UNIT – I

Introduction to Network Architectures, Protocol Layers, and

Service models
• Introduction
The development of the personal computer brought about tremendous changes for business,
industry, science, and education. A similar revolution is occurring in data communications and
networking. Technological advances are making it possible for communications links to carry
more and faster signals. As a result, services are evolving to allow use of this expanded capacity.
For example, established telephone services such as conference calling, call waiting, voice mail,
and caller ID have been extended. Research in data communications and networking has resulted
in new technologies. One goal is to be able to exchange data such as text, audio, and video from
all points in the world. We want to access the Internet to download and upload information
quickly and accurately and at any time.
• Data Communications
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote. Between
individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes
place over distance. The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and
television, means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for "far"). The word data refers to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. Data
communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium
such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software
(programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, Accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as
they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant
delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets
are sent every 3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with
4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

• Components of data communication system

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, m
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood
by a person who speaks only Japanese.
• Data Representation
1. Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or 1s). Different
sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the
process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent coding system is called
Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the world.
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), developed some decades ago
in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode and is also referred to as
Basic Latin.
2. Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical
operations. Appendix B discusses several different numbering systems.
3. Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix
of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the
resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second
case, there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is needed
to store the image. After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The
size and the value of the pattern depend on the image. For an image made of only blackand- white
dots (e.g., a chessboard), a I-bit pattern is enough to represent a pixel. If an image is not made of
pure white and pure black pixels, you can increase the size of the bit pattern to include gray scale.
For example, to show four levels of gray scale, you can use 2-bit patterns. A black pixel can be
represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11. There
are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so called because each
color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each
color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which a
color is made of a combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
4. Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from
text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change
voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
5. Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced
as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete
entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

• Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission mode:-
1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor
can only give the output.
2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full duplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another direction,
this sharing can occur in two ways:

Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the
other for receiving. Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions. Full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity
of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay
 • Computer Network

A computer network, also referred to as a data network, is a series of interconnected nodes that
can transmit, receive and exchange data, voice and video traffic. Examples of nodes in a network
include servers or modems. Computer networks commonly help endpoint users share resources
and communicate. They commonly appear all over the place, such as homes, offices and
government administrations. The use of computer networks can overcome geographic barriers and
enable the sharing of information. Computer networks enable the usage and sharing of any number
of applications and services, including emails, video, audio and plenty of other types of data, over
the internet.
Characteristics of a Computer Network
1. Share resources from one computer to another.
2. Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network.
3. Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over the network.

• Applications of computer networks

1. Resource Sharing
Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource sharing means you can share
one Hardware and Software among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks, Fax
Machines, etc. Computing devices. And Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual Box,
Postman, Android Studio, etc.
2. Information Sharing
Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the network, and it provides Search
capabilities such as WWW. Over the network, a single information can be shared among the many
users over the internet.
3. Communication
Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic funds transfer system etc.

4. Entertainment Industry
In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the Entertainment
industries are Video on demand, Multiperson real-time simulation games, movie/TV programs,
etc.

5. Access to Remote Databases

Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of the various applications by the end-
users. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking, Home Banking,
Automated Newspaper, Automated Library etc.

6. Home applications
There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For example,
you can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote instruction, electronic commerce,
and entertainment. Another way is managing bank accounts, transferring money to some other
banks, paying bills electronically. A computer network arranges a robust connection mechanism
between users.

7. Business applications
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource sharing is
that without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans, and tools can be
shared to any network user. Most of the companies are doing business electronically with other
companies and with other clients worldwide with the help of a computer network.

8. Mobile users
The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices like notebook computers
and PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device means portable device. The
computer network is widely used in new-age technology like smartwatches, wearable devices,
tablets, online transactions, purchasing or selling products online, etc.
9. Social media
Social media is also a great example of a computer network application. It helps people to share
and receive any information related to political, ethical, and social issues.

• Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications. A computer
network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3. WAN (Wide Area Network)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected
in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely useful network
for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN
network is to connect computers and a printer in someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will
be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which consists of less than 5000
interconnected devices across several buildings.
Characteristics of LAN

• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet

Advantages of LAN

• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed
software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN

• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not
able to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures.

• WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread across a
large geographical area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects
with other LAN’s using telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an
organization.
Characteristics of WAN

• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the
latest files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN

• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore, business offices situated
at longer distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.

