H. S. Bawa - Manufacturing Processes-1

..
Manufacturing Processes-I
H· S Bawa.
Formerly Senior Lecturer
Department ofMechanical Engineering
Pusa Polytechnic
New De.lhi
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Cover: De-Unique
Preface xv
1. Fundamentals of Machine Tools 1
1.1 Introduction 1
·1.2 Definition 1 . . ' ...-.....- .
1.3 Functions of Machine T�ols 1

1.4 Classification of Machine Tools 2
1.5 Various Elements of Machine Tools 2
1.6 Levelling 2
1.7 Vibrations 2
1.8 Machine Tool Performance Criteria 4
1.9 Factors in Machining Operations 4
1.10 Working Principles 4
1.11 How Machine Tools Differ? 4
1.12 Structures or Frames 5
1.13 Forces Acting on Lathe Cutting Tool 6
1.14 Mechanisms for Rectilinear Motion 7
1.15 Reversing Mechanisms 7
1.16 Machine Tofil Drives-T
1.17 Wear Resistance of Guides 9
1.18 Slides and Slideways 9
1.19 Spindles and Spindle Bearings 10
1.20 Kinematics of Machine Tool Drives 11
1.21 Drives for Rotational Movements 12
1.22 Maximum and Minimum Cutting Speed and Feeds 12
1.23 Speed Loss in Geometric Progression 14
1.24 Stepped Regulations 14
1.25 Modem Trends in Machine Tools 16
! vi ---- - -
- --------Contents------ -----------
-
l.26 Remote Controls 16

1.27 Safety Devices of Machine Tools 17
1.28 Automation in Machine Tools 17
1.29 Parts Handling Automation 18
Multiple-choice Questions 19
Review Questions 19
2. Metal Cutting Saws 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Classification 21
2.3 Reciprocating Saws 21
2.4 Power Saw Blades 22
2.5 Sawing Procedure 22
2.6 Saw Blades Failure 22
2.7 Cutting Spee,d 23
2.8 Circular Saws 24
2.9 Steel Friction Disc Saw 25
2.10 Abrasive Disc Saws 25
2.11 Band Saw 25
2.12 Welding of Saw Blades 25
Review Questions 26
3. Lathe and Lathe Work 28
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Classification of Lathes 28
3.3 Principal Parts of a Lathe 28
3.4 Speed Lathe 33
3.5 Engine Lathe 33
3.6 Bench Lathe 34
3.7 Toolroom Lathe 34
3.8 Special Purpose Lathe 34
3.9 Automatic Lathe 34
3.10 Flotum.Lathe 35
3.11 Single Spindle Automatic 35 ----------
3.12 Specifications of a Lathe 35
3.13 Accessories Supplied with a Lathe 35
3.14 Turning Tools 36
3.15 Grinding of Tools 36
3.16 Tool Life 36
3.17 Cutting Tool Angles 36
3.18 Cutting Speeds and Feeds 38
3.19 Operations Performed by a Lathe 39
3.20 Work Holding and Supporting Devices 41
3.21 Methods of Locating Centres 42
.....
-------- -
-- --- Co
- ntents--- -----------vii j
3.22 Taper Turning 43
3.23 Thread Cutting or Screw Cutting 45
3.24 Compound Gear Train 46
3.25 Collets 47
3.26 Relieving Attachment 48
3.27 Micrometer Carriage Stop 48
3.28 Rules to be Observed in a Turning Shop 48
Review Questions 49
4. Capstan and Turret Lathes 51
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Difference Between a Turret Lathe and an Engine Lathe 52
4.3 Types of Turret Lathes 52
4.4 Principal Parts of a Capstan or Turret Lathe 53
4.5 Work holding Attachments 54
4.6 Attachments Used on Turret Lathe 55
4.7 Tooling Principle 56
4.8 Capstan and Turret Lathe Operations 56
4.9 Turret Indexing 57
4.10 Numerical Controlled Turret 57
4.11 Difference between a Capstan and a Turret Lathe 57
4.12 Tool Layout 58
Multiple-choice Questions 59 /
Review Questions 60
5. Shaper apd Slotter 61
5.1 Introduction 61
5.2 Working Principle 62
5.3 Classification of Shapers 62
5.4 Types of Shapers 62
5.5 Principal Parts of a Sh_ii er 6,L
5.6 Shaper Size and Specifications 64
5.7 Quick Return Mechanism 64
5.8 Adjustment-of Stroke Length an osition of Ram 65
5.9 Hydraulic Shaper 65
5.10 Operation of a Shapin achine 66
5.11 Operations Perfo on a Shaper 67
5.12 Cutting Spee eed and Depth of Cut 69
5.13 Shaping Jgols 70
5.14 Job H ing Devices Used on a Shaper 71
5.15 S per Safety Precautions 73
5.1 Slotter 73
.17 Specifications of a Slotter 73
5.18 Slotting Drives 74
jviii---------------Contents----- - --------- -
5.19 Difference between a Shaper and a Slatter 76

Review Questions 77
6. Planing Machines 78
6.1 Introduction 78
6.2 Difference between a Shaper and a Planer 78
6.3 Classification of Planing Machines 79
6.4 Principal Parts of a Planer 80
6.5 Table Drive Mechanism 81
6.6 Planer Tools 82
6. 7 Cutting Speeds and Feeds in Planing 82
6.8 Work Holding Devices 82
6.9 Planing Operations 84
Review Questions 86
7. Milling and Milling Machines 87
7.1 Introduction 87
7 .2 Classification of Milling Machines 87
- 7.3 The Principal Parts of a Milling Machine 87
7.4 Horizontal Milling Machine 88
7.5 Vertical Milling Machine 89
7� Universal Milling Machine 89
7.7 O��v_:rsal Milling Machine 89
7.8 Fixe�d Plain Milling Machine 90
7.9 Planer-T� Milling Machine 90
7.10 Rotary Table- Milling Machine 90
7.11 Milling Machin echanism 90
7.12 Work Holding Devic 91
7.13 Milling Machine Attachme s 93
7.14 Milling -Cutters 94 -
7.15 Classification of Milling Cutters 9
7.16 Elements of a, Plain Milling Cutter 96
7.17 Cutter Angles 97
7.18 Elements of a Side Milling Cutter 98
7.19 Milling Cutter Material 98
7.20 Milling Operations 99
7.21 Milling Flat Surfaces 99
7.22 Upmilling and Downmilling 102
7 .23 Cutting Speed and Feed 102
7.24 Generating Helical Grooves 103
7.25 Indexing 103
7 .26 Pantograph Milling 107
7 .27 Die Sinking 108
Contents:---------- ----�
7.28 Copying Milling Machine 110

Review Questions 112
8. Drilling and Reaming 114
8.1 Introduction 114
8.2 Holes in Workpieces 114
8.3 Specifications of Drills 115
8.4 Principal Parts of a Drill 115
8.5 Twist Drill 115
8.6 Drill Chuck 121
8.7 Drill Sleeves 121
8.8 Drill Clearance Angles 122
8.9 Grinding of Drills 122
8.10 Centre Drill (Fig. 8.12) 123
8.11 Operations Performed on Drilling Machines 123
8.12 Drilling Machines 124
8.13 Kinds of Drilling Machines 124
8.14 Deep Hole Drilling Machine 128
8.15 Turret Drilling Machine 128
8.16 Reaming 128
8.17 Reamer Terms 128
8.18 Types of Reamers 129
8.19 Sharpening of Reamers 131
8.20 Method of Reaming 131
8.21 Precautions in Reaming 131
8.22 Cutting Speed Cutting Feed and Depth of Cut 131
8.23 Machining Time for Drilling 132
9. Boring and Boring Machines 134
9.2 Operations Performed on Boring Machines 134
9.3 Boring Machines 134
9.4 Horizontal Boring Machine 134
9.5 Vertical Boring Machine 137
9.6 Precision Boring Machine 139
9.7 Specifications of a Horizontal Boring Machine 139 ·
9.8 Specifications of a Vertical Boring Machine 139
9.9 Boring Tools 139
9.10 Boring Tool Mountings 139
9.11 Horizontal Boring Machine Operation 140
9.12 Vertical Boring Machine Operations 141
L:.-- ------------Contents--- ----- ---- --
10. Jig Boring 143

10.2 Systems of Measurements 143
10.3 Types of Jig Boring Machines 144
10.4 Vertical Milling-Type Jig Boring Machine 144
10.5 Specifications of a Jig Boring Machine 145 ·
10.6 Planer-Type Jig Boring Machine 145
10.7 Jig Boring Operations 145
10.8 Locating the Work 145
Review Questions 147 .
11. Broaching and Broaching Machines 148
11.2 Broaching Method 148
11.3 Types of Broaches 149
11.4 Broach Tool Material 149
11.5 Broaching Tool Elements 149
11.6 Broaching Tool Design 150
11.7 Classification of Broaching Machines 150
11.8 Broaching Machines 150
11.9 Specifications of a J3roaching Machine 153
11.10 Applications of Broaching 153 ...
11.11 Methods of Holding Broaches 153
11.12 Broach Cutting Action, Feed and Chip Disposal 154
11.13 Broaching Speeds 154
12. Grinding and Grinding Machines 156
12.2 Abrasives 157
12.3 Manufacture of Grinding Wheels 157
12.4 Bonds and Bonding Processes 157
12.5 Terminology Used in Grinding 159
12.6 · Selection of Grinding Wheels 159
12.7 Marking System for Grinding Wheels 161
12.8 Wheel Shapes and Sizes 162
12.9 Dressing and Truing of Grinding Wheels 162
12.10 Balancing of Grinding Wheels 164
12.11 Precautions to be Taken Before Mounting a Grinding Wheel 165
12.12 Mounting the Grinding Wheel 165
12.13 Mounted Wheels 166
12.14 Grinding Machines 166
12.15 Theory of Grinding 174
--------- - -------Contents----------------�q

13. Surface Finishing Processes 180
13.1 Introduction. 180
13.2 Lapping 180
13.3 Honing 181
13.4 Superfmishing 182
13.5 Buffing 183
13_6 Surface Finish 183
13.7 Terminology 183
13.8 Direct Measurements 184
14. Mechanics of Metal Cutting 186
14.2 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 186
14.3 Tool Geometry 189
14.4 Tool Failure 190
14.5 Tool Life 191
14.6 Measurement of Tool Life 193
14.7 Forces on Cutting Tools 195
14.8 Forces of Friction 195
14.9 Relation between Orthogonal Cutting Forces (Merchant Theory) 196
14.10 Thermal Aspects of Metal Machining 198
14.11 Feeds of Machine Tools 199
14.12 Metal Cutting Tools 199
14.13 Single-Point Cutting Tool 200
14.14 Boring Tools 201
14.15 Milling Cutters 202
14.16 Difference Between Orthogonal Cutting and Oblique Cutting 203
14.17 Tool Signature 204
14.18 Drills and Drilling 205
15. Machinability 208
15.2 Criteria for Machinability 208
15.3 Evaluation of Metallic Materials for Machinability 210
15.4 Tool Life 210
15.5 Tool Materials 210
15.6 Variables Affecting Machinability 211
/
I xii ----- - - -
--- - -
- Co
- ntents
16. Cutting Tool Materials 214

16.2 Selection of Tool Materials 214
16.3 Properties of Cutting Tool Materials 214
16.4 Classification of Tool Materials 215
17. Cutting Fluids 222
17.2 Cooling Action of Cutting Fluids 222
17.3 Functions of a Cutting Fluid 222
17.4 Qualities of a Good Cutting Fluid 223
17.5 Classification of Cutting Fluids 223
17 .6 Sources of Heat Generated in Metal Cutting 225
18. Lubricants and Lubrication 231
18.2 Action of Lubrication 231
18.3 Objects of Lubricants 231
18.4 Requirements of Lubricants 232
18.5 Selection of Proper Lubricating Oil 232
18.6 Types of Lubricants 232
18.7 Gear Oils 233
18.8 Greases 233
18.9 Methods of Applying Greases 233
18.10 Lubricators 234
18.11 Lubrication of Machine Tools 235
19. Installation, Foundation and Alignment Testing of Machines 238
19.2 Foundation 238
19.3 Principles of Foundation 239
19.4 Factors to be Considered for Machine Foundations 239
19.5 Foundation Plan 240
19.6 Vibrations 240
19.7 Installation 241
19.8 Setting the Machine 242
19.9 Levelling and Aligning 242
19.10 Hydrostatic Checking of Bed Levels 243
19.11 Material Handling 243
------- - ---
---------Contents------- - ---xiiij
20. Powder Metallurgy 246

20.2 Definition and Concept 246
20.3 Characteristics of Metal Powders 247
20.4 Methods of Producing Metal Powders 248
20.5 Principles of Powder Metallurgy 250
20.6 Process of Powder Metallurgy �51
20.7 Sintering 253
20.8 Secondary Operations or Further Processing 255
20.9 Applications of Powder Metallurgy 256
20.10 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy 258
20.11 Disadvantages of Powder Metallurgy 259
21. Surface Treatment of Metals 261
21.2 Classification of Surface Treatment Processes 261
21.3 Cleaning by Acids 261
21.4 Mechanical Methods of Cleaning 263
21.5 Metallic Coatings 265
21.6 Organic Coatings 268
21.7 Chemical Dip Coatings 269
21.8 Anodising 270
Appendix I: Additional Solved Examples 272
Appendix II: Answers to Multiple-choice Questions 277
Index 279
This book primarily deals with the machine tools. It has evolved from the two volumes of my
books-Workshop Technology, Volume - I and Workshop Technology Volume - II. It is meant for
the diploma and degree students of mechanical, automobile, and production engineering. It also
covers the syllabus prescribed by the institutions such as AMIE, IETE and UPSC.
I have incorporated most of the suggestions that I have received over the years from the teachers
and students using my earlier books. Many chapters of this book have been updated with the latest
developments in machine tool technology. New material has been added to many chapters where
the developments have been significant and appear long lasting. Wherever considered necessary,
tudents are provided with the finer aspects of the topics. Objective-type questions have been
added at the end of each chapter which will help the students in preparing for the competitive
examinations.
I wish to express sincere thanks to my friends and colleagues for their consistent support. I am
also thankful to my publisher, Tata McGraw-Hill, for their effort towards bringing out this book in
a short time. Suggestions for improvement of the book will be thankfully acknowledged and
incorporated in the next edition.
HS BAWA
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 DEFINITION
A machine tool is a device that utilises mechani Many definitions have been put forward to de
cal forces for shaping and sizing a product by fine machine tools, but all of them are contro
removing excess material, in the form of chips, versial. The most accepted one is, "A machine
with the help of a cutting tool. tool is a power-driven machine, capable of hold
Machine tools are used for producing com ing and supporting the work and tool and at the
ponents at a rapid rate. Thus they form an same time directing and guiding the cutting tool
indispensible part of a modern workshop. Opti or job or both to perform various metal cutting
mum productivity from machine tools calls for operations for providing different shapes and
a fairly high degree of skill. Properly carried sizes."
out operations are capable of producing a large Every metal working machine cannot be
number of components at a fairly rapid rate. For called a machine tool merely because it removes
material. Forging hammers, drawing dies, ex
optimum productivity, persons at all levels en�
truders, rolling machines, etc. are not machine
gaged in production work must possess a thor
tools.
ough knowledge of different machine tools and
the operations that can be performed on them. 1.3 FUNCTIONS OF MACHINE TOOLS
They must also be conversant with different
working principles, attachments, devices and The various functions of machine tools are:
1. To hold and support the workpiece to be
uses of finished products.
machined
Machine tools and machines are two differ 2. To hold and support the cutting tool
ent things. Machine tools when taken as a group 3. To provide requisite motion to the work
can produce a machine tool, which is not true of piece, tool or both
machines. Lathe, milling machine, shaping 4. To regulate the cutting speed and feed of
machine, slotter, etc. are all machine tools. A the tool and workpiece
sewing machine is not a machine tool, but a 5. To hold various attachments for different
machine. operations.
[:_-------------Manufacturing Processes 1--------------
Jobs and tools. are held in properly designed Both types of machine tools have advantages
devices on a machine tool. Different machine and disadvantages. Whereas a large variety of
tools are provided with different holding devices. operations can be performed on standard ma
In a workshop, a machine tool is generally chine tools, the use of special purpose machine
used for (a) producing different shapes and tools is limited to a few operations only. On the
(b) for finishing the surfaces. other hand, a special purpose machine tool is
efficient and offers a quick method for the bulk
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINE TOOLS
production of similar items.
Machine tools can be classified in different ways.
1. Classification based on the type of the sur 1.5 VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF MACHINE
face generated: TOOLS
(i) Cylindrical work machine tools
lathes, capstan, turret, etc. The various elements of machine tools are:
(ii) Flat surface machine tools-milling I. Structure of a machine tool consists of bed,
machine, shaping machine, planing ma column and frame
chine, etc. 2. Slides and guide ways
2. Classification based on the purpose of the 3. Spindles and spindle bearings
machine tool: 4. Various machine drives
(i) Single purpose 5. Various mechanisms
(ii) Multipurpose -
(iii) Special purpose 1.6 LEVELLING
(iv) Transfer machine
(v) Numerically controlled While installing a machine tool, proper level
3. Classification based upon the size of chip: ling is important to obtain accurate feed motion
(i) Machine tools using cutting tools and surfaces of components. The bed should be
lathe, milling, planer, slotter, etc. level both in the longitudinal and transverse di
(ii) Machine tools using abrasives-hon rections. Installation and levelling standards are
ing, lapping, etc. provided by the suppliers of the machine tool.
In wrokshops, machine tools are broadly clas Before installation of the machine tool, it is nec
sified as essary to go through the manual thoroughly to
(i) Standard machine tools ensure efficient working.
(ii) Special machine tools
1.7 VIBRATIONS
Standard machine tools are also known as
general purpose machine tools. A variety of op During cutting operations, the various forces
erations can be performed on them. Lathes, acting on the tool produce vibrations. To obtain
shapers, slotters, and milling machines are stan good surface finish and a high- degree of accu
dard purpose machine tools. racy, the machine should be free of vibrations.
Special purpose machine tools are designed In addition to a strong foundation, the following
design considerations need to ·be paid attention,
to perform some specific operations of identical
with a view to minimising vibrations.
shape. They are mainly used for producing simi I. The design of the machine tool should be
lar components in large quantities. Gear shapers, such that the natural frequency of the machine
gear hobbing, crankshaft grinder, etc. are spe tool structure does not coincide with that of the
cial purpose machine tools. cutting tool.
-----------------rundamentals of Machine Tools-
, --------- -- 3 c-1
Ram clamp
Ram
Bed compound rest Clapper
Gear box J? Saddle box
Cross-slide
.k Tailstock
Feed rod Column
Table
(a) (b)
(d)
(c)
Grinding
head
Abrasive wheel
Reciprocating
table
(e)
Fig. 1.1 Basic elements of conventionally used machine tools: (a) Lathe. (b) Shaper. (c) Milling. machine.
(d) Planer and (e) Cylindrical grinder
2. The natural.frequency In of a machine tool ,i = deformation in mm

