Hansen 1983, pp. 25–37.
15. Edwards 1985, pp. 1–2.
16. Saxo & Hansen 1983, pp. 66–67.
17. Jenkins 1982, pp. 82–85.
18. Saxo & Hansen 1983, p. 67.
19. Cairncross 1975.
20. Alexander 1964.
21. Jackson 1991, p. 267.
22. Bloom 2001, pp. xiii, 383.
23. Bloom 2003, p. 154.
24. Jenkins 1982, p. 84 n4.
25. Saxo & Hansen 1983, pp. 66–68.
26. Saxo & Hansen 1983, p. 6.
27. Greenblatt 2004a, p. 311.
28. Greenblatt 2004b.
29. Chambers 1930, p. 418.
30. Wilson 1932, p. 104.
31. Rowse 1963, p. 323.
32. Winstanley 1977, p. 114.
33. Cecil 2012.
34. Jenkins 1982, p. 35.
35. Hibbard 1987, pp. 74–75.
36. MacCary 1998, p. 13.
37. Shapiro 2005, p. 341.
38. Wells & Taylor 1988, p. 653.
39. Edwards 1985, p. 8.
40. Lott 1970, p. xlvi.
41. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 58–59.
42. MacCary 1998, pp. 12–13.
43. Edwards 1985, pp. 5–6.
44. Hamlet F1 2.2.337.
45. Hamlet F1 2.2.324–360
46. Duncan-Jones 2001, pp. 143–49.
47. Edwards 1985, p. 5.
48. Hattaway 1987, pp. 13–20.
49. Chambers 1923b, pp. 486–87.
50. Halliday 1964, pp. 204–05.
51. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, p. 465.
52. Halliday 1964, p. 204.
53. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, p. 78.
54. Hibbard 1987, pp. 22–23.
55. Hattaway 1987, p. 16.
56. Thompson & Taylor 2006a.
57. Thompson & Taylor 2006b.
58. Bate & Rasmussen 2007, p. 1923.
59. Irace 1998.
60. Burrow 2002.
61. Hamlet 3.4 and 4.1.
62. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 543–52.
63. Jenkins 1982, p. 14.
64. Hamlet Q1 14.
65. Irace 1998, pp. 1–34.
66. Jackson 1986, p. 171.
67. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 85–86.
68. Thompson & Taylor 2006b, pp. 36–39.
69. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 18–19.
70. Bate & Rasmussen 2008, p. 11.
71. Crowl 2014, pp. 5–6.
72. Wofford 1994.
73. Kirsch 1969.
 74. Vickers 1974a, p. 447.
75. Vickers 1974b, p. 92.
76. Wofford 1994, pp. 184–85.
77. Vickers 1974c, p. 5.
78. Wofford 1994, p. 185.
79. Wofford 1994, p. 186.
80. Rosenberg 1992, p. 179.
81. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Act V, scene i, lines 1—210
82. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Act V, scene ii, lines 215—20
83. MacCary 1998, pp. 65–72, 84, 96.
84. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 80–81.
85. Barnet 1998, p. lxiv.
86. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 92–93.
87. Evans 1974.
88. Hirrel 2010.
89. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, p. 84.
90. Jenkins 1982, pp. 62–64.
91. MacCary 1998, pp. 84–85.
92. Hamlet 3.1.63–64.
93. Hamlet 1.2.85–86.
94. MacCary 1998, pp. 89–90.
95. Hamlet 3.1.87–160
96. OED 2005.
97. Kiernan 2007, p. 34.
98. Jenkins 1982, pp. 493–95.
99. Hamlet 1.2.63–65.
100. Hamlet 3.1.151.
101. Hamlet 3.1.154.
102. MacCary 1998, pp. 87–88.
103. MacCary 1998, pp. 91–93.
104. MacCary 1998, pp. 37–38.
105. MacCary 1998, p. 38.
106. Hamlet F1 2.2.247–248.
107. MacCary 1998, pp. 47–48.
108. Hamlet 3.1.55–87.
109. MacCary 1998, p. 49.
110. Knowles 1999, pp. 1049, 1052–53.
111. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 73–74.
112. Bloom 1994, p. 381.
113. Freud 1900, pp. 367–68.
114. Freud 1995, pp. 274–79.
115. Budd 2005, p. 112.
116. Freud 1995, p. 278.
117. Freud & Bunker 1960, p. 147.
118. Freud & Bunker 1960, pp. 147–48.
119. Morrison 1997, pp. 4, 129–30.
120. Cotsell 2005, p. 191.
121. Jones 1910.
122. Hamlet 3.4.
123. MacCary 1998, pp. 104–07, 113–16.
124. de Grazia 2007, pp. 168–70.
125. Smallwood 2002, p. 102.
126. Bloom & Foster 2008, p. xii.
127. Rothman 2013.
128. Britton 1995, pp. 207–11.
129. Hamlet 4.5.
130. Wofford 1994, pp. 199–202.
131. Howard 2003, pp. 411–15.
132. Heilbrun 1957.
133. Bloom 2003, pp. 58–59.
134. Thompson 2001, p. 4.
135. Bloom 2003.
136. Showalter 1985.
137. Bloom 2003, p. 57.
138. MacCary 1998, pp. 111–13.
139. Osborne 2007, pp. 114–33.
140. Kerrigan 1996, p. 122.
141. Warren 2016, p. 367.
142. Warren 2016, p. 379.
143. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 123–26.
144. Welsh 2001, p. 131.
145. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 126–31.
146. Novy 1994, pp. 62, 77–78.
147. Braun 1982, p. 40.
148. Taylor 2002, p. 4.
149. Banham 1998, p. 141.
150. Hattaway 1982, p. 91.
151. Thomson 1983, p. 24.
152. Thomson 1983, p. 110.
153. Taylor 2002, p. 13.
154. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 53–55.
155. Chambers 1930, p. 334.
156. Dawson 2002, p. 176.
157. Pitcher & Woudhuysen 1969, p. 204.
158. Hibbard 1987, p. 17.
159. Marsden 2002, p. 21.
160. Holland 2007, p. 34.
161. Marsden 2002, pp. 21–22.
162. Thompson & Taylor 1996, p. 57.
163. Taylor 1989, p. 16.
164. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, pp. 98–99.
165. Uglow 1977, p. 473.
166. Morrison 2002, p. 231.
167. Moody 2002, p. 41.
168. Moody 2002, p. 44.
169. Gay 2002, p. 159.
170. Dawson 2002, pp. 185–87.
171. Morrison 2002, pp. 232–33.
172. Morrison 2002, pp. 235–37.
173. Winter 1875.
174. Morrison 2002, p. 241.
175. Schoch 2002, pp. 58–75.
176. Shaw 1961, p. 81.
177. Moody 2002, p. 54.
178. O'Connor 2002, p. 77.
179. Gay 2002, p. 164.
180. Holland 2002, pp. 203–05.
181. Dawson 2002, p. 184.
182. Dawson 2002, p. 188.
183. Gillies et al. 2002, pp. 259–62.
184. Dawson 2002, p. 180.
185. Benedetti 1999, pp. 188–211.
186. Benedetti 1999, pp. 189, 195.
187. Taxidou 1998, pp. 38–41.
188. Innes 1983, p. 153.
189. Taxidou 1998, pp. 181, 188.
190. Hamlet 1.2.1–128.
191. Innes 1983, p. 152.
192. Innes 1983, pp. 165–67.
193. Innes 1983, p. 172.
194. Innes 1983, pp. 140–75.
195. Hortmann 2002, p. 214.
196. Hortmann 2002, p. 223.
197. Burian 2004.
198. Hortmann 2002, pp. 224–25.
199. Gillies et al. 2002, pp. 267–69.
200. Morrison 2002, pp. 247–48.
201. Thompson & Taylor 2006a, p. 109.
202. Morrison 2002, p. 249.
203. Morrison 2002, pp. 249–50.
204. Blum 1981, p. 307.
205. Tanitch 1985.
206. Smallwood 2002, p. 108.
207. National Theatre n.d.
208. Canby 1995.
209. Gussow 1992a.
210. Guernsey & Sweet 2000, p. 43.
211. "Hamlet" (https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-show/hamlet-4172). Internet Broadway Database.
Retrieved 25 July 2020.
212. McKellen et al. 1990, p. 124.
213. Barratt 2005, p. 63.
214. Davison 1999, pp. 170–82.
215. Billington 2001.
216. Gardner 2002.
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External links
Works related to Hamlet at Wikisource
Hamlet (http://www.bl.uk/works/hamlet) at the British Library
​Hamlet​(https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-show/4172) at the Internet Broadway Database
Hamlet (http://www.iobdb.com/AdvancedSearch/ProductionCriteria?ProductionTitle=Hamlet
&search=Search) at the Internet Off-Broadway Database
Hamlet (https://librivox.org/search?title=Hamlet&author=Shakespeare&reader=&keyword
s=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_
date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced) public domain audiobook at LibriVox