Disadvantages of WAN

• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of networks in computer.
 • MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire city,
college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly
limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network
allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.
Characteristics of MAN

1. It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

2. Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
3. Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

1. It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
2. It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
3. The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
4. A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN

1. You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
2. In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

• Network topologies
Physical Structures
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine
any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
 1. Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most
point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends,
but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible When you change
television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the television's control system.
2. Multipoint A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link (see Figure 1.3b). In a multipoint environment, the
capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use
the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.

Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

1. Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable. Bus topology may
have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either
uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of
the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other devices. But
failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop functioning. Both ends
of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it
reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line
Advantages of Bus topology:
1. Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
2. Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
3. Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
4. Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
1. Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
2. Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
3. Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
4. Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
5. Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal.

• Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-
to-point connection. That is, there exists a point-to-point connection between hosts and hub.
Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central
hub, switch or a central computer. The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral
devices attached to the server are known as clients. Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to
connect the computers. Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology. Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
1. Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as
compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager must inspect the
kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the
centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator must go to the single
station to troubleshoot the problem.
2. Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
3. Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
4. Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-
effective.
5. Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open
ports on the hub.
6. Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
7. High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx. 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT
is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
1. A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
2. Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is
required.

• Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular
network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not
adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.

Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends. The node that receives the
message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node. The data flows in one
direction, i.e., it is unidirectional. The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an
endless loop. It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point. The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction. The most common
access method of the ring topology is token passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to another
node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing:
A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches
the destination. The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data. The
data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches. Once the
token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender. In a
ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
1. Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
2. Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
3. Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
4. Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
1. Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
2. Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
3. Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
4. Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.

• Mesh Topology
Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with
each other through various redundant connections. There are multiple paths from one computer to
another computer. It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication. The Internet is an example of the mesh topology. Mesh topology
is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical concern.
Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks. Mesh topology can be formed by using the
formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

1. Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
2. Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

1. Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.
2. Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
3. Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and
more transmission media than other topologies.
2. Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure
goes undetected.
3. Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of
the network.
 • Tree topology

Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology. A tree topology is
a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in hierarchical
fashion. The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node. There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

1. Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
2. Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can
say that tree topology is easily expandable.
3. Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known
as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
5. Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
6. Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology

1. Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
2. High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
3. Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable
will damage the overall network.
4. Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

• Hybrid Topology

The combination of various topologies is known as Hybrid topology. A Hybrid topology is a

connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data. When two or more different
topologies are combined is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with
each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one
branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the
rest of the network.
2. Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
3. Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
4. Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized, and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
1. Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid
network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
2. Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are
different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
3. Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a
lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

• Internet
The internet is one of humanity’s most impressive inventions. What started as a small network
of local knowledge-sharing data repositories has become a worldwide phenomenon that has
changed our lifestyle. The internet often referred to only as “Net,” is an interconnection of
worldwide computers in the form of a network. The term is also defined as a network of
networks through which users can, whether they have authorization to do so, access knowledge
from some other computer (and sometimes communicate directly to clients on different
computers). There is a wide variety of public networks that include LANs, WANs, and MANs.
Still, technically, the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol application
distinguishes the internet from private networks. However, intranet and extranet also employ
the same TCP/IP interface that are advanced adaptations of the internet.

Basic understanding of the Internet

Every computer that is connected to internet has a unique address. This address is called IP address
where IP stands for internet protocol. This address is in the form of nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn where nnn
can be any number in the range from 0 to 225.This IP address is provided to your computer if you
are connected to LAN or an ISP (internet service provider). Depending on what network your
computer or device is connected, your IP address can be temporary or permanent. But in any case
the IP address is unique.One computer interacts with another computer connected to internet with
the help of protocol stacks. These are also called IP/TCP stacks. They are built into the computer’s
operating system and has four major layers i.e. application protocol layer, transmission protocol
layer, internet protocol layer and hardware layer. These layers convert and send the information
from one IP address to another over the internet.
The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical
structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by connecting devices and
switching stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet because it is
continually changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are adding addresses, and
networks of defunct companies are being removed. Today most end users who want Internet
connection use the services of Internet service providers (lSPs). There are international service
providers, national service providers, regional service providers, and local service providers. The
Internet today is run by private companies, not the government

International Internet Service Providers

At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers that connect nations together.

National Internet Service Providers

The national Internet service providers are backbone networks created and maintained by
specialized companies. There are many national ISPs operating in North America; some of the
most well known are SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel. To provide
connectivity between the end users, these backbone networks are connected by complex switching
stations (normally run by a third party) called network access points (NAPs). Some national ISP
networks are also connected to one another by private switching stations called peering points.
These normally operate at a high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).

Regional Internet Service Providers

Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that are connected to one or
more national ISPs. They are at the third level of the hierarchy with a smaller data rate.