is given by the formula and k is a sign of proportionality.
To minimise vibrations, the stiffness of the
kx P
In =
-- structures should be as high as possible, which
,i
can be achieved by proper selection of parti
where P = straining force tions and ribs.
I 4 :'--- --- -- - - - -
-Manufacturing Processes I.
3. The material should possess good damp but some are common to all. These can be
ing properties. Cast iron is a very suitable mate summarised as follows:
rial for this purpose. Due to this reason, beds 1. The material of the tool must be harder
and frames of machines are made of cast iron. than the metal to be machined.
Concrete is a good vibration damping material 2. The tool must be held rigidly on proper
and is used in the foundations of machines. supports so that it can withstand the heavy
pressure acting on it during a cutting op
1.8 MACHINE TOOL PERFORMANCE
eration.
CRITERIA
3. The relative motion of the tool and the job
Day by day the demand for machine tools is should be such that it produces optimum
increasing not only in quantity, but also in so cutting effect.
phistication. While designing a machine tool, 4. The tool geometry should be such that it
the following factors need consideration: produces maximum cutting effect with suf
1. It should be safe and easy to operate. ficient tool life.
2. It should be accurate.
3. It should have good production capacity. 1.11 HOW MACHINE TOOLS DIFFER?
4. The operational cost should be low.
During a machining operation, relative motion
5. Controls should be located at convenient
between the tool and the job takes place. Funda
points.
mentally, all machine tools differ in their rela
6. Blanks should be such that they can be tive motion between the tool and the workpiece.
loaded and clamped easily. This fundamental difference calls for different
1.9 FACTORS IN MACHINING designs of tools and machine tools. Depending
OPERATIONS upon the movements of the tools and the
workpiece, the various machining operations can
The operation of removing metal by means of a be divided into two categories:
cutting tool using some sort of machine tool in 1. Generating
order to obtain a desired shape is called ma 2. Forming
chining. It includes a number of operations such Generating is a machining process in which
as turning, boring, shaping, milling, planing, and either the tool or the job are moved against each
broaching. The selection of a machine tool for a other to produce the desired shape. In this sys
particular operation depends upon many factors, tem, the shape of the job does not resemble the
such as shape of the tool. The motion of the tool or job
1. The shape anc;l size of the product required forms the basis of production, but the shape of
2. The quantity of material to be removed the cutting tool does not play any role in pro
3. The type of operation to be performed ducing a component of the desired shape. Gear
- 4. The number of components required generation is done by gear hobs and rack type
5. The type of material to be handled cutters.
6. The degree of accuracy required
Forming is a machining process in which the
1.10 WORKING PRINCIPLES tool or the job move against each other and the
surface produced is a true replica of the shape
The various machining operations carried out in of the tool. In this process, it is the formed shape
a machine shop have various working principles, of the tool that enables the production of a
--- -
- ---- - - -----f'undamentals of Machine Tools--------- -- 2J
particular shape and not merely the relative On a lathe machine, true cylindrical surfaces
movement, as in generating processes. Gear cut are produced with a good surface finish. To gen
ting by form disc and gear cutters is a forming erate such surfaces, the job rotates in a true
process. circle, while the cutting tool advances in true
straight line to the axis of rotation.
1.12 STRUCTURES OR FRAMES The generation of a perfectly true surface de
The principle supporting component of a ma pends mainly on the design of the main spindles,
while the accuracy of the feed motion depends
chine tool is called a structure. It is also known
upon the design of the bed. Surface finish de
as bed, column or frame. The principal function
pends upon the damping capacity of the ma
of these elements is to provide adequate support
chine, the design of tool and the feed. A
to the moving and sliding parts, mountings <!nd commonly used design of a lathe bed is shown
accessories and keep them in alignment. For suc in Fig. 1.2.
cessful design of a machine tool, the following
points need consideration:
1. Design requirements of the machine tool
2. Type of operations to be performed
3. Purpose of the machine tool
4. Types of forces and methods of cutting
5. Power requirements of the machine tool
6. Conditions of loading
7. Shape of the chip and quantity of material
to be removed
8. Stresses likely to act on structure Fig. 1.2 Cross-section design of a lathe bed
9. Installation requirements of the machine
tool Beds, columns and frames are usually made
of cast iron, mainly due to its cheapness, easy
Classification of Structures machining and ability to bear compressive loads.
Various machine tool structures can be classi However, mild steel has an advantage over
fied cast iron in that it can be fabricated by welding,
which helps when more intricate shapes need to
1. According to the method of production as
be produced.
(i) cast structures,
The main function of a lathe bed is to pro
(ii) fabricated and welded structures,
vide for continuous accurate longitudinal move
(iii) a combination of the above. ment of the carriage and tailstock. Thus, a lathe
2. According to shape, as beds, columns, pil bed should
lars, housings, brackets, bed plates. (a) be capable of resisting distortion due to
3. According to purpose, as carrying mem static and dynamic loads,
bers, boxes, bases and covers. (b) provide stability to the motion of the car-
Machine tools differ from each other in the riage under a load,
following ways: (c) be wear resistant,
(i) The number of cutting edges they employ (d) be free from residual stresses,
(ii) The way in which the tool and workpiece (e) be resistant to vibrations,
are moved in relation to each other. (f) be free from slip-stick.
�-------------Manufacturing Processes I '-
· --------------
1.13 FORCES ACTING ON LATHE where CP = a coefficient which depends upon

CUTTING TOOL the material of the workpiece and
working conditions like coolant,
In any metal cutting operation on a lathe, a force etc.
P acts on the tool. This force can be resolved t = depth of cut (in mm)
into three mutually perpendicular directions. S = feed of tool (in mm)
Let Px be the force acting in the horizontal K = overall correlation coefficient, x
plane (perpendicular to the direction of feed), and y are constants
Py the force acting against the direction of feed The value of K also depends upon many fac
and Pz the force acting perpendicular to Px and tors, such as the correlation coefficient for the
PY' coolant, entering angle, rake and type of mate
These components of force are shown in
rial.
Fig. 1.3.
The forces acting on the tool produce a couple
Workpiece and hence a torsion in the bed. A circular cross
section is most suitable for resisting torsion while
an I-section resists bending most effectively. A
hollow I-section is used for imparting rigidity to
the bed.
A very effective means of attaining the re
quired rigidity is the provision of partitions and
ribs. These may be of the transverse type that
tie together the longitudinal walls. Figure 1.4
p shows the bed of a lathe with ribs and parti
Fig. 1.3 Forces acting on a turning tool tions. Experiments have conclusively proved that
diagonal partitions are superior to parallel parti
All these forces are eventually transmitted to tions in strength and rigidity, hence they are
the bed in addition to the forces due to the weight widely used in modern machine tools of me
of the parts. The forces produce stresses in the dium and large sizes. Parallel partitions are
bed structure which are difficult to evaluate ana mainly used in light and medium machine tools.
)DODD(
lytically because of the intricate shape of the
bed. However, they can be evaluated experimen
taliy for design purposes. The forces acting on
the tool depend upon the following characteris
tics:
1. Geometry of the tool (a)
2. Depth of cut
3. Feed of the tool
4. Material of the workpiece
5. Working conditions, like provision of cool
ant
The force Pz acting on the tool can be ex (b)
pressed as Fig. 1.4 Bed designs ofa lathe: (a) Parallel partitions,
pz = cp t x . SY K {b) Diagonal partitions
---- ---- -
----«undamentals of Machine Tools----- ------2.]
1.14 MECHANISMS FOR RECTILINEAR 2. Torques transmitted must be optimum in

MOTION each direction.
3. It should not result in premature wear and
The various mechanisms used for rectilinear tear of components.
motion of machine tools are 4. It must be accurate and quick returning.
1. Rack and pinion drives The commonly used reversing mechanismsin
2. Worm and rack drives machine tools are:
3. Lead screw and nut drives 1. Spur and helical idler gear reversing
The above drives are generally used for large mechanism
displacements. The drives used for small dis 2. Bevel gear reversing mechanism
placements are 3. Planetary gear reversing mechanism
1. Thermal expansion drives 4. Worm gearing reversing mechanism
2. Magnetostriction drives 5. Planetary and worm gearing
3. Elastic link drives 6. Belt reversing drives
Rack and pinion drives are suitable for a large 7. Slider crank mechanism
transmission ratio. Thus they are used in main 8. Link or cam mechanism
drives and various auxiliary drives. This pair
1.16 MACHINE TOOL DRIVES
possesses a high operating efficiency but the
transmission ratio is not uniform. Machine tool drives can be broadly classified
Worm and rack drives can be used for low into the following four categories:
transmission ratios. They are more difficult to 1. Mechanical
roduce than rack and pinion drives and have a 2. Electrical
ower efficiency than ordinary worm gearing 3. Hydraulic
echanisms. 4. Pneumatic
Lead screw and nut drives are used in ma The choice of a particular drive depends upbn
hine tools due to (a) lower transmission ratio, the following factors:
b) smooth and accurate motion, and (c) their (i) Cost of installation
If-braking capacity. (ii) Efficiency of the drive
(iii) Rigidity of the system
.15 REVERSING MECHANISMS (iv) Extent of speed regulation required
(v) Simplicity of control gear
. 1any machine tools, such as planers, shapers, (vi) Uniformity of motion
!otters, etc. require reversal of their motion af (vii) Reliability of the drive
er the cutting stroke. Such machine tools are The motions required for the operation of a
ovided with reversal mechanisms to enable the machine tool can be divided into following two
machine to perform the intended operation. categories:
The commonly used mechanisms for re (i) Primary motion
ersing motion can be broadly classified as: (ii) Secondary motion
a) hydraulic devices, (b) electrical devices, Primary motion can be subdivided further into
c) mechanical devices and (d) combinations of (a) single motion, (b) double motion and
these. For optimum utility, a reversing device (c) triple motion. Single motion is used in broach
must satisfy the following requirements: and press tools; double motion is used in lathes,
1. Loss of energy due to reversing action shapers and drills; while triple motion is used in
should be minimal. milling, gear shaper, and gear cutting.
�--------- - - -Manufacturing Processes!--------------
Primary motions are essential motions, such 5. Only the gears through which the speed is
as cutting speed and feed of a machine tool. actually obtained should be engaged at a
Secondary motions are those used for other set time.
ting operations. 6. It should use a minimum number of shafts,
Drives used in a machine shop can be di- gears and levers at a time.
vided into the following two categories:
l . Line shaft 1.16.2 Individual Drive Versus Group
2. Individual drive Drive
In case of line shaft, power is supplied by an In a group drive, a powerful electric motor drives
individual mover to all the machines through the overhead shaft (also known as main-shaft).
the main shaft with the help of pulleys. An indi The mainshaft drives the countershaft, which in
vidual drive uses individual motors. Both sys turn drives the machine tool spindle. Two pul
tems have their own advantages and leys, fast pulley and loose pulley, are provided
disadvantages. on the countershaft to start and stop the ma
Modern machine tools require a sufficient
chine tool. Table 1.1 shows the comparison be
number of speeds. This can easily be achieved
tween group and individual drives.
in the case of hydraulic or electrical drives. A
hydraulic drive is suitable for straight line mo 1.16.3 Stability of Motion of the Carriage
tion. It is mainly used in milling machines, shap under Load
ing machines, planers, grinders and broaching
machines. Both static and dynamic stability of the carriage
are a must to get accurate longitudinal move
1.16.1 Selectjon of Drives ment. Static stability of the carriage can be in
creased in the following ways:
The following points need consideration while
1. By reducing the effects of forces acting on
selecting variable speed drives:
it. The forces acting on the carriage pro
1. It must consist of sufficient speed changes duce bending moments and couples. This
in increments between 10% and 15%. can be minimised by counter balancing the
2. All changes must be made within the ma forces.
chine tool itself. 2. By properly selecting the dimensions of
3. It must be capable of attaining the desired guides.
speed without intermediate changes. 3. By properly designing the guides.
4. The entire speed range should be obtained 4. By providing broad-based supports.
without stopping the motor. 5. By proper levelling.
Table 1.1 Individual drive versus group drive
S.No. Individual drive Group drive

1.Every machine tool is self sufficient, i.e. each ma Motor has to run even if one machine tool is working in
chine tool can be started or stopped as desired the whole shop
2. If one motor fails only one machine tool breaks- All the machine tools stop if the motor breaksdown
down
3. Chances of accidents are less Chances of accidents are more due to the overhead shaft
4. Machine repair is easier Machine repair is difficult
5. Power consumption is less Power consumption is more
_____ ________J;undame_ntals of Machine Tools------------�
-
1.17 WEAR RESISTANCE OF GUIDES Surface Finish Good surface finish increases
the life of guides due to the presence of fewer
The wear resistance of guides is one of the most
crests and troughs. It affects the thickness of the
important factors in determining its life. Wear
resistance is a function of micro hydrodynamic film between the two sur
faces. Superfinished surfaces have good wear
(a) Type and characteristics of the material
(b) Forces acting on it and their effects resistance.
(c) Surface finish 1.18 SLIDES AND SLIDEWAYS
(d) Friction, lubrication and environment
Material Commonly used materials for guides During machining operations, the workpiece or
tool either travels in a straight line or in
are cast iron, steel and plastics. Grey cast iron is cutting
a circle. In machine tools, two types of slideways
most suitable as it has fine grains, and is easy to
are used. These are (a) sliding friction slideways
cast and machine. It also possesses good com
pressive strength. In many machine tools, high and (b) rolling friction slideways. The principal
carbon steel hardened guides are used for wear characteristics of the ways are:
resistance. The whole bed need not be hard 1. Accuracy of travel
ened. Plastic guides have been introduced in 2. Durability
many machine tools recently. Phenolic resin 3. Rigidity
bonded fibres are inserted into one of the slid 4. Wear and tear resistance
ing surfaces, that are then glued and screwed. Materials for Slideways
Plastic guides are advantageous as they have
low coefficient of friction, lesser danger of sei Grey cast iron is the most commonly used mate
zure, good damping capacity and lesser slip-stick. rial for slideways, especially when they form an
integral part of the bed. Hardened and tempered
Pressure Acting on Guides The design of steel guideways, wherever used, are either
guides should be such that the pressure acting welded to a steel bed or screwed to a cast iron
on guideways is uniformly distributed. The de bed. These days plastics are gaining importance,
signed area should be such that the pressure act due to their self-lubricating and anticorrosive
ing at any point does not exceed the prescribed properties.
limit. The angles of guides and surfaces should
be designed so that major forces act on large Types of Slideways As shown in Fig. 1.5,
areas. It is easier to achieve this in flat guides slideways can be broadly classified into the fol
than in V-guides. lowing two categories:
The pressure acting on a surface can be cal (i) closed slideways
culated by dividing the maximum force acting (ii) open slideways
on it by the area of contact. The maximum al The most commonly used shapes of guide
lowable surface pressure for various machine ways or slideways are
tools are (i) vee-ways
(i) Lathe/milling machines 250-300 N/cm2 (ii) flat ways
(ii) Planer/shaper 80 N/cm 2 (iii) dovetial ways
(iii) Grinding machines 7 N/cm 2 (iv) cylindrical ways
The above values are true, provided the pres The selection of the proper shape of slideways
sure acting on the guides is uniform. In most of depends upon many factors, such as
cases this is not so. In such cases, half the above (i) the magnitude and direction of the load to
value gives satisfactory results. be carried
r10-- - -
--- ------Manufacturing Processes!-·- ------ -----
t- p t t
(a) (b)
(a)
(b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1.5 (a) Closed slideways, (b) Open slideways Fig. 1.6 Principal shapes of machine tool slideways ·
(a) Vee. (b) Flat (c) Dovetail and (d) Cylindrical
(ii) wear characteristics and adjustments
(iii) position of tranmission The rotational accuracy of a machine tool is
the amount of run out at the front end of the
(iv) ease of assembly spindle. Different standards are used for run out
(v) effectiveness of lubrication of different machine tools.
(vi) chip disposal technique The rigidity of a spindle is its capacity to
Vee-ways are difficult to manufacture. They are retain its correct position when various working
advantageous as they can make adjustments au forces act on it. Spindles should also be wear
resistant and vibration proof. To ensure compli
tomatically due to gravity action and wedging ance with the above properties, a proper selec
action, as such cross-winding is eliminated. tion of material and design of the spindle are of
Flat ways are characterised by their simplicity utmost importance.
of manufacture. They offer a large bearing area Machine tools are equipped with spindles to
to moving parts. They are used in conjunction (a) locate the job, (b) hold the tool or work,
(c) rotate the work or tool, (d) feed the tool.
with Vee-ways as slideways. The spindles are made of a hardened alloy steel
Dovetail ways have simple clearance adjust (0.4-0.45% carbon) or low alloy steel. A spindle
ments by means of a simple tapered or flat rib. is provided with a tapered hole at the front end
They are used for milling machine tables, flats for receiving the centring element. For accuracy,
and knees. the axis of the tapered hole and the axis of the
spindle of rotation must be concentric.
Cylindrical ways are simple to manufacture. To reduce friction, spindles are supported in
They are very rarely used due to their low rigid side the housing by means of more than one
ity, and are mainly used in pHlars of radial drill pair of bearings. The type and number of bear
ing machines. ings to be used depends upon the forces that
come into action. During working, radial loads
1.19 SPINDLES AND SPINDLE BEARINGS and axial thrusts act on bearings. To satisfy these
two conditions, taper-ed roller bearings are used,
The machining accuracy of ·a machine tool de as two separate sets of bearing would be needed
pends considerably upon the rotational accuracy otherwise. To minimise the effect of buckling
of the spindles. thrust, bearings are located near the spindle nose.
------- ------------l"undamentals of Machine Tools------------!:]
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.7 Spindle unit of a semi automatic lathe, (a) before modernisation, (b) after modernisation
The location of journal bearing depends upon 1. Transferring motion and power from input
actors, such as (a) permissible bending deflec shaft to output shaft
. on, (b) amount of radial play, and (c) pre-load 2. Transferring rotational motion to recipro
mg of the bearings, cating motion and vice versa
The systems of transmission of power to cut
1.20 KINEMATICS OF MACHINE TOOL ting and feed motions are known as drives, which
DRIVES form a chain of higher pairs. In all machine tools,
machine tool performs the following kine electrical energy is transformed to mechani
matic functions: cal energy by means of belts, gears, pulleys,
Fig. 1.8 Spindle unit of a cylindrical grinder