Texts
Hamlet (http://shakespearestudyguide.com/Hamlet%20Text.html) Complete text on one
page with definitions of difficult words and explanations of difficult passages.
Hamlet (http://www.folgerdigitaltexts.org/?chapter=5&play=Ham&loc=p7) – Digital text by the
Folger Shakespeare Library
 Hamlet (https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/william-shakespeare/hamlet) at Standard
Ebooks

Hamlet (https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/1524) at Project Gutenberg

Hamlet at the Internet Shakespeare Editions (http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/Text
s/Ham/) – Transcripts and facsimiles of Q1, Q2 and F1.
Shakespeare Quartos Archive (http://www.quartos.org) – Transcriptions and facsimiles of
thirty-two copies of the five pre-1642 quarto editions.
Hamlet at Open Source Shakespeare (http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/views/plays/
playmenu.php?WorkID=hamlet) – A complete text of Hamlet based on Q2.
Hamlet (https://www.owleyes.org/text/hamlet) – Annotated text aligned to Common Core
standards.
Hamlet (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56454) – Etext in Spanish available in many
formats at Gutenberg.org.

Analysis
Hamlet on the Ramparts (http://shea.mit.edu/ramparts) – The MIT's Shakespeare Electronic
Archive.
Hamletworks.org (http://www.hamletworks.org) – Scholarly resource with multiple versions
of Hamlet, commentaries, concordances, and more.
Depictions and commentary of Hamlet paintings (http://www.english.emory.edu/classes/Sha
kespeare_Illustrated/HamletPaintings.html)
Clear Shakespeare Hamlet (http://clearshakespeare.com/category/hamlet/) – A word-by-
word audio guide through the play.

Related works
The Danish History (Books I–IX) (http://mcllibrary.org/DanishHistory/) by Saxo Grammaticus
at The Online Medieval & Classical Library (public domain translation into English of the
Gesta Danorum).

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