Local Internet Service Providers

Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end users. The local ISPs can be
connected to regional ISPs or directly to national ISPs. Most end users are connected to the local
ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local ISP can be a company that just provides Internet services, a
corporation with a network that supplies services to its own employees, or a nonprofit organization,
such as a college or a university, that runs its own network. Each of these local ISPs can be
connected to a regional or national service provider.

• PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols and standards. First, we
define protocol, which is synonymous with rule. Then we discuss standards, which are
agreed-upon rules.

➢ Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send
bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities
must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol
defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
1. Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of
data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and
the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
2. Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the destination
of the message?
3. Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver
can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data
will be lost.

➢ Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in international communications. Data communication
standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and de jure
(meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
1. De Facto Standard: The meaning of the work” De Facto” is” By Fact” or “By
Convention”. These are the standard s that have not been approved by any Organization
but have been adopted as Standards because of its widespread use. Also, sometimes these
standards are often established by Manufacturers. For example: Apple and Google are
two companies which established their own rules on their products which are different.
Also, they use some same standard rules for manufacturing for their products.

2. De Jure Standard: The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By Regulations”.
Thus, these are the standards that have been approved by officially recognized body like
ANSI, ISO, IEEE etc. These are the standard which are important to follow if it is required
or needed. For example: All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP , TCP
, IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we needed them.

• Computer Network Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured
program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very difficult to test and
modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a layered
approach, networking concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned a particular
task. Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture
1. The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces. Each
lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.
2. It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.
It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher
layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a
layer will not affect the other layers.
3. The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network.
However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer
and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.
4. The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
➢ Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
➢ Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer
entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.
➢ Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another
layer.
5. In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer
n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
Need of Layered architecture
1. Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in
such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In
short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity of the design.
2. Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence
of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
3. Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer
can be changed without affecting other layers.
4. Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually.

Example:

At the Sender Site

Let us first describe, in order, the activities that take place at the sender site.
1. Higher layer. The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes
the sender and receiver address and drops the letter in a mailbox.
2. Middle layer. The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post
office.
3. Lower layer. The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the letter.

On the Way
The letter is then on its way to the recipient. On the way to the recipient's local post
office, the letter may go through a central office. In addition, it may be transported
by truck, train, airplane, boat, or a combination of these.
At the Receiver Site
1. Lower layer. The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
2. Middle layer. The letter is sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.
3. Higher layer. The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.

• OSI reference model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer. OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
network function. OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications. OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task. Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer
can be performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers. The upper layer of the
OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are implemented only in the
software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application
layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another
layer. The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest
layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
 1. Physical layer
The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node. It is the lowest layer of the OSI model. It establishes, maintains and deactivates the
physical connection. It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
➢ Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
➢ Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os
or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are
changed to signals).
➢ Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how
long it lasts.
➢ Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks
must be synchronized.
➢ Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated
link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
➢ Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected
to every other device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a
ring topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every
device is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more
topologies).
➢ Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can
send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the
half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-
duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.
 2. Data-Link Layer
This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames. It defines the format of the data
on the network. It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network. It contains two sub-layers:

1. Logical Link Control Layer

It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is receiving.
It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header. It also provides flow
control.
2. Media Access Control Layer
A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the network's
physical layer. It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

1. Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which
is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.
2. Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
3. Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher
processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
4. Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 5. Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.

3. Network Layer
It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network. It
determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors. The Data link layer is responsible for routing
and forwarding the packets. Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and
used to provide the routing services within an internetwork. The protocols used to route the
network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

1. Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
2. Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
3. Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
4. Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them
into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4. Transport Layer
The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they
are sent and there is no duplication of data. The main responsibility of the transport layer is to
transfer the data completely. It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments. This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a
point-to-point connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol

It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet. It establishes
and maintains a connection between hosts. When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the
TCP protocol divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over
the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
2. User Datagram Protocol
User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any acknowledgment
when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this
makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

1. Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer
to another computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds
the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The
responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the
correct process.
2. Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has
arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
3. Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented
service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before
 delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.
4. Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-
to-end rather than across a single link.
5. Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures
that message reach at the destination without any error.

5. Session Layer
It is a layer 3 in the OSI model. The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes
the interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

1. Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes, or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which
can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
2. Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

6. Presentation Layer
A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems. It acts as a data translator for a network. This layer is a part
of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to another format.
The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
1. Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving
end.
2. Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
3. Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such
as text, audio, video.