------ -Manufacturin
- g Processes! ----
- - -- - - - -
-
I i:z,�.- - - -
hydraulic, pneumatic or electrical devices. The are obtained by mechanical infinitely variable
selection of a drive in a machine tool depends speed drives, variable speed direct current drives
upon (a) the type of production, (b) surface fin or a combination of the two.
ish, (c) accuracy, (d) simplicity of design;
(e) power to weight ratio, and (f) design in 1.22 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
respect of repair, maintenance and control sys CUTTING SPEED AND FEEDS
tems. Maximum and minimum cutting speeds and
feeds for machining blanks of maximum and
1.21 DRIVES FOR ROTATIONAL
minimum sizes are selected by analysing the
MOVEMENTS manufacturing process to be used. To increase
In machine tools, various driving arrangements productivity, maximum and minimum cutting
are provided for the variation of spindle speeds, speeds and feeds must be established for all op
due to the following reasons: erations with different tools and materials to be
1. Different materials require different cut cut. This analysis not only determines the cut
ting speeds. ting speeds and feeds, but also which operation
2. Different tool materials have different cut requires the highest spindle torques and maxi
ting properties. mum feed forces.
3. Different thickness/diameters require dif While designing machine tools, the maximum
ferent cutting speeds. and minimum specifications are determined from
Assuming that the power required for a feed the values of only a few machining conditions.
ing mechanism is negligible, While designing a lathe, the maximum power of
:s:
power required = torque x velocity the drive is determined for rough turning with
2 carbide tip tools and the maximum spindle torque
HP = (MKS units) for rough turning with high-speed steel tools.
The spindle speed- of a machine tool can be
where T = torque at spindle in kilogram metres
calculated by using the equation
and N = revolutions per minute of the spindle
or HP oc T oc N 1000v
n= ---rpm
In SI units ,rd
where v = cutting speed in m/min
2
P = TW = T x JZN W and d = diameter of workpiece in mm.
60 For obtaining optimum working conditions on
To keep power input constant, as the diam various machine tools, the machine tool must be
eter of the job decreases in every cut, N must be provided with change in cutting speeds having a
increased, or range from Vmin to Ymax·
N1 T1 = N2 T2 = N3T3 = constant As the diameter of the workpieces to be ma
Thus, for various values. of torque, N must chined decreases with each cut, proper selection
vary. of spindle speeds from Ymax to vmin is necessary
In a machine tool, constant _power is deliv to obtain optimum results. The ratio of Nmax to
ered by two different arrangements-stepped Nmin is known as the spindle speed change ratio
variation, and stepless variation. The former in and is denoted by D. Thus,
cludes stepped pulleys, gear box drives and mul Nmax
tispeed induction motor drives. Stepless drives =D
Nmin
-----------------f'undamentals of Machine Tools-----------____,, 13
,
j
Any spindle speed can be selected, provided A geometric progression speed range with the
the machine tool is equipped with infinite common ratio </J will take the following form:
variable speed transmission mechanisms. How n 1 = nmin
ever, most machine tools are equipped with nz = </J . n 1
stepped drives. n 3 = </J . nz = n 1 . </J 2
Speeds intermediate between Nmax and Nmin n4 = n 1 </J 2
. </J = n 1 . </J 3
may be distributed in various ranges. Geometric
progression is the most rational system used in
machine tools. In this system, the speed between
different steps varies by a common ratio </J. This
system is advantageous as the maximum rela
tive loss of cutting speeds remains equal for ev hence </J= z-�
�ax = z-.;{ij
ery step of the range. As shown by a ray diagram llmin
(Fig. 1.9), if the value of N remains constant, where z = number of speed range steps.
the relationship between the velocity and the From the above discussion, it is concluded
diameter is a straight line. The constant ratio of that for constant cutting speed, as the diameter
GP series for a machine tool spindle speed is decreases, the number of revolutions per minute
given by increases or vice versa.
Practically it has been found that GP series
</J= Vw are most suitable for providing variations to
where E is an integer. Its value depends upon spindle speeds. Constant ratio of GP series for
the speed range and number of speeds required machine tool spindle speed is given by
</J= 11w
for a machine tool.
where E is an integer.
Standard procedure of laying down spindle
speeds of a machine tool are shown in Table
1.2.
The value of </J is usually selected according
to preferred number. The value of preferred num
ber depends upon the design requirements of
machine tools and number of speeds required. It
has the following advantages:
(i) unnecessary variations are eliminated
(ii) standarised motors and shafts can be used.
According to Renard series, the most com
Diameter D
monly used ratios are 1, 1.12,1.126, 1.41, 1.56
Fig. 1.9 Ray diagram
and 2.
Table 1.2
IP 1.06 1.12 1.26 1.41 1.58

Vi I.Oif2_ 1.1ri l.2if2_ 1.
442 1.5fi
To. � 2� 19,Jw " 201},fw

ifio
j 14 -· ------------Manufacturing Processes!--------------
According to the "Androin Progression Ra nP

tio" the series are Maximum speed loss = 1- -
nP +1
4ifi"o' 2ifi"o' lifi"o'
iflO and efw
=1-.l
1.23 SPEED LOSS IN GEOMETRIC </J
PROGRESSION
In a geometric progression, </J is constant.
Let us consider the spindle speed in a machine Hence the speed loss of the gear box is also
tool, laid down in geometric progression with a constant.
step ratio of </). If the required spindle speed np When </J = 1.5, the speed loss is 33.3%, if </) is
. 1.1, the speed loss is 10% and if </) = 2, the
does not exist, then the nearest speed is nP + 1
or nP - 1. Let the next spindle speed be n + 1. speed loss is 50%.
Since the diameter of the workpiece dec:eases From this discussion it is clear that the speed
after every cut, the phenomenon of speed selec loss in a geometric progression cannot exceed
tion is a job requiring experience. The problem 50%, even though the spindle speeds are laid
of speed selection can arise in the beginning of down in steps of 2. Sometimes arithmetic series
and logarithmic series are also arranged but a
the job too. Consider Fig. 1.10 for finding the
GP is the most preferred arrangement.
speed loss.
8 Example 1.1
Obtain the six spindle speeds of a tool room
lathe if the maximum and minimum speeds are
1280 and 40 rpm, respectivelr.
. 1280
S0lut10n Here </) = �
6 -- = 2
40
:. speeds are 40, 80, 160, 320, 640 and 1280.
G H
Diameter of the workpiece (0) 1.24 STEPPED REGULATIONS
Fig. 1.10 Speed loss mechanism
The various speed devices used in machine tools
are as follows.
EF
Speed loss = GH -
Stepped Pulley Drive A stepped pulley drive
is shown in Fig. 1.11.
The spindle gets four direct speeds from the
main shaft. Such a drive is commonly used in
lathes and has the following advantages:
1. Maintenance is easy and costs less.
2. It provides smooth running for spindles.
np 3. Vibrations in the machine are negligible
=1--
np +1 due to the limited use of gears.
A stepped pulley drive has the following dis
where nP + 1 is the rpm corresponding to A. advantages:
- ------------<'undamentals of Machine Tools-----------�-�
2
3
=:r�
4
If a1 is the diameter of the step ratio of the
Input -
shaft
-- - -- 15' �
pulley on the input �haft and az the diameter
step ratio of the pulley on the output shaft, then
- a= a1 X az
.....__ If both pulleys are stepped by the same amount,
- al= az
or al= = az .J¢
� --+----,--
In a cone-pulley drive, a belt of constant
- --1----+--+--.-- length is used. To satisfy the above condition
Output
;s-- � 1:5' '-a dn + d: = dn-1 + d: 1-
shaft -- - � - -�
= d1 + d/ = constant
but
� --+-----'-
d'
hence dn + _!!_ = constant= k
Fig. 1.11 Stepped pulleys </>n
1. Range of speeds is limited. constant ( k)
2. Speed changes are accomplished by shift or dn =-----
ing belts, which is a laborious and risky 1+-1-
process. </>n
3. The drive system occupies more space. From the above equations, the pulley size can
Consider the stepped cone-pulley shown in be computed.
Fig. 1.11. All the pulleys on the main shaft run
at a constant rpm. Let this be N. The output Example 1.2
peed variation of the drive can be obtained as A cone-pulley having four steps is designed to
follows. The stepped ratios are transmit 120, 170, 240 and 360 rpm to the out
1Cd1 d1 put shaft. If the input shaft speed is 300 rpm,
</Ji = lf = calculate the sizes of pulleys.
d/ d {
Solution
output speed=� 120 = .
</>i= = 0 40
input speed d1' 300
output speed d2 170 =

</>2= = = 0.566
input speed d{ 300
output speed � 240 =

</>3 = = 0.80
input speed d{ 300
116•�------------Manufacturing Prncesses 1--------------
= output speed = d4 = 360 = 1_20 2. Increasing the power of main drives for
¢4 metal removal at higher speeds.
input speed d; 300
3. Introducing systems of infinitely variable
Assuming dn + d: = 600 mm= k, the diam
speeds to use optimum speeds and feeds.
eters of the main shaft pulley are
4. Introducing a variety of auxiliary items to
k<A_ 600 X 0.40 reduce handling time.
d 1 = --= = 171.4 mm
1 + </Ji 1.40 5. Automating the operating cycle to get posi
tive results and reduce operator fatigue.
krf>i 600 X 0.566 6. Automating and simplifying machine tool
d2 = --= = 216.8 mm
1 + ¢2 1.566 controls.
7. Increasing rigidity of the machine tools.
kr/>J 600 X 0.8 8. Introducing standardised units and parts.
d3= -- = = 266.66 mm
1 + ¢-J 1.8 These objectives can be achieved by using
electrical and electronic devices, hydraulic sys
k
¢4 600x 1.2 tems and numerically controlled systems. Large
d4 = --= = 327.3 mm
1 + ¢4 2.2 number of fluids are now extensively used in
Diameters of the driven pulleys machine tools due to their compactness, good
response and low cost.
k 600
d{ = _ _ = = 428.6 mm
1 + </Ji 1.40 1.26 REMOTE CONTROLS
d{ = _k_ = 600 = 383.2 mm Remote controls are extensively applied these

1 + ¢2 1.566 days in modem machine tools. They enable the
operator to control operations at a considerable
d{ = _k_ = 600 = 333.33 mm distance from the machine tool unit. Remote
1 + ¢-J 1.8 control systems have proved very convenient in
k 600 many cases and are indispensible in machining
d; = _ _ = = 272.7 mm materials possessing natural or artificial radio
1 + ¢4 2.2
activity. Such machine tools are equipped with
Ge.Jr Drive Refer to the chapter on transmis remote controls to carry out all operations, from
sion of power in workshops. the loading of blanks to finishing and unload
1.25 MODERN TRENDS IN MACHINE ing.
TOOLS Depending upon the requirements of the ma
chine tool, various systems of remote control
The trends in the development of modern ma are used. Commonly used systems are electro
chine tools are towards (a) reduction in produc mechanical and electrohydraulic in nature. The
tion time per piece, (b) production of components remote control station consists of a pendent on
within specified tolerances, and (c) prevention which push buttons and control levers are
of vibrations during operation.
mounted. The operator watches the machining
These objectives can be accomplished by ad
· operation from a distance and controls the
hering to the following:
1. Increasing cutting speeds and reducing operations from the pendent by means of push
machining time. buttons.
---------------rundamentals of Machine Tools:-------- -
----
1.27 SAFETY DEVI�ES OF MACHINE engaged in the fabrication of each and every
TOOLS article. This enables a single operator to attend
to- many machines simultaneously. By automa
Machine tools are equipped with many safety tion, the emphasis in human activities.is trans
devices to protect the operator and equipment ferred to the servicing of machine tools.
from accidents. Protection of machine tools from The automation of machine tools requires a
accidents and breakdowns is a vital factor. To number of prerequisites. These are:
minimise this, machine tools are fitted with au (i) Use of standardised, unified and normalised
tomatic safety devices or automatic transfer lines. parts and assemblies to the largest possible
The various protective devices used on ma extent. This saves production time, pro
chine tools can be classified into three main cat vides interchangeability and simplifies re
egories: pairs.
1. Interlocking devices (i-i) Unification of design elements to the larg
2. Travel limiting devices est possible extent. Greater the number of
3. Overstress protection devices identical elements, i.e. t�reads, holes,
Interlocking devices are mainly used· in gears. grooves, etc., the smaller is the number of
They ensure that two or more pairs of gears do measuring tools required.
not engage simultaneously in a single transmis (iii) Unification of materials to the largest ex
-ion group. They are also used in the transmis- tent possible. A smaller variety of materi
-ion of motion, so that two conflicting motions als simplifies storage, handling and material
o not engage simultaneously, and for control supply, and machining of parts .
.ing operations at definite intervals of time. (iv) Use of modem standard methods of ma
The two types of travel limiting devices used chining, assembly, control, testing and re
n machine tools are (a) devices used for stop pair.
ing the motion when the machine tool reaches In machine tools, a system of automatic con
· e permis_sible extreme positions and (b) de- trol is feasible only where it promises a desired
ices used for aisengaging and switching over degree of accuracy, productivity and economy.
e motion of the travelling unit at suitable points Modem automatic devices are capable of effect
ong the line of travel Extrem,e position limit ing accurate displacements in machine tool ele
g devices are needed for_ preventing the ma- ments., causing quick movements of the controls
hine tool from breakdown, whereas size and simultaneously providing several control
aintaining deviees are used for controlling the motions.
.:rimensions of components. Automatic control systems can be_ classified
Overstress protection devices are used to pro in a number of ways, depending upon the crite
ct machine tools from excessive forces acting rion used. The criteria can be the degree of
them due to higher cutting speeds and feeds. decentralisation, the incorporation of feedback
.28 AUTOMATION IN MACHINE TOOLS and the type of control programme carrier.
The control system may be centralised,
utomation in machine tools is the system used decentralised or mixed. The centralised system
control and earry out an operation or opera consists of a functional centre also known as
ns without direct huIJ1an intervention. Auto master unit. It shapes control signals and ex
ation is needed to fully utilise resources, ecutes controlled motion. An automatic machine
aterial, money and machines. In an automatic controlled_ by a camshaft is an example of this
peration, the human operator is not directly system. Some contrnl systems utilise master
j 1s,�-------------Manufacturing Processes 1---------------
controllers and perform control functions in the classified into (a) automatic loaders for bulk
manner of an automatic cam controlled machine. loads, and (b) automatic loaders for unit loads.
The decentralised control system has no func Automatic loaders for bulk loads are used for
tional or master centre. It works on the use of loading long bars, strips and reels of metal. Au
path control limit switches (transducers) and tomatic loaders for loading unit loads are used
mechanical end stops for execution of the con for loading screw blanks, forgings, castings and
trol function in a fixed sequence, and hence is similar pieces.
also known as a fixed sequence control system. The various types of assemblies used for
The end positions for the control elements are loading unit loads can be categorised as fol
specified by transducers and end stops placed lows:
1. According to the receptacle used:
so that the controlled element does not perform
(i) magazine
the next motion until and unless it has com
(ii) chute
pleted the previous one. This control system is
(iii) hopper type devices.
not very reliable, due to the frequent failure of 2. According to method of motion of parts: s
control devices. (i) gravity fed devices
The mixed control system relies on the ad (ii) powdered devices.
vantages of both the centralised and fixed se 3. According to the status of the receptacle:
quence control systems. In case of any trouble, (i) mobile devices
the line gets interlocked and the machine stopped (ii) static devices. �
automatically. A control system can be classi Magazines are used for holding a pile of
fied as continuous or discrete, based on the works of various shapes and sizes for further
method of control action. loading into the machine. The receptacle con
In a continuous system, the command signal sists of a bowl of large capacity to receive a pile
to the actuation mechanism is a constant func of parts stacked in an oriented manner. Some
tion of time and the control signal. In a discrete times regular issue of pieces is prevented due to
control system, the command to the actuation congestion or hang ups in the magazine. This
mechanism arrives as an impulse at a set inter difficulty is overcome by installing a director
val. cone in the receptacle.
Chutes are gravity-controlled devices used to
1.29 PARTS HANDLING AUTOMATION control the motion from station to station by
interposing an antifriction track set at a definite
Strictly speaking, no machine tool is fully auto
angle. The angle varies between 15 ° and 90° .
matic, i.e. no machine tool can operate fully
The chutes can be further classified as
without human assistance. Machines are called (a) sliding and (b) rolling chutes. These are used
automatic if they are capable of performing a for movements of all types of blanks.
cycle automatically after the work has been put Hopper type loading devices are used for the
in place and the machine started by the opera automatic handling of parts, such as pins,
tor. The general problem of mechanisation-and sleeves, rings, bolts and screws. The pieces to
automation is the task of designing automatic be machined are dumped into a hopper. The pick
applica_tions and assemblies for the loading, feed up and orienter mechanism provided in the hop
ing and removing of work. The difficulty arised per, separates the pieces from the pile and ar
due to the great diversity of machining processes ranges them in an oriented manner. The pick up
with various shapes and sizes of blanks. mechanism is designed to perform reciprocat
A number of loading devices for loading com ing, swinging, rotary and oscillatory motions to
ponents are used in machine tools. These can be fulfill the required function.
undamentals of Machine Tools------------� �
-
{kULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ./) for the right answer 6. Beds, columns and frames are usually made of
1. A machine tool is a power-driven machine, ca cast iron as it possesses
pable of (a) good impact resistance
(a) holding the tool (b) good damping capacity
(b) holding the job (c) high toughness
(c) directing and guiding the tool and job (d) stiffness
(d) doing all the above functions
7. In comparison to individual drive, in a group
2. A lathe is a machine tool, that generates
(a) flat surfaces drive
(b) angular components (a) if the motor fails, only one machine stops
(c) cylindrical surfaces (b) machine repair is quick
(d) gears (c) machine repair is cheap
3. A high-speed steel cutting tool is used on the (d) power consumption is less
following type of machine tool 8. Dovetail ways are used in
(a) grinders (a) lathes (b) planers
(b) honing machine (c) milling machines (d) grinders
(c) shaping machine 9. To minimise the effect of buckling thrust of
(d) lapping machine the spindle
4. Which one of the following is not an element (a) at least four bearings are needed
of machine tool? (b) minimum of three bearings are needed
(a) cutting tool (c) bearings can be placed at convenient points
(b) structure
(d) bearings should be placed near the spindle
(c) spindles and bearings
nose.
(d) drives
5. While cutting a workpiece with a cutting tool, 10. Automation in machine tools
the material of the cutting tool should be (a) requires larger work force
(a) harder than the material of the job (b) needs highly skilled labour
(b) softer than the material of the job (c) reduces handling time and production time
(c) tougher than the material of the job (d) requires accurate and sophisticated mea-
(d) brittle than the material of the job suring tools
tll.Evmw QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by the term machine tool? What 6. How do machine tools differ?
is the difference between a machine and a ma- 7. What are structures? How are the structures
chine tool? classified?
2. Enumerate the functions of machine tools. 8. Describe in brief the various mechanisms for
3. How are machine tools classified? Differenti- rectilinear motion used in machine tool.
ate between standard purpose and special pur-
9. Enumerate the mechanisms used for periodic
pose machine tools.
4. What are the various elements of machine tools? motion in machine tools.
5. Describe in brief the working principles of ma- 10. What are reversing mechanisms? What are the
chine tools. requirements of reversing mechanisms?
po-'---------------Manufacturing Processes!----------------
11. Explain in brief the various drives used in ma (d) Maximum and minimum cutting speeds and
chine tools. What are the merits and demerits feeds
of individual drives over group dr ives? 15. Explain briefly the various stepped regulation
12. Enumerate the various factors that need to be mechanisms used in machine tools.
taken into consideration for the selection of 16. Explain briefly the various safety devices used
drives used in machine tools. in machine tools.
13. What are slides and slideways? How are they 17. Enumerate the essential prerequisites of auto
classified? What is their utility in machine mation in machine tools.
tools? 18. What are the various devices used for automa
14. Write notes on tion in machine tools? Explain their working in
(a) Spindles and spindle bearings brief.
(b) Kinematics of machine tool drives 19. What are remote controls? What is their util
(c) Drives for rotational movements ity?
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 CLASSIFICATION
Sawing is an important first operation carried Metal cutting saws can be classified as hand
out in a workshop for producing bar stocks for operated or hand hacksaws and power-operated
subsequent machining operations. Although saw saws. Hand hacksaws have been discussed in
ing operation is often carried out on machine Workshop Technology by this author in the chap
tools, but their application is restricted to small ter of fitting. This chapter deals mainly with
, pieces to a limited extent. Special purpose ma power-driven saws, which can be classified into
chines are needed for the mass production of the following categories:
1. Reciprocating saws
miscellaneous workpieces. All these machines
(i) Horizontal saw
work on the principle of multiple point cutting, (ii) Vertical saw
when the saw moves against the job. 2. Circular saws
D �O
3. Band saws
2.3 RECIPROCATING SAWS
Fig. 2.1 Different profiles that can be cut with a saw Reciprocating power saws are very popular be
cause of their simple design and low operating
The blade is the most important part of all cost. According to the method of supplying
metal cutting saws. Only part of the metal cut power to the saws, they are classified as either
ting saw blade comes in contact with the crank driven or hydraulically driven. Depending
upon their use, they are designed for semi-auto
workpiece. Thus it is important that the blade matic and automatic operations.
used in metal cutting should be rigid, made of Generally, the feed to the saw is provided by
proper material and in good condition. A blade the effect of the force of gravity produced by
that is not in good condition (proper cutting edge the weight of the saw frame, which exerts a
design) will not yield good results even on ex uniform pressure. Some machines have a weight
pensive and sophisticated machines. While work clamped on the frame to ensure uniform pre
ing on a metal cutting saw, the blade must have ssure. Crank driven saws are simple and cheap.
properly cut teeth and the job must be held rig Their main disadvantage is that the cutting
idly in a suitable clamping device. action takes place only half the time, since the
f 22 --------- - --Manufacturing Processes! -
-- - - - - -- ---
time of an idle stroke is equal to the time of a the next is straight, and the third to the right,
working stroke. Some hacksaws are provided the fourth again to the left, and so on. This pat
with link mechanisms that give a quick return tern is repeated throughout the blade. In the
action. For further details refer to the chapter on straight or alternate set, the teeth are bent to
bench work and fitting in Workshop Technol wards the right and left alternately. In a wavy
ogy by the same author. set, one set of teeth are bent towards one direc
tion, while the rest are bent towards the oppo
2.4 POWER SAW BLADES site direction.
The three types of blades used on power saws The pitch of the blade is another important
are (a) hook tooth type, (b) skip tooth type, and characteristic. The pitch of the saw blade means
(c) regular tooth type, as shown in Fig. 2.2. Hook the number of cutting edges per unit length. In a
type and skip type teeth are used primarily for metric system the pitch is denoted in millime
soft metals and deep cuts. Regular type teeth ters. Different pitches are used for cutting dif
are used for cutting a large variety of materials. ferent materials. During cutting, two or more
teeth must be in contact with the job, so as to
increase the blade life.
Commonly used steels for power saw contain
(a) (b) (c) 0.65-0.75% carbon. These steels are used in a
Fig. 2.2 Types of saw blades: (a) Hook type, (b) Skjp hardened and tempered condition. Another ma
type and (c) Regular type terial used for reciprocating saws is high-speed
steel, containing 18% tungsten, 4% chromium
The setting of teeth is a prerequisite for accu and 1% vanadium. It is suitable for the rapid
rate and smooth cutting. The set of a blade is production of jobs.
the amount of clearance between the kerf of the
saw and the blade thickness. The setting of the 2.5 SAWING PROCEDURE
blade is needed to protect the blade body from
The sawing procedure on power-driven saws is
rubbing against the workpiece. It not only uses
similar to that of a hand hacksaw. The prerequi
less cutting force but also retains the hardness
site of all sawing operations is that the job must
of the blade for a longer time. These days power
be held securely and rigidly with a suitable
saw blades are set in (a) straight, (b) raker and
clamping device. Before clamping the job, check
(c) wavy designs, as shown in Fig. 2.3. A raker
that the machine is running correctly. In power
set is most extensively used in metal cutting op
driven saws, the blade should move towards the
erations. In this set, one tooth is bent to the left,
stationary jaw of the holding device. Both cor
rect and wrong sawing procedures of different
materials are shown in Fig. 2.4.
(a)
Left Straight
2.6 SAW BLADES FAILURE
�I\ I::21'."jl (b) I ::21 ::jl I :;;J
The failure of a power saw blade takes place
due to one or more of the following reasons:
Right
1. Pointing of blade teeth in the wrong direc-
r:;::.t:::::t::� tion
(c) 2. Blade or work not held p perly
Fig. 2.3 Setting of saw teeth: (a) Straight or alternate 3. Sudden falling of blade on the job
(b) Raker and (c) Wary 4. Improper pressure on the job
------ - - ------Metal Cutting Saws ------- -- - -- 231
Right Wrong Right Wrong
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g)

Fig. 2.4 Right and wrong procedures of sawing: (a) Right, (b) Wrong. (c) Right, (d) Wrong. (e) Cutting a channel
(f) Right, (g) Wrong
5. ·Blade used not of required specifications cutting speeds of materials also depend upon
6. Improper tension in the blade the pitch of the blade, no hard and fast rule can
To ensure long life of the blades, all the above be laid down for exact cutting speeds. The com
pitfalls must be avoided. monly used strokes per minute with feed pres
Blade Specifications A power saw blade is sure are shown in Table 2.1.
specified by the
(a) material of the blade Table 2.1
(b) length of the blade
Material Strokes Feed pressure
(c) width of the blade per minute (in Nlmm2)
(d) thickness of the blade
(e) pitch of the teeth Mild steel 140-160 7-9
Medium-carbon steel 130-150 7-8
Specification of Power Saws A power saw High-carbon steel 120-140 7-8
machine is usually designated by the size of the Alloy steel 90-115 6-8
bar stock that can be cut on it. It is mainly speci Aluminium 140-170 2-4
fied by the Brass 130-150 2-4
(a) length of the blade to be fitted on the ma- Bronze 100-130 2-4
chine Cast iron 130-150 5-7
(b) stroke length Cold rolled steel 100-110 5-7
(c) number of strokes per minute Drawn copper 130-150 5-7
(d) type of drive Die steel 80-110 5-8
· High-speed steel 80.-:100 5-7
(e) power required for the machine drive Duralumin 120-140 2-3
Stainless steel 80-100 5-7
2.7 CUTTING SPEED Heat-resistant steel 80-100 5-7
Commercially available power saws are oper Bronze 100-120 2-3
ated at a single speed only. These days power Malleable cast iron 90-110 5-6
saws are available with two or three different Nickel silver 50-70 6-8
Pipe steel 130-150 6-7
cutting speeds. High speed steel blades are gen
Tubes 130-150 3-5
erally used for cutting most materials. Since the
124,-------------Manufacturing Processes! --------------
-
2.8 CIRCULAR SAWS As shown in Fig. 2.5(b), the blades used on

Circular saws are also known as cold saws. They circular saws can be classified into the follow
can be further classified as ing three categories:
(i) portable saws 1. Combination blade
(ii) fixed saws 2. Cross-cut blade
OGG
3. Rip blade
Portable Saws These are the equivalent of
powered hand saws. Both are designed to make
straight cuts on stocks. Basically all circular saws
consist of a housed motor with a circular blade
fitted on its spindle. The upper half of the blade
consists of a fixed guard while the lower half
consists of a retractable guard. This 5uard auto
(i) (ii) (iii)
matically swings up and down when the tool is
in use. Fig. 2.5 (b) Circular saw blades
Fixed Guard
Fixed Circular Saws These saws are gener
ally usd in three forms, i.e. manual, semi
Motor
automatic and automatic. The latter two types
are very commonly used. In semi-automatic ma
chines, all operations except loading, feeding
and removal of stock are done automatically. In
automatic circular saws, all operations except
loading are done automatically. A single opera
tor can handle many automatic machines.
The working of circular metal saws is similar
Base Plate
to milling machines in which the stock is fed
Retractable guard against a multiple teeth rotating cutter. How
Fig. 2.5 (a) Portable circular saw ever, metal slitting saws are made in diameters
Fig. 2.6 Fixed circular saw

------- --------Metal Cutting Saws-------- ---
upto 200 mm, whereas the cutters used in metal 2.11 BAND SAW
saws have larger diameters. Most cutters consist
The sawing machines described above are suit
of a body of mild steel with a high-speed steel
able only for straight cuts and cannot be used
rim having uniformly cut teeth. Many cutters
for irregular curves. A band saw can be used for
have segmental replaceable inserted teeth or seg making irregular curves, which enables it to per
mental type blades. The shape of the teeth also form a variety of operations. Many machining
resembles the teeth of milling cutters. Cutting operations, such as the contour sawing of dies,
speeds of circular saws vary from 10 to 25 ml jigs and fixtures, that were previously carried
rnin_for ferrous materials. For non-ferrous mate out on other machine tools can now be performed
rials the cutting speeds are much higher. Lubri on this machine.
cants should be used continuously for circular
Blade speed selector Upper wheel
saw work to increase tool life.
2.9 STEEL FRICTION DISC SAW

These saws consist of a steel disc that rotates at
high peripheral speeds (6000-7500 m/min). The
@
heat produced at the mating surface due to fric
tion melts the part through the path being cut. It Control
Table
is a very quick process and materials with cross
panel
o@o
section as high as 600 mm2 can be cut in about 0 0
half a minute. The diameter of the disc used ,1
l+/1
Column Lower
varies from 60 cm to 1.5 m. To provide side It
wheel
clearance and reduce friction, cutting discs are
usually provided with indentations on their cir
cumference, commonly 2.0-3.0 riun. deep. The
'
\
...... __ ,,,.
/
I
cutting ability of materials using the friction disc

technique depends mainly on their structure. Fig. 2.7 Band saw
Stainless steels and tool steels can be cut more
easily than high-carbon steels by this process. A metal band saw resembles a wood working
band saw in construction, as shown in Fig. 2.7.
2.10 ABRASIVE DISC SAWS The main parts of a band saw are column, bed,
table, wheel, guides and blade or band. The vari
This process of cutting is carried out with the ous types of saw bands used are (a) precision
help of abrasive wheels and is suitable for cut band, (b) buttress band, (c) knife edge band,
ting ferrous and non-ferrous materials. It is used (d) file band, (e) claw tooth band, (f) friction
for cutting materials upto 90 mm.thickness. band, (g) spiral band, and (h) guide band. The
Abrasives cut more efficiently at high speeds cutting speed mainly depends upon the type of
as they do not get heated easily. Commonly used material to be cut and varies from 30 to 100 m
abrasive discs are either resinoid bonded or rub per minute.
ber bonded. The former are suitable for dry
grinding and the latter for wet grinding. The 2.12 WELDING OF SAW BLADES
accuracy of finish in these machines is greater The blade of a saw frequently breaks during
than that using friction disc cutting saws. working. The various defects encountered
,.-
126 - - - - - ---- - - M
- anufacturing Processes I
during cutting and their causes can be classified ed in between the broken parts. To provide uni
as follows. form strength throughout, the welding of the
1. Breakage of teeth blade has to be carried out cautiously. The proper
(i) improper tooth design or violation of
welding of a saw can be divided into the fol
tooth rules
(ii) excessive pressure during cutting lowing steps:
(iii) sudden start of cut l. Grind the ends to be joined properly.
2. Breaking of blade 2. Hold the ends to be welded in the fixture.
(i) less tension in the blade 3. Align the blades.
(ii) excessive pressure during cutting 4. Apply proper pressure and carry out the
(iii) coarse blade weld.
(iv) twisting of blade during cutting 5. Anneal the ends with the help of a flame.
After breaking, the blade usually decreases a 6. Clean the blade.
little in length. Thus, a piece needs to be insert-
tM:ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS.
Mark ( if) for the right answer (b) irregular pressure on job
1. The most important part of all cutting saws is (c) heating of the job
(a) multiple point blade (d) very low cutting speed of the blade
(b) single point blade 5. The following type of blade is not used on cir
(c) cutting tool cular saws
(d) cutter (a) tenon blade
2. Reciprocating power saws are extensively used (b) combination blade
because they (c) cross-cut blade
(a) are light in weight (d) rip blade
(b) provide continuous cutting action 6. Breakage of teeth of blade occurs due to
(c) are simple in design (a) less tension in the blade
(d) are free from vibrations (b) coarse teeth of the blade
3. The following type of blade is not used on (c) excessive pressure during cutting
power saw (d) twisting of the blade
(a) regular teeth blade 7. A power-driven saw having a continuous looped
(b) square teeth blade blade and driven by two wheels is known as
(c) hook type blade (a) power saw
(d) skip type blade (b) circular saw
4. Failure of saw blade may occur due to (c) rip saw
(a) regular pressure on job (d) band saw
lit.Evmw QUESTIONS
1. Describe the following terms: (d) gravity feed mechanism
(a) horizontal hacksaw (e) raker set
(b} vertical power saw (f) friction cutting
(c) skip tooth (g) pitch of a saw blade
-----------------Metal Cutting Saws--- - - - - - -
- ----- 27
uj
2. Prepare a -list of various power saws used in various types of sets commonly used on
industry and state the type of work to which power saw blades.
each is suited. 6. List the principle causes of failure of power
3. Differentiate the working principle of (a) fric saw blades. How can they be avoided?
tion disc saw, and (b) abrasive disc saw. 7. Describe the construction of a metal band saw
4. What factors govern the selection of a power machine.
saw blade?
8. How are power saws classified? Describe the
5. What is meant by setting of teeth of a power
most commonly used power saw in industry.
saw blade? Why is it needed? Describe the
f
3,1 INTRODUCTION (viii) Special purpose lathe

(ix) Automatic lathe.
A lathe is the forerunner of all machine tools. It
2. Engine lathe
is the most important machine used in any work
(i) Step cone pulley drive lathe
shop. Initially it was used for wood turning.
(ii) Geared lathe
After Henry Maudslay developed the sliding car
(iii) Variable speed lathe
riage in 1800, a lot of development has taken
3. Bench lathe
place and lathes are now available in numerous
sizes and shapes. 3,3 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A LATHE
A lathe removes the material by rotating the
workpiece against a single point cutting tool. The principal parts of a modem engine lathe are
The parts to be machined can be held between labelled and shown in Fig. 3.1. A brief descrip
two rigid supports called centres, or by some tion of these parts follows.
other device such as a chuck or face plate, that Bed The bed of a lathe consists of two heavy
is screwed or secured to the end of the spindle. parallel sides having ways or Vs over it, as
shown in Fig. 3.2. It is held rigidly by cross
3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LATHES
girths supported by cast iron supports.
Lathes are classified in many ways with respect Headstock It is situated at the left-hand end
to size, design, method of drive and purpose. of the bed. It consists of a headstock casing and
Broadly, lathes can be classified as: supports the spindle and driving arrangement,
l. Speed lathe as shown in Fig. 3.3. The steel spindle is hol
(i) Wood working lathe low, so that the bars can be passed through it if
(ii) Metal spinning lathe necessary. The spindle nose of the spindle is
(iii) Metal turning lathe threaded to hold the chuck or face plate by
(iv) Polishing lathe screwing it on.
(v) Tool room lathe
(vi) Turret lathe Tailstock This is a counterpart of the head
(vii) Capstan lathe stock and is located opposite it on the ways of
-------- - -.......
------ ---- - --Lathe and Lathe Work�--------
40
38 -t--ll�iii
41 -----.-r.=--�=------!.J�.:.L_��:;=-J-------F===�i======i��
31
16
35 �
Fig. 3.1 Lathe and its parts: I. Eive centre 2. Face plate 3. Main spindle 4. fju/1 g_ear 5. Cone pulley 6. Back gear
7 Spindle gear and bearing 8. Bearing 9. Stud gear JO. Intermediate gear 11---:l,ead screw gear 12. Bed ways
13. Rack 14. Lead screw 15. ?a} Saddle (b) Apron 16. B�d 17 Longitudinal hand feed 18. Power longitudi
nal feed 19. Power cros.,-feed 20. Half nut lever 21. Tool post 22. Tool 23. Compound rest feed
24. Support 25. Hand cross-feed 26. Dead centre 27 Tailstock sleeve 28. Clamp nut 29. Adjustment screw
30. Tai/stock handle 31. Motor 32. Counter shaft cone pulley 33. Pulley 34. Motor pulley 35. Fan for air
cooling ofmotor 36. Belt 37 Short current drive support 38. Direct reversing gear 39. Thread chasing dial
40. Tai/stock 4L Headstock
rr,, 11
j;:; V--ways
� Clutch Driving Gear-box
1-, \\
Driving shaft casing
pulley
2 3 4
�
Dog clutch
Fig. 3.2 Lathe bed: {I, 3. 4) V-ways. (2) Flat ways Fig. 3.3 Sectional view of a geared headstock having
12 speed gear box. 1.2, 3. .... 12 are gears
the bed. It consists of a tapered hole, adjusting Carriage The carriage is a moving part that
screw and handwheel. It is used for supporting slides over the ways between the headstock and
and feeding drills, reamers and centres. the tailstock. It consists of a saddle and apron,
and also carries the compound rest.
/
� .--------------Manufacturing Processes _I
t
B
8 E
Fig. 3.4 Tailstock: I. Barrel 2. Feed screw J. Nut (a)
4. Hand wheel 5. Clamp nut 6. Dead centre
7 Bed 8. Clamp plate
D
(b)
Fig. 3.6 (a) Cross-slide and compound slide: A. tool
post. B. compound slide, C, D. damping nuts.
E. cross-slide (b) Use of a jib: A. cross-slide.
B. locknut. C. Set screw. D. jib
longitudinal· movement of the carriage and tool

is accomplished by means of a large hand wheel
e
along the ways on the bed with the help of mesh
Fig. 3,5 The lathe carriage: (a) Saddle (b) Cross-slide ing gears provided inside the apron. The sche
(c) Compound slide (d) Tool post (e) Apron matic details of an apron used on lathes is shown
box (!) Carriage hand wheel (g) Power feed
in Fig. 3.7.
lever (h) Half nut (i) Feed change lever
(j) Rack (k) Swivel plate and {l) Lead screw
Saddle. This is an H-shaped component bridged d

across the lathe bed. It carries the cross-slide
and tool rest to provide various kinds of motion
to the tools.
Compound slide The compound slide is used
for supporting the tool post and cutting tool in
various positions. The base of the compound
slide is graduated and the tool post can be swiv u
elled to various angular positions for different Fig. 3.7 Schematic details of apron: a. Rack. b. Cross
turning operations, as shown in Fig. 3.6. slide. c. cross-lead screw. d Lead screw gear.
e. Lead screw. f Half nut. g. Lever. h. Gear.
Apron This is the lower vertical position of
i. Pinion. j. Feed shaft. k. Gear. 1. Pinion,
the carriage that contains the gears and clutches
m. Gear. n. Pinion, o. Worm, p. Worm wheel
for transmitting motion from the feed rod to the q. Gear. r. Gear. s. Splined shaft. t. Feed chuck
carriage. It consists of a split nut which engages knob. u. Cross slide. hand wheel v. LongHudi
with the lead screw while cutting threads. The nal feed hand wheel
Lathe and Lathe Work-- - -- - - - - - - 3ij
Tool post A tool post is used to hold various Feeding mechanism The feeding mechanism
tools and tool holders to create convenient work of a lathe is obtained by using a train of gears
ing conditions. It consists of a tool post screw (series of gears in mesh) that transmit motion
(for tightening the tool holder), a ring at the from the headstock to the main spindle and the
bottom and a rectangular section with a flat top. lead screw. From the feed rod, the motion is
transmitted to various gears in the apron. The
The various types of tool posts used on a lathe
feed gears are controlled by friction through
are shown in Fig. 3.8. small knobs located in front of the apron.
Centres The shanks of a centre are usually
finished with standard morse taper and the tip is
generally made at an angle of 60 ° . The accuracy
of the work is influenced by alignment of the
centres. The headstock centre is accomodated in
the tapered hole in the headstock and the
tailstock centre is accomodated in the tailstock.
Different types of centres used for lathe work
are shown in Fig. 3.9.
Thread cutting mechanism Any mechanism
used for transmitting motion from the main
spindle to the lead screw for thread cutting is
known as a thread cutting mechanism. It con
Fig. 3.8 Tool posts used in turning
tains various arrangements of gears and is pro
vided with a quick change gear mechanism.
{-----E1?
(a) (b)
(c)
(f)
(e)
Fig. 3.9 Lathe centres: (a) Ordinary centre, (b) Tipped centre, (c) Ball centre, (d) Half centre, (e) Frictionless centre
{A-taper roller bearing, B -thrust bearing), (f) Pipe centre
��-------------Manufacturing Processes 1--------------
Chucks Chucks are used for holding large and plate having slots of various sizes at different
irregularly shaped parts. They are mounted or angles.
screwed on the spindle to make it a rigid mount
ing.
Commonly used chucks can be classified as
three-jaw self-centring chucks or four-jaw inde
pendent chucks. In a three-jaw chuck, all the
jaws close in together, actuated by the spiral
groove cut on the face of a flat disc, called a
scroll. Their principle of operation is similar to
that of a screw, except that the screw is cut on
the face. It is easy to operate and is used mainly
for holding circular or hexagonal components. Fig. 3.11 Face plate
A four-jaw chuck is operated by a separate
square threaded screw and each jaw moves sepa
rately. The different types of chucks used on
lathes are shown in Fig. 3.10.
-+-Jaw
..,
�
' .
.
� Q
(a) (b)
Solid--�
reversible
jaw
Geared scroll Jaw screw