7. Application Layer
An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service. It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc. An application
layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions. This layer provides the
network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

1. File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage
the files in a remote computer.
2. Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
3. Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used
to provide that global information about various objects.
 • TCP/IP ARCHITECTURE
Introduction
The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to describe the
functions of the communication system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and
simpler components. But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed
by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the
OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

TCP/IP Protocol Fundamental

TCP/IP is a layered protocol widely used in networking. To understand the working of the
networking protocol let us look at an example of a simple delivery. To send a delivery from one
place to another certain tasks are involved. At first, the package should be packed and addressed.
Then the delivery man takes the package from the sender to the mail dispatch room. Here the
packages are sorted by address and loaded in vans and dispatched to a remote office. At the remote
office, the packages are placed in a tray for the mailman. Then the mailman collects the package
and delivers it to the recipient.The networking protocol such as TCP/IP also works in a similar
fashion while sending information and data from one device to another. It has four layers that
divide the tasks accordingly. They are the Application Layer, Transport Layer, Networking Layer
and the Data Link layer from top to bottom. All these layers have their specific functions and they
communicate with the layers above and below them when transferring data.

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

1. Network Access Layer –

This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI
model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows for the
physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict about declaring
it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described as residing in layer 3,
being encapsulated by layer 2 protocols.

2. Internet Layer –
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing
at this layer are:
• IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source
host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
versions:
• IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the
number of users.
• ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
• ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.

3. Transport / Host-to-Host Layer –

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It
also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control
mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such features.
Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such features. It
is the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable transport as it is very cost-
effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.

4. Application Layer –
This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application, Presentation
and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-interface
specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet,
SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window, LPD. Have a look at Protocols in
Application Layer for some information about these protocols. Protocols other than those present
in the linked article are:
• HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands
for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate and carry
out bank transactions.
• SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
• NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

Sr.No. TCP/IP OSI

1. TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
Protocol.
2. TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
3. TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
4. TCP/IP does not have very strict OSI has strict boundaries
boundaries.
5. TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.
6. TCP/IP uses both session and OSI uses different session and presentation layers.
presentation layer in the application
layer itself.
7. TCP/IP developed protocols then OSI developed model then protocol.
model.
8. Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In OSI model, transport layer provides assurance
provide assurance delivery of packets. delivery of packets.
9. TCP/IP model network layer only Connection less and connection oriented both services
provides connection less services. are provided by network layer in OSI model.
10. Protocols cannot be replaced easily in While in OSI model, Protocols are better covered and
TCP/IP model. is easy to replace with the change in technology.
11. TCP/IP OSI
12. TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
Protocol.
13. TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
14. TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
Advantages of the TCP/IP model
1. It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different types of computers.
2. It operates independently of the operating system.
3. It supports many routing-protocols.
4. It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
5. TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
6. It can be operated independently.
7. Supports a number of routing protocols.
8. It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Disadvantages of the TCP/IP model

1. TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.
2. The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange).
3. In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
4. Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
5. It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.

• TCP/IP suite of protocols

The TCP/IP suite is a set of protocols used on computer networks today (most notably on the
Internet). It provides an end-to-end connectivity by specifying how data should be packetized,
addressed, transmitted, routed and received on a TCP/IP network. This functionality is organized
into four abstraction layers and each protocol in the suite resides in a particular layer.The TCP/IP
suite is named after its most important protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
the Internet Protocol (IP). Some of the protocols included in the TCP/IP suite are:
1. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) – used to associate an IP address with a MAC address.
2. IP (Internet Protocol) – used to deliver packets from the source host to the destination host
based on the IP addresses.
3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) – used to detects and reports network error
conditions. Used in ping.
4. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – a connection-oriented protocol that enables reliable
data transfer between two computers.
5. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – a connectionless protocol for data transfer. Since a
session is not created before the data transfer, there is no guarantee of data delivery.
6. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – used for file transfers from one host to another.
7. Telnet (Telecommunications Network) – used to connect and issue commands on a remote
computer.
8. DNS (Domain Name System) – used for host names to the IP address resolution.
9. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – used to transfer files (text, graphic images, sound,
video, and other multimedia files) on the World Wide Web.
 • Addressing
In any network transmission model, any two devices shall start communication by the virtue of
their unique address. In simple words, we can say that if any two devices want to engage in any
kind of dialogue (communication), then they should first identify themselves in this complex
network transmission arena. So first they should know each other’s respective addresses (of
source and destination). In the internet employing TCP/IP protocol, we have four levels of
addresses being in use for different layers.

Each address is related to a specific layer in the TCPIIP architecture, as shown in Figure below

1. Physical Address
The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as defined by its
LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer. It is the lowest-level
address. The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN). The size
and format of these addresses vary depending on the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-
byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). LocalTalk
(Apple), however, has a I-byte dynamic address that changes each time the station comes up.