(c)
Fig. 3.10 Types oflathe chucks: (a) Four-jaw indepen Fig. 3.12 Face plate accessories: (a) Plain packing block,
. dent chuck. (b) Three-jaw universal chuck. (b) Bridge plate, (c) Stepped packing block.
(c) Compound chuck (cl) Fixed clamping block. (e) Universal clamp
ing block. (f) V-block. (g) Angle plate,
The face plate The face plate is used for hold (h) L-clamp
ing jobs such as thin and irregularly shaped
Steadies Steadies can be classified into two
pieces that cannot be held between the centre main categories: (a) three-jaw fixed steady or
and chucks. The workpiece is held on the face steady rest and (b) travelling st-eady or follower
plate by means of clamps, bolts fixtures or spe rest, as showg in Fig. 3.14(a) and (b), respec
cial holding devices as shown in Fig. 3.11. It is tively. When long slender workpieces are sub
used for facing the surface and consists of a jected to a turning operation, they bend and form
Lathe and-Lathe Work------- - ----- 33 f
Face plate
A
Headstock
'-/
Lathe ways
Fig. 3.13 Procedure for holding a workpiece on face plate and tailstock
a cantilever against the pressure of the tool, re adjustable slide. Usually it is driven by a variable
sulting in the bending of the workpiece and un speed motor fitted in the headstock. The drive
even dimensions. The three-jaw steady is clamped may be that of a belt or a step cone pulley. The
on the bed of the lathe and supports the bar. work is held between the centres and rotated at
The travelling steady is fixed on the carriage high speeds. Cuts are provided on this lathe by
and travels along with the tool. hand tools. It is mainly used for turning wood.
Mandrel It is a hardened and ground cylindri 3.5 ENGINE LATHE
cal piece having undercut centreholes on both
ends. It is used for holding and rotating hollow The engine lathe derives its name from the early
workpieces, or those that have been drilled or lathes that were driven by the power obtained
bored previously. The three types of commonly from engines, and is the most widely used lathe.
used mandrels are: (a)· solid lathe mandrel, It differs from the speed lathe in that it is pro
(b) expansion mandrel, and (c) nut mandrel. vided with additional features for controlling the
spindle speed and the feed of the cutting tool. It
3.4 SPEED LATHE also consists of a compound slide and can feed
The speed lathe is the simplest of all lathes, the cutting tool both in the cross and longitudi
consisting of a headstock, bed, tailstock and nal directions.
-- Saddle
(a) (b)
Fig. 3,14 (a) Fixed steady or steady rest (b) Follower rest or travelling steady
134 -------- ----Manufacturing Processes!---------------
Small end of
Flat machined mandrel
ooe�
��,��
Large end of
mandrel
(a) Body Undercut centre
hole
(Used between centres)
Two types are 'nut arbors'
and thread mandrels
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3,15 Mandrels: (a) Solid mandrel (b) Expansion mandrel (c) Nut mandrel
Engine lathes are usually driven by a con on ordinary lathes. The headstock, tailstock and
stant-speed motor mounted on a lathe. These carriage of these lathes are made according to
lathes can be further sub-classified as (a) belt the requirements of the speci_al operations to be
driven speed cone lathes, (b) motor driven lathes, performed. Commonly used special purpose
and (c) geared head lathes. lathes are (a) the wheel lathe, (b) the gap bed
lathe, (c) T-lathe, and (d) duplicating lathe.
3.6 BENCH LATHE
The wheel lathe is used for turning the threads
It is a small lathe that can be mounted on a on railroad cars and locomotive wheels. It con-.
workbench. In design it is similar to an engine sists of two tool posts and a headstock. The gap
lathe but differs from it in size and mounting. It bed lathe is used primarily for facing extra large
is used for machining small parts cheaply and diameter pieces. It consists of a removable pis
accurately at a rapid rate. ton adjacent to the bed. The T-lathe consists of
the carriage mounted on the bed ways perpen
3.7 TOOLROOM LATHE dicular to the headstock axis instead of parallel
A toolroom lathe consists of all the accessories to it. It is used primarily for the machining of
necessary for accurate toolroom work. It is fit rotors of jet engines. It occupies relatively less
ted with an individually driven geared headstock space and is used for facing, straight turning,
with a considerable range of spindle speeds. It taper turning, boring of turbojet nozzles, tail
consists of a central steady rest, quick change pipes and vane rings. Duplicating lathes are used
gear mechanism, taper turning attachment, lead mainly for duplicating profiles. They use me
screw, feed rod, chuck, thread attachment, draw chanical, pneumatic, hydraulic or electric mecha
in-collect attachment, pump for coolant, mi nisms to control the movement of a tool. They
crometer stop, follower and centre rests, etc. Due are used for reproducing shapes by using tem
to its higher accuracy and precision attachments, plates and are suitable for duplicating irregular
this lathe is costlier than an engine lathe of the contours, recesses, tapered shoulders, grinding
same size. necks, radii forming surfaces, tapers, etc.
3.8 SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHE 3,9 AUTOMATIC LATHE

These are specially designed lathes used for car It is fully automatic, high-speed, heavy-duty,
rying out various operations that cannot be done mass production lathe. No ·shifting of tools is
--- -----------Lathe and Lathe Work------------- �
-
required once they are set. In these machines 2. (i) Maximum swing over the bed
every operation, such as changing of tools, (ii) Swing over the cross-slide
speeds and feeds is controlled automatically. �i) Width of the bed
Even after all the operations are complete, the -B'V) Swing in gap
job is cut off automatically and falls into the '-"'(v) Total length of the bed
container, making way for other pieces. 3. (i) Spindle bore
(ii) Spindle speed range
3.10 FLOTURN LATHE (iii)° Spindle nose and taper of spindle nose
This may be said to be the latest development in 4. (i) Pitch of metric thread
the lathe family. It is not strictly a lathe, al (ii) Pitch of lead screw
though it consists of a headstock, a tailstock (iii) Cross-feed
and all other accessories except a chip produc (iv) Longitudinal feed
ing tool. It is used for carrying out cold forming �Horsepower of the main motor and rpm
operations, such as contouring, floturning and 6. Shipping discussions, such as length,
hydro-spinning. The floturn lathe consists of breadth, height and weight
various attachments, like a turning attachment, 7. (i) Cross-slide travel
a mandrel grinding attachment, a continuous trac (ii) Top slide travel
ing attachment and a copy turning attachment. 8. (i) Tailstock sleeve travel
(ii) Taper in sleeve bore
3.11 SINGLE SPINDLE AUTOMATIC .J. Number of spindle speeds
It is an automatic screw lathe designed for mass 3.13 ACCESSORIES SUPPLIED WITH A
prnduction of bar work of small diameters. The LATHE
machine consists of a cross-slide capable of car
rying tools both at the front and rear ends and a The accessories supplied with a lathe can be
turret mounted in a vertical position on the slide. divided into two groups-standard accessorie&
On the drive shaft are mounted three disc-shaped and special accessories.
carriers carrying dogs to engage various trip le Standard Accessories
vers to control the operation of the machine. 1. Complete electrical wmng system fitted
The various tools used for carrying out opera inside the headstock with switches in the
tions are mounted on the turret in the vertical proper position
plane. This machine is used for carrying out vari 2. Driving plate with carriers
ous operations, such as turning, boring, drilling, 3. Reduction sleeve socket
threading, taper turning, etc. By using collets, 4. Tool post
these operations can be carried out at a rapid 5. Dead centres
rate on round, hexagonal and square bars. 6. Set of service tools
7. Operator's manual
3.12 SPECIFICATIONS OF A LATHE
Special Accessories
A lathe can be completely specified by the fol 1. Three-jaw self-centring chuck
lowing factors. 2. Four-jaw independent chuck
1. '-OJ
Height of the centres over the bed 3. Face plate with jaws
(ii) Type of bed, i.e. straight, semi-gap or 4. Face plate without jaws
gap type 5. Universal face plate
,/6ii) Maxfmum distance between centres 6. Self-clamping chuck
136 -------------Manufacturing Processes 1-- -----------
7. Collet chuck _ tool is carried out on a grinding wheel. For this

8. Live centre purpose the tool is held upto the grinding wheel
9. Steady rest and grinding is done on both the periphery and
10. Follow rest the side or face of the grinding wheel. Grinding
11. Roller steady rest on the periphery of the grinding wheel is faster.
12. Taper turning attachment When a tool is ground, a large amount of
13. Longitudinal tripping device heat is generated. To carry the heat away and
14. Square tool post increase tool life, a continuous stream of cool
15. Drill holder ant must flow over it. Grinding a tool by quench
16. Coolant system with chip tray and reser- ing it often in water is not a good practice.
voir First, the side rake and side clearance sur
17. Splash guard faces are prepared in the desired shapes. Then
18. Chuck guard
all the tool angles are prepared to the required
19. Machine lamp
accuracy. Aluminium oxide wheels are best for
20. Multi-start threading dial
grinding high-speed steels.
21. Hydro copy turning attachment
22. Taper turning attachment 3.16 TOOL LIFE
3.14 TURNING TOOLS The time for which a tool keeps its machining
A large variety of turning tools are used for capacity between two regrinding operations is
carrying out various operations on a lathe. These known as too_l life. It can be estimated by the
are single point tools produced by forging and number of pieces machined between tool
used after hardening, tempering and grinding. regrinds. S1nce a considerable time is wasted in
They are ground to correct angles and held rig tool regrinding and resetting on the machine, it
idly in the tool post. pays to enhance tool life. To this end, the fol
Turning tools can be classified as follows: lowing factors need to be considered:
1. According to the material being cut 1. Cutting speed of the tool. Increased cut-
2. According to the material of the tool ting speed decreases tool life.
3. According to the operation 2. The shape of the tool and its angles.
4. According to the shape of the tool 3. The ratio of feed and depth of cut.
The shapes of different tools used in external 4. The rigidity of the tool, workpiece and
and internal turning are shown in Fig. 3.16(a) machine.
and (b), respectiv�ly. The materials used for turn 5. The nature and quantity of the cutting fluid.
ing tools are high-speed steels, tungsten carbide 6. Tool setting in relation to the workpiece.
bits, stellite and super cobalt tools. 7. Nature of the material being cut.
8. Chemical composition of the tool.
3.15 GRINDING OF TOOLS 9. Heat treatment operations carried out on
In a machine shop a considerable amount of the tool.
capital is locked up in the form of tools. Since
3.17 CUTTING TOOL ANGLES
the cost of cutting tools is twenty times greater
than the cost of ordinary steel, the annual cost The cutting point of a cutt:fng tool needs grind
incurred on the former is heavy. As a conse ing to proper angles for optimum machining re
quence of working, its edge gradually becomes sults. The various surfaces on the cutting point
dull and needs resharpening. Resharpening of · have a definite relationship between them. The
- -------- -
- --- Lathe and Lathe Work-------------- 37 f
v�
(i)
(vi}
'---(i-i)____,,
'-------',,
p
(iii) (vii)
(ii)
��
(iv) (viii)
(a ) 6 (iii)
(b)
600-
Front cutting
Side cutting edge angle
edge
Body
Side cutting edge angle
Back rake angle
Side rake
angle
End clearance
Side clearance
angle
angle
End view Side view
(c)
Fig. 3.16 (a) Tools for working on external diameters of workpieces on lathes: (i) Straight turning tool (ii) Bent
turning tool (iii) Turning and facing tool (iv) Facing tool (v) Finish turning tool or V-tool (vi) Grooving
tool (vii) Parting tool (viii) Threading tool (b) Tools for working on internal diameters of workpiece:
(i) Internal boring tool (ii) Internal recessing and grooving tool (iii) Internal threading tool (c) Cutting
tool angles
j 38 -- --- -- - - - -
- - Manufacturing Processes'!-- - -------- - --
angles of a single point cutting tool used on a machining operations. A large front cutting edge
lathe, shaper and planer are shown in Fig. angle removes the metal that supports the cut
3.16(b). The main angles provided for good cut ting point. End cutting tools have no front cut
ting properties on a cutting tool are (a) rake ting edge.
angles; (b) clearance angles, (c) cutting angles, The side cutting edge angle (generally 15 ° )
and (d) nose angle and nose radius. allow the tools to come in contact with the
Rake Angles A single point lathe or shaper workpiece first from the side behind the tip. No
cutting tool is designed in such a way that the cutting edge angles are provided for machining
cutting point of the tool enters the material first. castings and forgings.
For this purpose, rake angles are provided on The sharp point at the end of the tool is called
the top face. The two types of rake angles pro the nose. This is the point that experiences the
vided on tools are top rake angle and side rake maximum force and thus has a short life. A sharp
angle. point leaves an impression on the workpiece,
The top rake angle is provided to help aim resulting in poor surface finish. The nose radius
the cutting edge toward the work so that it shears provides good surface finish, while the nose
the material with an upward thrust. It is not al angle provides clearance to the tool and hence
ways ground but is often taken care of by the the workpiece.
design of the tool holder. This is done by pro
viding an angle of 15 ° to 20 ° in the slot of the 3.18 CUTTING SPEEDS AND FEEDS
tool. The size of the angle depends upon many The cutting speed or rate is the surface speed at
factors, including the characteristics of the ma which the workpiece passes the cutter. It is ex
terial to be machined. The function of the pressed in m/min. Mathematically,
side rake angle is the same as that of the top
,rdN
rake angle. It lies between 6 ° and 15 °. CS=
Clearance angles are also known as relief 1000
angles. They are provided to keep the surface of where CS is the cutting speed in m/min
the tool clear of the workpiece. The value of the D = diameter of the workpiece in mm
clearance angle depends upon the type of cut. N = number of revolutions per minute
During a turning operation, the tool moves par It is difficult to standardise the cutting speed
allel to the lathe bed as the workpiece revolves. of a material as it depends upon many factors,
If the tool moves parallel to the axis of the such as the characteristics of the material, the
workpiece, the clearance angle is formed at the cutting material of the tool, the heat treatment
tip of the tool. The side rake angle together with operations performed on it, the depth of-the cut
the side clearance angle give shape to the cut and the amount of feed. On a lathe, it is rather
ting edge so that cutting action occurs as the difficult to continuously increase the cutting
tool moves sideways. The side rake angle also speed as the diameter of the workpiece decreases
moves the chips away from the operator. The from 120 to 25 mm. Typical cutting speeds of
clearance angle should be as small as possible some materials are shown in Table 3 .1.
to enhance tool life. Carbide tools have a brittle Feed It refers to the amount of tool advance
cutting edge and should have a small clearance ment pet !Cvulution of the JOb parallel to�ihe
angle. This is done to provide maximum sup surface of the job to be machined. In turning it
port to the cutting edge. is expressed as millimetres per revolution. The
Front cutting edges with angles from 7 ° to feed of a tool depends upon many factors, such
°
15 have shown satisfactory results in many as the depth of cut, the surface finish required,
-------- -- --- Lathe and Lathe Work-------------- 391
Table 3.1 Typical cutting speeds in rn/min
High-speed steel Tungsten carbide tools

Materials Finish cut Rough cut Finish cut Rough cut
Mild steel 80-110 25-50 190-240 105-140
Low-carbon steel 67-90 25-42 165-220 95-120
Medium-carbon steel 60-85 22-40 145-185 75-115
Tool steel 55-75 20-35 120-150 65-100
Grey cast iron 45---65 25-35 110-135 60-80
Brass 90-115 45-75 190-220 125-155
Aluminium 75-120 35-45 145-225 80-90
Plastics 95-120 35-50 120-200 55-75
Finish cut depth: 0.40-2.5 mm, feed: 0.13-0.35 mm/revolution.
Rough cut depth: 5.00-10 mm, feed: 0.75-1.35 mm/revolution
the characteristics of the tool and workpiece,

and the rigidi_ty of the machine tool.
Depth of cut It refers to the advancement of
the tool in the job in a direct10n pe endicular
o e emg mac e . epending upon
the type of finish required, the depth of cut var
ies from 0.33 to 10 mm.
3.19 OPERATIONS PERFORMED BY A
LATHE Fig. 3.17 Drilling on a lathe with taper shank drill
fitted in the tailstock
Turning T1:_rning involves various processes
of removal of material from the outer surface of Reaming It is the process of enlarging holes
a workpiece to obtain finished surfaces, when to accurate sizes. Reaming is always carried out'
the job rotates against a single point cutting tool. after drilling. It is similar to the drilling pro
The surfaces may be of uniform diameter, cess-the reamer is held in the tailstock to carry
stepped, tapered or contoured. out the reaming operation.
V Facing Facing is the process of making flat Milling On a lathe, the milling cutter is held
surfaces w a lathe. The job is held on a face in the headstock and the workpiece is clamped
in movable vice. The milling operation is car--
£late or chuck and the tool is fed at right angles
to the bed to obtain flat surfaces. riea out by a cutter revolving against the
Drilling This is the process of making holes workp�ece; This process is us�d. for mj))j�g small
in the workpiece with the help of drills. The workpieces only, where a millmg machme can
drill is held in the tailstock and the drillin� not be used.
eration is carried out by advancing the drill in Grinding On a lathe, the workpiece is held
the workpiece by rotating the handle of the J>etween the centres and the gnndmg operation
tailstock, as shown in Fig. 3.17. On a lathe, drill- is carried out by mounting the tool post grinder
mg is generally done in the centre of the ·on the compound shde. The grindmg operation
workpiece. is earned out after rough turning, to provide an
140 - ------------Manufacturing Processes!---------------
accurate finish to the workpiece by removing a indentations or depressions on it is known as

small amount of material. knurling. �knurling tool wicb is be]d in the
Boring The process of removal of stock from, tool post is pressed against the job to carry out
�e in the workptece is called boring. Holes the operation. The indentations are generally of
�ored by single�gint cutting tools. The cut a criss-cross pattern and can be classified into
ting tool shaves off a thin layer of material to an three categories-coarse, medium and fine, as
accurate size. Tapered holes are bored in the shown in Fig. 3.19. Another form of indentation
same manner as in the case of taper turning. A is known as straight knurling and is not used
boring tool and the boring operations carried extensively. A knurling tool and the process of
out on a lathe are shown in Fig. 3.18(a) and (b), knurling in a workpiece are shown in Fig. 3.20(a)
respectively. and (b), respectively.
Diamond Straight �ine
pattern pattern
Coarse IDmJ]
Medium filllilllID
(a) Fine Ill
Fig. 3.19 Knurl patterns and grades
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.18 (a) Boring bar and holder (b) Boring opera Knurling---;---±---�
tion on a lathe tool
Coun�er boring The process of boring a hole

to more than one diameter on the same axis is
� as counter boring. Counter boring i�·
neec:jed for rece1vmgtnehead of a socket head
cap screw. This operation is also carried out
with a boring tool, as discussed above.
(b)
Knurling The process of rendering rough sur Fig. 3.20 (a) Setting the knurling tool (b) Knurling
face of a workpiece by making a series of operation on a lathe
---------------Lathe and Lathe Work
Threading The process of cutting threads on Chucks It is the most important device used
a workpiece is known as threading. External for holding workpieces. Chucks are attached to
threading is the process of cutting threads on the lathe by means of threads provided on the
the outside surface of the workpiece. Internal spindle. Commonly used chucks for lathe work
threading is the process of cutting threads on are: (a) independent or four-jaw chuck, (b) self
the inside surface or part of a hole. centering, universal or three-jaw cpuck, (c) collet
Spring winding The process of making a coil chuck, and (d) magnetic chuck.
spring is known as spring winding. It is similar· The independent chuck and three-jaw chuck
to threading and is done by guiding the wire are described in Sec 3.3. The collet chuck is
around a mandrel so that the turns are a fixed used for producing workpieces. It is suitable for
distance apart. holding bars of small sizes. Commonly used
Spinning It is the process of producing a thin magnetic chucks.are electrically operated or per
circular s mmetrical article by pressing the ro manently magnetic. They do not find much use
tating part with a blunt tool. Parts may be forme in lathe work.
"'either from flat discs or from previously drawn Carriers Carriers are also known as driving
parts. dogs. They are used for holding workpieces
Roll forming It is another form of the spin when held between two centres. Commonly used
ning process, in which a hardened tool is used dog carriers are shown in Fig. 3.21. Centres,
under high pressure. In this process the material face plates and mandrels are described in Sec.
is considerably deformed and its thickness re 3.3.
duced by upto 80 per cent. Mounting of work on centre Before mount
ing the workpiece between centres, ensure that
3.20 WORK HOLDING AND SUPPORTING
the latter are in good condition. The lathe dog is
DEVICES fastened to the work. The tail should clear the
The proper holding of the workpiece before turn bottom of the slot. The work is held firmly on
ing is an important aspect of machining compo the live and dead centres. A little practice en
nents accurately. Standard work holding devices sures proper adjusting of the workpiece between
used in lathe operations are chucks, centrei, car centie-s..Figure 3.22 shows a job held between
riers, face plate and mandrels. centres for carrying out turning operations.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 3.21 Job carriers (a) Bent tail dog (b) Straight tail dog (c) Die dog (d) Clamp dog
142 ---- - - - - - ---Manufacturing Processes 1 ----- ---------
-
Fig. 3.22 Holding a job between centres

Fig. 3.24 Use of square gauge or combination set for
3.21 METHODS OF LOCATING CENTRES ·,
locating centre
Depending upon the type of job and manner of
Centre head method It is also known as the
mounting, various methods are used for locat
combination square method. The two links of
ing centres. After location, the centres are
the centre head of a combination square are held
punched or drilled to facilitate further opera against the surface of the workpiece as shown
tions. Some of the important methods of locat in Fig. 3.25. Two lines are marked on the sur
ing centres are: face by rotating the workpiece through nearly
1. By using dividers 90° . The point of intersection of the two lines is
2. Hermaphrodite calliper method the centre.
3. Centre head method
4. Bell cup centre punch method Workpiece
Divider method The surfaces whose centres

are to be located are coated with chalk or cop
per sulphate. Now the dividers are set to a little
more than the radius and four lines are ascribed
at the four ends of the workpiece at right angles
to each other. The intersection of the diagonals
of the little squares show the centre. Fig. 3.25 Use of centres square fo.r:.locating the centre
of a round job
Hermaphordite calliper method This is also
known as the odd leg calliper method and is Bell cup centre punch method A bell punch
similar to the divider method. The process of consists of a bell with the spring loaded mov
marking centres by using a hermaphrodite calli able punch at the centre. It is also known as
per is shown in Fig. 3.23. self-centering punch method. The bell punch is
placed on the workpiece and the centre punch is
®
hammered from the centre. The punch mark
Odd leg caliper gives the centre. It is the quickest method of
locating centres but is not accurate.
Commonly used precision instruments, such
as vernier height gauge, micrometers, vernier
callipers, dial gauge, etc. are also used for lo
cating centres. Accurate locating of centres de
pends upon experience, the operator's sense of
Fig..3.23 Use of calliper for locating the centre touch and the proper use of instruments.
Lathe and Lathe Work- - --- - - - - - -
-�
3.22 TAPER TURNING the length of the compound slide is limited, this
method is suitable only for short tapers. The
Cone-shaped rotary bodies are produced on a
two methods commonly used for the setting of
lathe by the following methods:
1. By a compound slide compound slides are
2. By offsetting the tailstock (a) by means of graduations
3. By a taper turning attachment (b) in accordance with the master specimen
4. By a forming tool The empirical formula used for calculating
the taper is
D-d
=tanB= H
2L Base
where (} is half the included angle, D and d
are the major and minor diameters of the
workpiece, and L is the length of the tapered
portion.
Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock In
this method the tailstock centre is offset (relo
cated) off the centre. When the tool carriage
moves in the longitudinal direction, a taper is
Workbench produced, as shown in Fig. 3.28. This is the
oldest and most commonly used method of taper
Fig. 3.26 Use of centre punch for locating the centre turning. While turning tapers by this method,
of a round job care should be taken to ensure that the amount
Taper turning by compound slide The com of relocation of tailstock does not exceed 1150th
pound slide consists of a base graduated in de of the length of the workpiece, else the lathe
grees which can be swivelled to any angle with centres will have a poor contact. This method is
the axis of the workpiece. The compound slide generally used for turning long and slim tapers
is set at a required angle and the feed is ma and its advantage is that a longitudinal auto
nipulated by hand, as shown in Fig. 3.27. Since matic feed can be engaged.
.
Centre line of
headstock Amount of
.
offset
��:
I
Centre line Centre line of

of work tailstock
Fig. 3.28 Taper turning method by offsetting the

tai/stock
The formula used for finding the tailstock set

Fig. 3.27 Compound slide procedure of taper turning over is:
144 -------------Manufacturing Processes! ---------
- -- --
-
tailstock offsetting = taper length x sine of half Rules for taper turning
the taper angle 1. Always set the cutting edge of the tool to
D-d the exact centre height, otherwise the taper
e·
-- = ·l x sin -
or produced will not be accurate.
2 2
2. When developing tapers with a compound
where D and d are the diameters of the larger
slide between centres, the compound slide
and smaller ends, l the length of the workpiece
must be properly aligned, otherwise inac
and 8 the total taper angle.
curate tapers will be produced.
When a part of the workpiece is to }?e pro
vided with a taper, then 3. While producing tapers or several equal
tailstock offsetting sized workpieces with offsetting tailstock,
the length of the workpieces and the depth
D - d --------
= --x total length of the job of centre holes must be the same.
2 taper length 4. While cutting tapers with a taper turning
attachment, the sliding parts must be prop
Taper turning by taper turning attachment
erly lubricated.
In this method of taper turning, the tool is guided
in a straight path at an angle to the axis of rota Inside tapers Inside tapers are produced by
tion of the workpiece. Different lathes are pro boring bars fitted on a compound slide. Internal
vided with different designs of taper turning tapers are finished with taper reamers.
attachment, but all of them work on the same Feed reversing mechanism For proper work
principle. The taper turning attachment is
ing on a lathe, the direction of rotation of the
rigidly fixed on the lathe bed and the taper guide
lead screw, feed shaft and drop worm must be
bar swivels around a pivot, as shown in Fig.
reversible. This task is performed by the revers
3.29. The transverse feed of the carriage pro
ing gear mechanism. The commonly used
duces the taper.
method for change of direction is to provide an
intermediate gear, as shown in Fig. 3.30.
Example 3.1
The spindle of a lathe is rotating at 90 rpm. The
feed of tool is 0.4 mm per revolution. Calculate
the time required to move the carriage through a
distance of 20 cm.
•Solution
Total revolutions required

Time required= - - - -------
rpm
Fig. 3.29 Taper turning attachment used for turning
tapers Total revolutions required
total distance travelled
Producing taper by a forming tool A flat
tool set at a proper angle is- used for cutting feed
short tapers on workpieces. This method is suit 200
able only for short external tapers and is not = - = 500
0.4
commonly used.
Lathe and Lathe_Work -------------- 451
Spindle
stood before actually starting the threading op
eration on a lathe.
The relationship between the movement of
the saddle and the number of revolutions per
minute must be carefully controlled for accurate
screw thread cutting. This is maintained by a
lead screw that runs along the front of the bed,
and is driven by a gear train attached to the
main spindle. The gear train runs the spindle
(stud rotating) and the main spindle at the same
speed. The motion is provided to the lead screw
for varying the relationship between the stud
and the lead screw by providing gear trains. The
gears are varied depending upon the screw cut
ting ratio. The speed ratio between the lead screw
and the stud is controlled by gear connections
having a suitable number of teeth.
Fig. 3.30 Reversing gear mechanism with gears l, 2. 3

and 4. 2 and 3 are reversing gears
5
Thus, time required= : = 5.56 min.
Example 3.2
A job of 30 mm diameter is being cut on a lathe
at 320 rpm. Find the cutting speed of the job. Z4
Fig. 3.31 Gear train from spindle to lead screw with
llD·N change gears Z 1, Z2 • Z3 and Z4
Solution Cutting speed, CS =
1000
Gear connections in a lathe can be classified
where D = diameter of the job in mm
as either simple or compound. In the former, the
N = rpm of the job lead screw is driven by the stud gear through an
intermediate gear, as shown in Fig. 3.32.
22x 30x 320
:. CS = = 30.2 min (approx.)
7 X 1000-
3.23 THREAD CUTTING OR SCREW

CUTTING
Screw cutting on a lathe calls for a fairly high
degree of skill on the part of the operator. It is
evident that this process should be well under- Fig. 3.32 Simple gear train
j 46 ---- - -- -'----Manufacturing Processes!---- - -------- -
In a simple gear train: gear (Z 1 ). For driving the lead screw, another
Screw cutting ratio gear (Z2) is mounted on the stud which drives
number of teeth on the driver the gear (Z3 ), thus producing a compound train.
The connection between the lead screw and the
number of teeth on the driven
saddle is affected by a split nut operated by a
lead screw turns
=------ lever on the apron. When the nut is engaged,
spindle turns the saddle moves along the bed by a distance
equal to the pitch of the lead screw. Since the
threads per unit length on lead screw tool used for cutting threads is mounted on the
=
threads per unit length on the workpiece carriage, it also moves the same distance in one
revolution and forms a simple gear train for
=--pitch
- to-
-be cut
---- thread cutting. In most lathes the gear train pro
pitch of the lead screw vided is such that it is suitable for cutting threads
After calculating the ratio of the driver to the as per the inches system. For cutting metric
driven, it is multiplied and divided by equal num threads, when the lead screw has threads m
bers to get the gear train from the gears avail inches, the following relationship is used:
able. The disadvantage of this system is that it 5np driver
ca.nnot be used for cutting a large number of 127 driven
teeth. For a complicated screw cutting ratio, a
where p = pitch of the thread to be cut in mm
compound gear train is used.
and n = number of threads per inch on the
3.24 COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN lead screw
In a compound gear train, rotatory motion is Example 3.3
imparted to the lead screw through a number of Find the gear train for cutting the following
intermediate or idler gears, as shown in Fig. 3.33. threads on a lathe having a lead screw of 4
Motion to the stud gear (Z 1 ) is imparted by the threads per inch (TPI).
gear on the main spindle through another gear. (a) 8 TPI
To reverse the direction of the feed or lead screw, (b) 25 TPI
the nut holding the top quadrant is loosened so (c) When the lead screw has 6 TPI, calculate
that the reversing unit comes in contact with the gear train for 3/25 inch pitch and 9
3 threads in" 3/4 inch.
4
Solution
drivers = TPI on lead screw = 4
(a)
driven TPI to be produced 8
Multiplying the numerator and denomi
nator by 5, the gear train consists of 20
teeth on the driver (stud) and 40 teeth on
the driven (lead screw) through an inter
mediate gear
Z1
Fig. 3.33 Compound gear train for transmission with drivers = TPI on lead screw = 4
(b)
two intermediate gears driven TPI to be produced 25
-- -----------Lathe and Lathe Work----- ------- 47 j
Multiplying the numerator and denomi intermediate gear of 60 teeth will drive 40
nator by 5, the gear train consists of 20 teeth gear on the lead screw:
teeth gear for the stud and 125 teeth gear 21
for the driven. (c) Pitch p = 5.25 mm = mm
4
drivers 6 18 n=6
(c) --=-=-
driven 25/3 25 5np 5 x 6 x 21/4
drivers
Multiplying the numerator and denomi but
driven - 127 = 127
nator by 5, we get a simple gear train of
90 and 125 teeth. 105x6
=
In the next case, the threads to be cut 4x127
are threads of 3/4 inch
1
105 X 60
=
or 9x = 12 threads in one inch 40x127
It requires a compound gear train with
driver 6 105 teeth on the stud gear and 127 teeth
Thus,
driven= 12 on the intermediate gear. 60 teeth interme
Multiplying by 5, we get a simple gear diate gear drives a 40 teeth gear on the
train of 30 and 60 teeth. lead screw.
Example 3.4 3.25 COLLETS

A lathe is provided with a gear train in steps of
5 teeth and an additional gear of 127 teeth. Cal Collets are attachments used for holding cylin
culate the gears for cutting metric threads of drical shafts of small diameter. They are used
(a) 3.0 mm pitch, (b) 3.25 mm pitch, and for holding bar stocks in production work re
(c) 5.25 mm pitch. The lead screw of the lathe quiring quick setting and accurate centering. A
contains 6 TPI. long bar is passed through the drawbar and held
in the collect chuck while the bar end of the
Solution
material is being machined. Small pieces may
(a) Here, p = 3 mm and n = 6
also be held in this type of chuck. Collets are
drivers 5np 5x6x 3 90 threaded at the end and fitted with a lever in the
But, chuck. When the hand lever is turned from out
driven = 127 = 127 127
side, the collet is pushed out or pulled in, thus
The gear train will consist <;>f 90 teeth
loosening or tightening the workpiece. Collets
on the stud gear and 127 teeth on the lead
can be broadly classified into the following three
screw.
categories:
(b) Pitch (p) = 3.25 = D_ (i) Draw-in collets
. 4 (ii) Push-out collets
n=6 (iii) Step collets
drivers Snp 5x6x13 = --- 65x6 Figure 3.34 shows some collets commonly
But, --- =-- =
driven 127 4 x127 4x127 used in a turning shop. Each collet handles a
This system required a compound gear wide range of work diameters. A full set of
train with 65 teeth on the stud gear driving 11 collets is capable of holding bars from 1.5 to
an intermediate gear of 127 teeth. The 40 mm.
j 48 -------------Manufacturing Processes 1--------------
3.27 MICROMETER CARRIAGE STOP

This is a device attached to the lathe bed for
(a)
stopping the carriage at a definite point. Proper
micrometer collar adjustment permits accuracy
(J::sJ (b)
of facing, turning, shouldering and boring op
erations upto a hundredth part of a millimetre.
3.28 RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN A

· TURNING SHOP
1. Before actually starting production, get the
first piece of every job inspected.
2. Never leave the chuck key in the chuck.
3. Never handle the chips. Use a wooden pa
Fig. 3.34 Collets: (a) Draw-in collet. (b) Push-out collet, ddle.
and (c) Step collet 4. Properly lubricate the spindle nose before
putting on a chuck or a plate.
3.26 RELIEVING A'ITACHMENT 5. Keep the tools at a proper place, particu-
This is also known as a backing off attachment larly off the ways of the carriage.
and is used for the external, internal and end 6. Use goggles to protect the eyes.
relieving of cutters, taps, drills and reamers. The 7. Never wear loose clothes.
. tool slide is provided with an oscillating move 8. Keep the moving parts well protected.
ment by a cam which is operated by a drive
9. Do not use an adjustable wrench on any
shaft with universal joints connected to the head
nut or screw.
stock. When operated by a lever, little time is
taken to attach or disconnect it to the lathes. 10. Do not allow oil or chips to collect around
This system is very useful for production work. your lathe.
tl\1:ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( .r) for the right answer 3. The following taper turning method is used for
l. On a lathe, a left-hand tool cuts most efficiently, turning external taper only
when the tool travels (a) form tool turning
(a) from left to right end of lathe bed (b) taper turning attachment
(b) from right to left end of lathe bed (c) offsetting the tailstock
(c) at an angle (d) compound rest
(d) across the bed 4. Sharp angle or short tapers can be turned by
2. On a lathe, a right-hand tool cuts most effi
using
ciently, when the tool travels
(a) taper turning attachment
(a) from left to right end of lathe bed
(b) from right to left end of lathe bed (b) form tool turning
(c) at an angle (c) offsetting the tailstock
(d) across the bed (d) compound rest
- ----Lathe andLathe Work--------------,491
-------- - - -
5. The taper on lathe spindle is (a) lathe dog (b) face plate
(a) 1 : 10 (b) 1 : 15 (c) clamp plate (d) universal chuck
(c) 1 : 20 (d) 1 : 25 11. The lathe spindle at the nose end has
6. The angle between the lathe centres is (a) internal taper (b) internal threads
(a) 15° (b) 30 ° (c) external threads (d) pipe threads
(c) 45 ° (d) 60 °
12. A metal having good machinability
7. The slowest speed on a lathe is required for the
following operation: (a) produces continuous (long) chips
(a) facing (b) taper turning (b) produces discontinuous chips
(c) thread cutting (d) undercutting (c) possesses good toughness
8. Square or irregular shaped workpieces for per (d) shows maximum metal removal per minute
forming a turning operation are held in a 13. A cutting tool must possess the following prop
(a) three-jaw chuck erty to enable high-speed machining:
(b) independent chuck (a) hardness
(c) dog chuck (b) red hardness
(d) collet chuck (c) wear resistance
9. Tailstock centres which do not revolve with (d) hardness and toughness
the workpiece are known as
14. A tumbler gear is provided on lathes
(a) live centre
(b) dead centre (a) to cut threads
(c) half centre (b) to increase cutting speed
(d) independent centre (c) to give required direction of movement to
10. A device which is fastened to the headstock lathe carriage
end of the lathe for turning a workpiece be (d) to quickly engage and disengage the lead
tween centres is known as screw
tlt..Evmw QUESTIONS
1. Explain with a neat sketch the principle (c) What are the various drives used in lathes?
of working of a lathe. 6. Give a neat sketch of an engine lathe. Describe
2. How lathes are classified? Describe in and mark its main parts and controls.
brief the different types of lathes used 7. Why are lathe beds made of cast iron? What is
in an industry. the material used for making (a) compound rest,
3. Write short notes on: (b) steady rest, and (c) independent chucks?
(a) Speed lathe 8. Write short notes on:
(b) Engine lathe (a) Spindle of a lathe
(c) Bench lathe (b) Lathe chucks
(d) Tool room lathe (c) Face plate
(e) Special purpose lathe (d) Feed reverse lever
(f) Automatic lathe (e) Compound slide
4. How are lathes specified? List the ma- (f) Back gear
jor accessories used in lathe along with (g) Tumbler gears
their sizes. (h) Lathe centres
5. (a) How is the size of a lathe speci- 9. What is a lathe carriage? Explain the various
fied? parts of a lathe carriage with a neat diagram.
(b) What is meant by "swing of the 10. Explain with the help of a neat diagram the
lathe"? working of an apron.
j 50 --------------Manufacturing Processes!----- ---------
11. Write short notes on: 15. What machining operations can be performed
(a) Compound rest on a centre lathe?
(b) Lathe spindle 16. (a) What do you understand by taper turning?
(c) Tool post (b) Enumerate the various methods of produc
(d) Three-jaw self-centering chuck ing taper.
(e) Four-jaw independent chuck (c) Explain the standard tapers commonly used
(t) Combination chuck · on lathes.
(g) Air and hydraulic chuck 17. (a) Explain the method of thread cutting on a
lathe.
12. What is a face plate? Where would you pro
(b) How will you cut metric threads on a lathe
pose its use and why?
calibrated with English threads and vice
13. (a) What do you understand by steady and fol versa?
lowerrest? Why are they used? 18. Explain in brief, with diagrams, how you will
(b) What are the attachments used on a centre perform the following operations on a lathe?
lathe? (a) Drilling (b) Reaming
(c) Explain the purpose of centres used in a (c) Facing (d) Taper turning
lathe. (e) Knurling (t) Parting off
14. (a) What are the attachments used on a centre (g) Grinding (h) Milling
lathe? (i) Boring
(b) Enumerate the purpose of various attach 19. Explain with a neat sketch the method of cut
ments used on a centre lathe. ting threads on a lathe.
4.1 INTRODUCTION bed. A tool can be attached to each face of the
turret head. On the capstan lathe, the drive to
Capstan and turret lathes are production lathes
the turret is provided from an auxiliary slide
used for the manufacture of a large number of
clamped to the top of the bed. The turret is ad
similar components in the least possible time.
justable, so that its distance from the machine
These lathes are advancements over centre lathes. nose can be varied. The turret of the turret lathe
The machining of a job on a centre lathe takes is mounted on the saddle that slides directly on
considerable time, which is avoided on a turret the bed in the same way as a lathe saddle. It is
lathe by the incorporation of facilities for carry the variation of the mode of carrying the turret
ing eight or more tools. which distinguishes the capstan lathe from the
The characteristic features of these machines turret lathe. In all other respects these machines
is the capstan or turret head mounted on the are similar.
Fig. 4.1 Turret lathe: J. ·chuck 2. Gear box 3. Electrical push button starter 4. Overarm support 5 Front tool post
6. Rear tool post 7. Hand wheel for cross-slide 8. Hand. wheel for longitu�inal feed 9. Carriage JO. Feed
bar 11. Saddle 12. Turret head 13. Lever for locking the slide
52,�- ----- -------Manufacturing Processes 1 ---- ----- -
--
4.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A TURRET 4,3 TYPES OF TURRET LATHES