Example:
In Figure shown above a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical
address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). At the data link layer, this
frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header. These are the only addresses needed. The
rest of the header contains other information needed at this level. The trailer usually contains extra
bits needed for error detection. As the figure shows, the computer with physical address lOis the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver. The data link layer at the sender
receives data from an upper layer. It encapsulates the data in a frame, adding a header and a trailer.
The header, among other pieces of information, carries the receiver and the sender physical (link)
addresses. Note that in most data link protocols, the destination address, 87 in this
case, comes before the source address (10 in this case). We have shown a bus topology for an
isolated LAN. In a bus topology, the frame is propagated in both directions (left and right). The
frame propagated to the left dies when it reaches the end of the cable if the cable end is terminated
appropriately. The frame propagated to the right is sent to every station on the network. Each station
with a physical address other than 87 drops the frame because the destination address in the frame does not
match its own physical address. The intended destination computer, however, finds a match between the
destination address in the frame and its own physical address. The frame is checked, the header and trailer
are dropped, and the data part is decapsulated and delivered to the upper layer.

2. Logical Addresses
Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying physical
networks. Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different networks
can have different address formats. A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be
identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network. The logical addresses are designed for
this purpose. A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can uniquely define a host
connected to the Internet. No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP
address.
Example:
Figure shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected
to three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for
each connection. Although it may obvious that each router must have a separate physical address for each
connection, it may not be obvious why it needs a logical address for each connection
The computer with logical address A and physical address 10 needs to send a packet to the computer with
logical address P and physical address 95. We use letters to show the logical addresses and numbers for
physical addresses, but note that both are actually numbers, as we will see later in the chapter. The sender
encapsulates its data in a packet at the network layer and adds two logical addresses (A and P). Note that
in most protocols, the logical source address comes before the logical destination address (contrary to the
order of physical addresses). The network layer, however, needs to find the physical address of the next
hop before the packet can be delivered. The network layer consults its routing table and finds the logical
address of the next hop (router I) to be F. The ARP discussed previously finds the physical address of router
1 that corresponds to the logical address of 20. Now the network layer passes this address to the data link
layer, which in tum, encapsulates the packet with physical destination address 20 and physical source
address 10. The frame is received by every device on LAN 1, but is discarded by all except router 1, which
finds that the destination physical address in the frame matches with its own physical address. The router
decapsulates the packet from the frame to read the logical destination address P. Since the logical
destination address does not match the router's logical address, the router knows that the packet needs to be
forwarded. The router consults its routing table and ARP to find the physical destination address of the
next hop (router 2), creates a new frame, encapsulates the packet, and sends it to router 2. Note the physical
addresses in the frame. The source physical address changes from 10 to 99. The destination physical address
changes from 20 (router 1 physical address) to 33 (router 2 physical address). The logical source and
destination addresses must remain the same; otherwise, the packet will be lost. At router 2 we have a similar
scenario. The physical addresses are changed, and a new frame is sent to the destination computer. When
the frame reaches the destination, the packet is decapsulated. The destination logical address P matches the
logical address of the computer. The data are decapsulated from the packet and delivered to the upper layer.
Note that although physical addresses will change from hop to hop, logical addresses remain the same from
the source to destination.

3. Port Addresses
The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from a source
to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination host is not the final objective of data
communications on the Internet. A system that sends nothing but data from one computer to
another is not complete. Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same
time. The end objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another
process. For example, computer A can communicate with computer C by using TELNET. At the
same time, computer A communicates with computer B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method to label the different
processes. In other words, they need addresses. In the TCPIIP architecture, the label assigned to a
process is called a port address. A port address in TCPIIP is 16 bits in length.

Example:
Figure shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending computer is running
three processes currently with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running two
processes at this time with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to
communicate with process j in the receiving computer. Note that although both computers are
using the same application, FTP, for example, the port addresses are different because one is a
client program, and the other is a server program. To show that data from process a need to be
delivered to process j, and not k, the transport layer encapsulates data from the application layer
in a packet and adds two port addresses (a and j), source and destination. The packet from the
transport layer is then encapsulated in another packet at the network layer with logical source and
destination addresses (A and P). Finally, this packet is encapsulated in a frame with the physical
source and destination addresses of the next hop. We have not shown the physical addresses
because they change from hop to hop inside the cloud designated as the Internet.
Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain
the same from the source to destination.

4. Specific Addresses:
Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address. Examples
include the e-mail address and the Universal Resource Locator (URL). The first defines the recipient of an
e-mail; the second is used to find a document on the World Wide Web. These addresses, however, get
changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses by the sending computer.