LATHE AND AN ENGINE LATHE
The two principle types of turret lathes are:
Although capstan or turret lathes are refinements 1. Capstan or ram type lathe
of engine lathes, there are certain differences in 2. Turret or saddle type lathe
their construction, operation and use. These are:
4.3.1 The Capstan Lathe
1. The headstock of a turret lathe is similar
to an engine lathe in construction, except This is also known as a ram type lathe. It con
in the range of speeds. A turret lathe pos sists of a hexagonal turret on a ram that slides
sesses a wider range of speeds. longitudinally on a saddle positioned and clam-
2. The tailstock of a turret lathe consists of a ped on the lathe bedways. This type of machine
turret. It resembles a big six-sided nut and is light in construction and suitable for machin
can carry six tools for turning a job. The ing bars of small diameter. The tools are mounted
tailstock of an engine lathe can hold only on all the faces of the turret (commonly, square
one tool of limited size. or hexagonal). The saddle movement is suitably
3. The tool post of a turret lathe can hold controlled in such a way that the saddle need
four tools that may be indexed by 90 ° . In not be moved back or forth appreciably to bring
addition, there is a rear tool post that can the tool to a cutting position. When the ram is
hold four more tools. In an engine lathe, moved back a little and then moved forward,
the llSUal practice is to hold one tool at a the next tool indexes automatically for th� next
time. operation.
4. In a capstan or turret lathe, the feed move
ment is regulated by stops or feed trips.
This enables duplication of work without
further measurement.
5. The time required to finish a component
on a capstan or turret lathe is less than on
an engine lathe, i.e. components produced Star
on a capstan or turret lathe are cheaper. hand
6. On a turret or capstan lathe, two or more
cuts can be taken at a time. In a centre
lathe, this type of arrangement is quite un
common-.
7. On a capstan lathe, threads are usually cut
by dieheads or taps, which enables speedy Fig. 4,2 Mounting the capstan head
operation.
4.3.2 The Turret Lathe
8. Capstan or turret lathes are designed to act
as production machines, whereas an en This is also known as the saddle type lathe. In a
gine lathe is designed to machine many turret lathe, the hexagonal turret is mounted di
types of jobs, within limits. Thus, an en rectly on the saddle and the whole unit moves
gine lathe is a general purpose machine. back and forth on the bedways to apply the feed.
9. The chucking and rechucking of jobs is The apron on the front of the saddle houses all
time consuming in an engine lathe while the controls of the turret head. A saddle type
the turret lathe works automatically. machine is heavier than a ram type machine and
-------- - - ----Capstan and Turret Lathe·"----------- -- 5-31
is thus used for heavier and longer production

jobs.
Turrets can be further classified according to
their purpose as (a) turret lathe, (b) chucking
turret lathe, and (c) vertical turret lathe. These
machines can be subclassified according to the
(a) mechanism of drive, (b) method of chuck,
(c) capacity of the machine, and (d) maximum
number of tools held in it.
4.4 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A CAPSTAN OR

TURRET LATHE
Fig. 4.4 Headstock of a turret lathe
The principal parts of a capstan/turret lathe are
shown in Fig. 4·.1. It essentially consists of the The headstock of a capstan or turret lathe can
same parts as an engine lathe, with a turret· and be classified as:
.complex mechanism incorporated in it. The prin 1. Multispeed electric motor driven headstock
cipal parts of a turret lathe are as follows. 2. All-geared headstock ,
3. Pre-optive or pre�ctive headstock. In
Turret tiead this system the speed required is selected
before hand by setting a pointer on an in
Turret
dicating dial. When another speed is de
stops sired, the movement of another lever causes
the spindle to change speed.
The bed The bed of a turret lathe consists of a
long box-like casting provided with accurate
guideways. Over the bed are mounted the car
riage and turret saddle. The bed of a turret must
be rigid strong and possess good damping ca
pacity.
Star hand Turret saddle The turret saddle replaces the
wheel
tailstock of a centre lathe and is mounted on the
Fig. 4.3 Mounting the turret head
lathe bed on the same side as the tailstock in a
The headstock The headstock of a turret lathe, centre lathe.
as shown in Fig. 4.4 follows the design and func The turret head is usually hexagonal in turret
tion of a centre lathe with the following differ lathes and circular in capstan lathes. The pilots
ences: or shanks of the tools are inserted into the holes
1. It consists of a provision for rapidly stop of a turret head and fastened by means of screws
ping the work. or suitable fastening devices. The tools are fixed
2. The speed changing device is complex and properly in these holes and indexed for con
quick. trolled motion. The indexing of the tool is in the
3. The starting of the machine is easier. clockwise direction. After indexing, the auto
4. It incorporates an instant reversal mecha matic feed can be engaged and production op
. nism. erations started.
-----------· ·-- .. - -•• --
�f-------------- Manufacturing
- Proc"esses I
Tooling accessories In addition to various work is held in the spindle in one form of fix
tools and accessories used in a centre lathe, the ture or the other.
following tools are used for production work on Chucks All the chucks used in a turret lathe
a capstan or turret lathe: are of the self-centering variety with three and
1. Multitool holder having six slots sometimes two jaws. A two-jaw chuck is also
2. Long and short tool holders known as two-jaw box chuck and is designed
3. Shaft tool holder (straight) to hold work with parallel flat sides. An essen
4. Shaft tool holder (adjustable) tial requirement of the chuck used in turret lathes
5. Shaft tool holder (inclined) is that it must be strong and rigid. Chucks are
6. Adjustable tool hold.er classified according to controlling mechanism
7. Split bushes as (a) pneumatic chucks, (b) mechanical chucks,
8. Adapter sleeves and (c) hydraulic chucks.
Turning to�ls
Boring bar
Fig. 4,5 Tool accessories used in capstan and turret lathes
9. Rear tool holder Collet A collet is used for feeding the bar
10. Tap and die holder through the hollow spindle for turning and part
11.. Adapter flange ing off operations. The collets commonly used
12. Centering and facing tool holder are either air operated or hand operated. The
13. Recessing tool holder (hand operated) equipment is provided with a special handle to
14. Roller steady centering and chamfering tool easily loosen and tighten the barstock by mov
ing it leftward and rightward. This helps in the
holder (hand operated) quick gripping and relieving of work.
15. Boring heads
16. Roller steady · Arbors Arbors are used to hold short pieces
17. Floating reamers holder of stock having accurate previously machined
holes. The working of arbors is very similar to
18. Recessing tool holder (hand operated)
that of collets, discussed above.
4.5 .WORK HOLDING ATTACHMENTS Fixtures Special or irregular components re
quire special holding devices. Such devices are
Since the turret lathe is a production machine, known as fixtures. A number of fixtures used
the process of holding the work between centres for holding irregular components are shown in
finds no place in its practice. Practically all the Fig. 4.5.
---- - -
----- ----Lapstan and Turret Lathes-
- ----- -- - -- 55)
1
Work stops or bar stops For the mass pro the drill or reamer positions, so as to make it
duction of identical parts, it is necessary that concentric with workpiece.
the same length of the bar stock be projected An improved form of a drill and reamer holder
out each time. Although it is not difficult to is the self-centering drill chuck. This possesses
adjust the length every time, but it is time con a firm grip and automatically brings the drill or
suming. For such purposes, work stops or reamer into the required alignment.
bar stops are used. The two commonly used bar Tap and die holders A large variety of tap
stops are adjustable bar stop and micrometer bar and die holders are used on turrets. The com
stop, as shown in Fig. 4.6 (a) and (b), respec monly used ones are (a) sensitive type tap holder,
tively.
(b) self-releasing type tap holder, and (c) col
£OE---•
lapsible type tap holder.
[t--- Handle
( a)
1----t=:t!illr (b) Fig. 4.7 Collapsible tap holder

Fig. 4.6 (a) Adjustable workstop, (b) Adjustable
- micrometer bar stop The two types of die holders are the self
opening type and the combination type die holder.
Centering and chamfering tools The com
monly used centering tools are (a) flat centering 4.6 ATTACHMENTS USED ON TURRET
tool, (b) roller steady centering tool, and (c) LATHE
combined bar stop and centering tool. A flat To utilise the capacity of a turret lathe for the
centering tool consists of a solid shank provided production of a variety of components optimally,
with a flat drill at its front. A roller steady cen a large variety of attachments are used. We now
tering tool consists of the main body having the discuss some commonly used attachments.
shank at its back. A combined bar stop and cen
tering tool consists of a cast body having the
Roller box turning attachment This attach
ment is primarily used for turning an appreciable
shank at its rear and carrying an adjustable drill
length of barstock. It consists of an integral unit
at its centre.
having a cutter (tool) and a work support (two
A commonly used chamfering tool consists
adjustable rollers), as shown in Fig. 4.8.
of a cast body fitted with a conical bush and a
cutter. On a turret it is used for chamfering at a
rapid rate with heavy feeds.
Drill and reamer holder The commonly used
drill and reamer holders are (a) plain drill holder,
and (b) floating drill and reamer holder. A plain
drill holder consists of a hollow cylindrical body
and a shank. The floating holder is made in two
pieces to enable it to make slight adjustments in Fig. 4.8 Roller box turning attachment
j 56 - - - --------Manufacturing Processes 1----�- -- ------
Combined boring, turning and facing tool The time consumed in the setting of tools on
attachment This is an attachment which is fit a turret lathe is known as the set-up time. It can
ted on one side of the turret head to carry out be reduced by using proper tools in a good con
different operations either simultaneously or con dition.
secutively. The attachment shown in _Fig. 4.9 The time consumed in mounting an_d remov
consists of four tools, i.e. one for boring, one ing the workpiece is known as the work han
for facing and two for turning. dling time. The time consumed in bringing the
respective tools to the cutting position is called
Turning tool Screws for holding machine handling time. A proper sequence of
holder tools
operation reduces this time considerably. The
Turning tool holder
time consumed in various operations on a turret
Turning Clamping lathe is known as the machining time. It can be
tool --��? screws for reduced by the selection of proper cutting tools,
Facing tool clamping
with one speeds, feeds and depth of cut.
holder
face of To increase productivity, it is necessary that
turret head the time taken in each of the above operations
Boring tool holder
be minimised.
Fig. 4.9 Combined boring. facing and turning attach- 4.8 CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE
ment
OPERATIONS
Knee turning tool This tool is used on turret The operations performed on a turret lathe are
heads for combined boring and turning opera similar to those performed on a centre lathe.
tions. These are, straight turning, taper turning, shoul
Facing and recessing tool slide On a turret der turning, facing, threading, knurling, cutting,
lathe most of the facing work is done from the undercutting, drilling, reaming, tapping, boring,
cross-slide using standard tools. Occasionally it counter boring, chamfering and parting. On a
becomes necessary to work from-the turret. In turret lathe, these operations are performed with
such cases, the facing tool is held in a knee tool specially designed tool holders.
holder. Turning with a box t9ol Tool setting with a
Recessing tool slide This is used for recess box tool is carried out in the following order:
ing the workpiece. It consists of an operating 1. Turn the bar to a suitable length from one
handle to actuate the slide by means of a rack end.
and pinion. 2. Adjust the rollers on the work so that they
rotate freely.
4.7 TOOLING PRINCIPLE 3. Bring the tool forward and set it slightly
The proper setting of a tool is necessary for ahead of the rollers.
accurate and economic production on a turret 4. Finish turn the bar to required size.
lathe. Once the machine is set, skilled labour is 5. Set the turret stop properly and finish the
not needed to operate it. The production cycle job to the desired length.
on a turret lathe can be divided into (a) set-up External thread cutting On a turret lathe, ex
time, (b) work handling time, (c) machine op ternal threads are cut on a barstock with the
eration time and (d) machining time. help of solid button dies, solid adjustable dies,
apstan and Turret Lathes,-------------57
J
· self-opening die heads, chasers or single point Single and double indexing are the two types
tools. of commonly used indexing mechanisms. Single
Internal thread cutting On a turret lathe, in indexing implies the turret indexes to all the six
ternal threads are cut by solid taps, collapsible tool positions. Double indexing implies the tur
taps or single point tools. ret indexes to every other tool position.
Taper turning The usual taper turning meth 4.10 NUMERICAL CONTROLLED TURRET
ods on a turret lathe are by (a) a forming tool,
(b) a taper turning attachment, and (c) a taper A recent development in turret lathes is the nu
from the turret. Taper turning by a forming tool merical controlled turret. These machines· per
is performed by setting the tool cutting edge at mit greater bed width and remove a large volume
half the angle of taper. The procedure of taper of chips rapidly. It consists of six stations and
turning on a turret lathe by a taper turning at permits interference-free turning up to spindle
tachment is similar to the one used on a centre nose between centres. It also permits repetitive
lathe. work without changing the setup. Turret index
The method of turning taper from the turret ing is hydraulically actuated by a separate hy
incorporates a horizontal slide to which the tool draulic system. The coolant is individually piped
holder and actuating roller brackets are fixed. to each tool for automatic coolant supply to each
The inclined guide for the roller is mounted on cutting tool.
the machine bed. As the turret is advanced, the The turret.is provided with six standard open
roller underneath the roller bracket is guided by slot tool holders for using a variety of cutting
the slot in the direction of the taper. Due to the tools. Additional turning, boring, facing, drill
horizontal movement of the slide carrying the ing and special tool holders are available for
roller bracket, the required taper is produced on carrying out operations rapidly.
the workpiece. 4.11 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CAPSTAN
4.9 TURRET INDEXING AND A TURRET LATHE
Turret indexing from one tool position to the The working principle, working mechanism and
next is done by Geneva movement. The power design of capstan and turret lathes are almost
for the movement is taken from the drive shaft the same, except for the manner of mounting
through a clutch and gearing system. As dis multitool holding devices. Both these lathes are
cussed before, a turret consists of six evenly semi-automatic and used for mass or batch pro
spaced holes into which the shank of the turret duction of identical parts. Both are provided with
tool is placed and clamped securely with clamp a multiple tool holding device called the turret
ing bushes and screws. head in case of a turret lathe and capstan head
After each movement, the turret is automati in case of a capstan lathe. The capstan head is
cally locked at each tool position by a locking usually cylindrical in shape and -carries six
pin. The locking engages the bushings set in the equiaxed bored holes along its periphery. The
rear face of the turret directly. Adjustable dogs head can be swivelled in the horizontal as well
provided on the turret dog carrier start the as the inclined plane. The axis of the slot is
mechanism of turret indexing. The adjustable always horizontal, irrespective of the method of
dogs are set to lift the turret trip lever and en fixing the head. A turret head is used in square,
gage the indexing mechanism through a turret hexagonal and octagonal shapes but the hex
clutch. agonal shape is most common. The turret head
j 58 "---------------Manufacturing Processes!---- ------ - -
-
is always mounted with its axis in the vertical 1. Advance the bar stock against the com
direction, except in the case of a vertical turret bined stock stop. Locate the proper posi
lathe. tion with the drill and clamp the job in the
Capstan and turret lathes also differ in the collet. Advance the start drill in the job
method of mounting the capstan and turret heads. after centering the workpiece.
The capstan head is mounted on a ram or slide. 2. Drill the job to the required length.
It slides in the ways provided on the saddle. 3. Bore the thread diameter to the required
The saddle can be fixed anywhere along the bed. size.
The operating traverse of the tool is made by 4. Ream the diameter to exact sizes.
moving the slide and not the saddle. The turret 5. Recess a groove for thread clearance. The
head of a turret lathe is directly mounted on the operation is performed by a quick acting
saddle. Since the capstan lathe is provided with slide tool mounted on the boring bar.
a ram for carrying the capstan head, it is also 6. Cut the threads with the tap.
known as a ram type turret lathe. The procedure 7. Part off the job with a parting tool.
of mounting the heads of capstan and a turret Layout for a ball bearing part The sectional
lathe can be understood from Figs 4.2 and 4.3, view of a ball bearing part is shown in Fig. 4.11
respectively. A capstan lathe is used for small We are interested in the production of such parts
sized precision components while a turret lathe on a turret lathe. The typical tool layout is shown
is used for producing comparatively larger com in Fig. 4.12. It involves the following steps:
ponents. The accuracy of components produced 1. Rough face the bar end with the tool held
on a turret lathe is comparatively less than in a in the back tool post.
capstan lathe. 2. Finish the face end of the part with the
tool held in the front tool post.
4.12 TOOL LAYOUT 3. Bore diameters A and B and chamfer C
The cutting time for a given operation is mainly with tools fitted in the boring bars and held
controlled by proper tooling, speed and feed. in the hexagonal turret.
Much time is saved by taking combined or mul 4. Recess diameters F and G with the help of
tiple cuts. In bar work, combined cuts provide a double recessing cutter held in the re
additional support to the work and eliminate cessing tool slide.
springing action and chatter. The method of tool 5. Bore diameter A to size using a fine ad
ing and the sequence of operations for making justment boring tool.
internal threads on a component are shown in 6. Generate threads on bore B using tap set.
Fig. 4.10. It involves the following steps. 7. Part off the workpiece with a parting tool.
Layout for front wheel axle The sketch of
the front wheel axle to be produced on a cap
stan lathe is shown in Fig. 4.12(a). The material
Reamer required for its manufacture is a 22 mm steel
bar. The prncess of production of components
involve the following steps:
1. Lay all the tools as shown in Fig. 4.12(b).
the workpiece
2. Feed out the adjustable.
Boring bit 3. Turn 15 mm diameter with a box tool.
Fig. 4.10 Tooling layout ofa threaded component hav 4. Turn 18 mm diameter with a box tool.
ing internal threads 5. Chamfer the end with a chamfering tool.
------ - - - -,Capstan and Turret Lathes----
- - - -- ------ 59 j
Back tool holder
11}.
�
-------u.,...._
(a) -1
��Lt tool
holder
(b)
Fig. 4.11 (a) Ball bearing part. (b) Layout of a ball bearing part
· 250 mm
t
E E
E E E
E L!)
<O (X)
C\I
C\I '<al-
'<al-
(a)
(b}
Fig. 4.12 (a) Front wheel axle. (b) Layout of a front wheel axle showing sequence of operations
6. Mark the centre with a centre drill. 9. Chamfer with the tool in the turret.
7. Cut the external threads with a die. 10. Make a 16 mm diameter.
8. Fonn a 22 IDil). diameter. 11. Part off the component.
,,..._..........._ �ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ,/) for the right answer (c) lathes used in toolroom for high-precision
1. Capstan and turret lathes are work
(a) general purpose lathes
(d) used for rough work only
(b) production lathes
I 60r. ---- - --------Manufacturing Processes! ---------------
-
2. While working on a turret, the bar type work to 5. On a turret lathe, long turning cuts can be made
be machined is gripped in a by moving the saddle along the bedways of the
(a) three-jaw chuck machine. This type of machine is known as
(b) four-jaw chuck (a) saddle type turret lathe
(c) collet (b) drum type turret lathe
(c) automatic lathe
(d) magnetic chuck
(d) universal lathe
3. In a capstan lathe, the turret is mounted on 6. On a capstan or turret lathe,
(a) compound slide (a) only one cut can be taken at a time
(b) copy turning attachment (b) more than one cuts can be- taken at a time
(c) a short slide of ram sliding on the saddle (c) tools and gauges can be produced to accu-
(d) headstock racy
4. A turret lathe is equipped with spindles which (d) round as well as flat surfaces can be ma
can be fitted with a universal two-jaw chuck. chined easily
This type of machine is known as 7. The following device is not used for holding
(a) single-spindle automat the work on a capstan or turret lathe
(b) multispindle automat (a) s.elf-centering chucks
(c) universal lathe (b) four-jaw chucks
(c) collet
(d) chucking machines (d) arbors
.
"""'-'--"'+>·�··;··
fitivmw QUESTIONS
.... . -�-· ..
_____ ,__ ---�-��-�-----------
1. What is the significance of turret lathes in a 8. Describe the various work holding attachments
production shop? used on a turret lathe.
2. What is the difference between a turret lathe 9. Describe the tooling principle of a turret lathe.
and an engine lathe? 10. How are tools mounted on a capstan or turret
3. How are turret lathes classified? Give a brief lathe?
description of different types of turret lathes. 11. What is the difference between a capstan and a
4. What are the principle parts of a turret lathe? turret lathe?
5. How are a capstan and turret lathe headstock 12. Enumerate the procedure of tool layout of any
classified? Describe them briefly.
component for production work on a turret
6. Enumerate and discuss the various attachments
used on a turret lathe. lathe.
7. In addition to the various tools and accessories 13. Write short notes on:
used in centre lathes, various other tools and (a) Turret saddle
accessories are used for production work on a (b) Turret head
turret lathe. Discuss them in brief with special (c) Work stops or bar stops
reference to their utility. (d) Steady centering tool
5.1 INTRODUCTION commonly used mechanism consists of a ram,
an eccentric rocker arm and crank pin. Since
A shaping machine (usually called shaper) is
the length of a job varies, provision is made on
mainly used for producing flat surfaces, which shapers to change the stroke to the desired
may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. Some length.
times irregular or curved surfaces are also pro The length of stroke of a shaper is generally
duced by shapers. In shaping, a tool is given a 2 cm longer than the cut to be taken. Shaper
reciprocating motion with the help of a mecha size is given by the maximum length of the ram
nism provided on the machines that changes cir stroke. The shaping machine is indispensable in
cular motion into reciprocating motion. The tool rooms due to its great flexibility, ease of
Vertical feed
Outboard
"·\
Scotch yoke
Stroke adjustment
for arm
Drive pinion
feed screw
, -�--i-- Rocker arm
Elevating
screw
Base
Fig. 5.1 Basic diagram of a crank shaper showing its parts

162-------------Manufacturing Processes!--------------
2. According to the cutting action

Tool feed - (i) Push type shaper
handle
(ii) Drnv,, cut type shaper
Slide 3. According to the movement of the ram
Swivel head (i) Horizontal shaper
plate (ii) Vertical shaper or slotter
4. According to the drive
(i) Mechanical shapers
Clapper -- (a) Crank-driven shapers
block
(b) Geared shapers
(ii) Hydraulic shapers
Shaper 5. According to the method of transmitting
head
power
Workpiece
(i) All geared shaper
(ii) Cone pulley belt-driven shaper
6. According to the movement of the table
Fig. 5.2 Working principle ofa shaper
(i) Simple shaper
work holding, quick adjustment and use of tools (ii) Universal shaper
of relatively simple shape and size. It is also
5.4 TYPES OF SHAPERS
very useful in die making shops, maintenance
shops and production shops. A brief description of various. types of shapers
are used in a workshop as follows.
5,2 WORKING PRINCIPLE
Standar_d shaper This is the most commonly
In a shaping machine the job is held in a suit used form of shaper. It consists of plain table
able device (generally vice) clamped rigidly on that may or may not have vertical supports at its
the machine table. The cutting tool is held in front. Some machines have a provision for .the
the tool post mounted on the ram of the shaper. table to swivel around a horizontal axis parallel
The arm reciprocates to-and-fro, and in doing to the ram. The material is cut in the forward
so cuts the material held in the vice during the stroke of the tool and the return stroke is idle.
cutting stroke. Generally, the cutting action takes Horizontal shaper In these shapers the ram
place in the forward stroke, which is also known reciprocates in the horizontal plane and so does
as the cutting stroke. No cutting of material takes the tooL They are similar to standard shapers
place during the return stroke of the ram which with an additional plain table provided in the
is termed as the idle stroke. The job is given an machine.
index feed with the help of a cross-rail mecha Draw cut shaper This is similar to a standard
nism fitted inside the table. shaper in construction but is comparatively
heavier. Its main difference from the standard
5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPERS shaper is that it peels off metal chips during the
Shapers are classified in the following ways: backward stroke, whereas a standard shaper does
1. According to the length of stroke so during the forward stroke.
(i) 30 cm shaper Vertical shaper In this type of shaper, the ram
(ii) 45 cm shaper reciprocates in the vertical direction. It is also
(iii) 60 cm shaper known as a slotter and is discussed later.
---- - - - -Shaper andSlatter-- - --
- - - ---- - ----<
- 63 j
Universal shaper This is also a horizontal
shaper, with the main difference that it has a
special type of table that can be �w�ng about
the horizontal axis parallel to the ram ways. The
top of this table can also be tilted about another
horizontal axis which is normal to the former
axis. It is called a universal shaper since the job
can be tilted in any direction through the re
quired angle with the help of a swivel vice.
Crank shaper Shapers whose ram reciprocates
with the help of a crank mechanism are known
as crank shapers.
Geared shaper In geared shapers, the ram re
ciprocates with the spur gear mechanism. This Fig. 5.3 Supporting structureand table feed mechanism
type of shaper carries a rack under the ram for ofa shaper
to-and-fro motion.
Hydraulic shaper In this type of shaper, the Table It is a box-type construction with T-slots
movement to the ram is provided by hydraulic cut on it to hold the vice and jobs. It holds and
pressure. They are in great demand these days. supports the workpiece during operations. It can
be moved horizontally by a cross-rail mecha
Contour shaper Contour shapers are standard nism to provide feed to the workpiece. The table
shapers fitted with an additional tracer mecha- is mounted on the saddle. The two types of work
nism. In this shaper a template and follower are tables commonly used on shapers are plain tables
_ _
used to produce a co_ntour surular to the sh�pe and universal tables. Generally, shapers are sup
_
of the template. It 1s smtable for producmg plied with plain tables.
shapes that cannot be produced by other shapers.
�m It is the reciprocating part of the shaper
5.5 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A SHAPER and carries the shaper head in front of it. The
reciprocating motion of the ram takes place on
Figure 5.1 illustrates the principal parts of a accurately machined guideways on the top of
shaper. the column. It gets its drive from the quick re
Base It consists of a heavy robust cast iron turn mechanism, which is fitted inside the col
structure that supports all the other parts of the umn to change its position relative to the job.
machine. Tool head The tool head of a shaper is used
Column . It acts as a housing for the electrical for holding the tool rigidly. It also provides ver
circuits and operating mechanism of a shaper. It tical and angular feed movement of the tool and
also acts as a support for other parts of the ma allows the tool to lift automatically to provide
chine, such as ram, cross-rail, tool heads, etc. relief during its idle or return stroke. The verti
As shown in Fig. 5.1, it is mounted on a base. cal feed to the tool is provided by rotating the
Cross-rail It is a heavy cast iron body attached downfeed screw·handle. The apron can be swiv
to the column of a shaper machine. It is used for elled towards the left or right after opening the
two purposes-for elevating the table and for apron swivel pin. During the cutting stroke, the
cross-traverse of the table. clapper block fits securely into the clapper box
I 64 ,__------------Manufacturing Processes I----------- --
Downfeed screw 4. Maximum distance

micrometer dial from table to ram 15 mm
5. Size 6f side table top 450 mm x 400 mm
�ertical slide
6. Size of side table 415 mm x 350 mm
. 7. Power of motor 3 HP or 2.25 kW
Downfeed screw
8. Maximum vertical
travel of tool slide 157 mm
9. Ram cycles per minute
or strokes per minute 15-90
10. Approximate net
weight 1000 kg
Fig. 5.4 Tool head of a shaper 11. Floor space required 1800 mm x 1200 mm
and holds the tool rigidly. The return stroke acts 5.7 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM
as the idle stroke, and the tool is lifted upwards All shapers, except draw cut shapers, cut in the
to prevent the tool from dragging the job. forward direction only, while the return stroke
Shaper head It cmsists of a tool slide, tool is idle. The time spent in the idle stroke is obvi
post and clapper box and is clamped firmly to ously wasted. Similarly, in a draw cut shaper,
the front of the ram. It has a vertical feed screw the backward stroke is the cutting stroke and
for the vertical movement of the tool. The verti the forward stroke is wasted. However fast the
cal movement can be measured accurately by speed of the idle stroke may be, some time is
means of a micrometer dial near the handle. The definitely wasted. Thus, it is the endeavour of ·
head can be swivelled to any angle to enable the designers to reduce the idle time to a minimum.
tool to take angular cuts and for cutting from Two commonly used mechanisms to achieve this
-
the sides of the job. It also consists of a tool are (a) crank mechanism and (b) hydraulic
holder that rests on a clapper box. The clapper mechanism (Sec. 5.9).
box is fastened to the front of the shaper head Cutting stroke
slide and is free to point forward and fit on a
taper pin which holds it in place. This provision
is made in order to prevent the cutting tool from
damaging the work during the idle stroke.
5.6 SHAPER SIZE AND SPECIFICATIONS

I
The size of a shaper is given by the maximum I
I
movement of the ram or_the maximum length of I
cut it can take. Numerous other details are I
I
rieeded to specify a shaper. Given below are the I
complete specifications of a 450 mm stroke \
\
shaper: \
1. Length of stroke 450 mm

\
''
2. Maximum vertical
travel of table 515 mm
3. Maximum horizontal Fig. 5.5 Quick return mechan - s.haper with
travel of table 500 mm velocity diagram
--- ------------Shaper andSlotter- - - ---- --- -
- 651
Crank Mechanism
Figure 5.5 shows the crank and slotted link driv
ing mechanism of a shaper. It consists of a rocker
arm called the fulcrum, fitted at the bottom. At
the top it carries another short link L which is
attached to the block. The rocker arm consists
of a slide block that slides up and down when
the bull gear revolves. In the slide block re
volves the crank pin P. The bull gear and slide
block are fitted together with a crank pin.
The crank pin is fitted to the slotted disc car Fig. 5,6 Procedure of adjustment of stroke length of
rying a T-slot and can be moved to any desired a shaper: N-nut P-pin. S-screw, D and
position by means of bevel gears. The bull gear E-location pins
is driven by a bull gear pinion th3t is mounted
on a power shaft. The bull gear while rotating 5�9 HYDRAULIC SHAPER
makes the rocker arm swing about the fulcrum. Hydraulic mechanisms are becoming increas
The rocker arm in turn moves the ram to-and ingly popular these days because of their greater
fro. The angle traversed by the bull gear (and flexibility, smooth operation, ability to slip in
thus the rocker arm) during the cutting stroke is case of overload, ability to withstand obstruc
more than in the return stroke. Thus, the time tions without tlamaging the tool or machine and
taken by the cutting stroke is more than that the possibility of changing the speed and the
. taken by the return stroke. In other words, the feed during operation. Hydraulic systems, shown
cutting stroke is slower and the idle stroke faster. in Fig. 5.7 can be effectively used as quick re
This is indicated by the velocity diagram at the turn mechanisms. In the figure, the shaper ram
top of the crank mechanism. is on its forward cutting strokes and is moving
from right to left. The oil from the reservoir is
5,8 ADJUSTMENT OF STROKE LENGTH
passed through a filter and pump. The pump,
AND POSITION OF RAM
driven by an electric motor, pushes the oil in a
The stroke length of a shaper is adjusted by constant quantity and at moderate pressure to
varying the distance between the bull gear cen the control valve. The control valve is fitted with
tre and the centre of the crank pin. This is done an indicator that indicates the direction in which
by moving the crank pin away or towards the the oil is moving. From the control valve, the
bull gear centre, i.e. by moving the nut N. The oil can be delivered to either side of the piston.
nut N is moved away or towards the centre by The two types of mechanisms commonly used
the turning spindle with the help of a spindle are constant-volume hydraulic mechanism and
key. constant-pressure hydraulic mechanism. Figure
The position of the ram needs to be adjusted 5.7 shows a constant volume hydraulic mecha
so that sufficient allowance exists in the tool, nism. In this system, the same volume of oil is
and thus in the job, before and after the comple delivered on both sides of the piston alternately
tion of the stroke. This is done by positioning by the actuating valve. Due to differences in the
the clamp lever. The position of the clamp lever effective area of the piston (one side of the pis
is adjusted by sliding the clamp lever in the ton contains the piston rod), the ram travels at a
sliding block by means of a bevel gear. lower velocity during the cutting or working
f66------ - - -----Manufacturing Processes 1 ---
- - - -- - -
-
-
Forward
-
Return
Piston
Cylinder
B A
Control
valve
Relief valve
Reservoir
Filter
Fig. 5.7 Hydraulic shaper
stroke and at a higher velocity during the return adjusted by adjusting its movement. The veloc
stroke. ity diagram of a hydraulic shaper and a mecha
In constant-pressure hydraulic shapers, the nical shaper are shown in Fig. 5.8. A hydraulic
pump delivers oil at constant pressure to both shaper moves at constant velocity during the
sides of the piston. In this case the speed of ram cutting stroke, whereas the velocity of a me
travel is directly proportional to the exposed area chanical shaper is different at different posi
of the piston, since the forces acting on them tions.
are different. Since the exposed area in the re
turn stroke (idle stroke) is more than in the work 5.10 OPERATION OF A SHAPING
ing stroke, the speed of the latter is less than MACHINE
that of the former. The cutting speed of the hy Starting Proceed in the following manner for
draulic shaper is controlled by regulating the starting a shaper.
supply of oil through the throttle valve. As the 1. Set the stroke to zero by putting the gear
valve is partially closed, the flow of returning shift lever in the neutral position.
oil is checked. The flow of oil controls the speed 2. Put the feed lever in the neutral position.
of stroke. The length of stroke of the ram is 3. Start the motor and ensure that it is run
Forward Forward ning in the proper direction.
stroke stroke 4. Allow the shaper to run for 5 min to en
sure that oil fills the tubes before the ram
Displacement is set in position.
5. Inspect the sliding block and the rocker
Return
arm.
Operation
(a) Hydraulic shaper (b) Mechanical shaper 1. Adjust the stroke by turning the stroke
Fig. 5.8 Comparison between velocity diagrams of adjustment shaft.
hydraulic and mechanical shapers 2. Adjust the ram to the required position.
----------- - - -Shaper and Slotter---------------
- 67
3. Unclamp the rails and adjust the table to a

suitable height. Now clamp the rails.
4. Check that the job is secured firmly on the
table with the help of clamps, a vice, V
blocks parallel angle plates, etc. and that Clapper box
the job is properly set for parallelism. Par-
- allelism may be checked by using differ
ent devices, e.g. a dial indicator. For Fig. 5.9 Horizontal cutting on a shaper
vertical facing, the tool movement must be
exactly perpendicular to the table. 2. Place the job in a vice on a pair of paral
5. Select the proper tool, set it in the tool lels so that the job projects above the vice
holder and then set the tool holder in posi for easy operation of cut.
tion relative to the job with the help of a 3. Place the workpiece at a proper position
vertical tool feed handle. in the vice and make sure that the vice
6. Study the jobs and operations to be per jaws are set perpendicular to the ram.
formed. Make necessary measurements and 4. Select the proper tool and fit it in the tool
mark the layout lines as a guide to know holder.
how much matelial is to be removed by 5. Adjust the depth of the cut to be taken by
the machine. means of the down feed handle of the tool
7. Reciprocate the ram for all the settings by holder.
hand and make sure while working that no 6. Start the machine and feed it by hand. If
reciprocating part overhangs, lest it may needed, set the automatic feed and make
stlike the shaper body. the cut.
8. Adjust the shaper for correct speed. 7. After the completion of the cut, check the
9. Move the table down and adjust the depth dimensions and take more cuts as per re
of cut. quirements keeping in mind that the fin
10. Start the machine and make desired cuts ishing cut to be taken is light.
with proper feed to the table. 5.11.2 Cutting Vertical and Angular Surfaces
If the cuts are likely to take sufficient time,
an automatic feed can also be engaged and dis Before carrying out vertical cutting on a shaper,
engaged. Generally, a safety clutch is provided ensure that the workpiece is held rigidly and
in shapers as a measure of safety against break properly on the table. The vertical cutting op
age in the event of obstruction to the shaper. eration is carried out by giving vertically down
ward feed (Fig. 5.10) to the tool.
5.11 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON A
SHAPER
5.11.1 Horizontal Cutting
A horizontal flat surface is produced by feeding
the work in a holizontal direction under the re
ciprocating cutting tool. The cutting operations
involve the following steps:
1. Thoroughly clean the vice and workpiece
and remove all burrs by scraping or fill
ing. Fig. 5,10 Vertical cutting on a shaper
f��------------Manufacturing Processes I - --------------
4. By swivelling the vice to an angular set

ting.
5. By swivelling the head of the shaper.
5.11.3 Irregular Cutting
An accurate irregular surface finish can be ob
Horizontal tained by using a form tool whose surface, while
groove cutting, forms the contours of the surface. Wider
irregular cuts can be taken by marking a line
Vice
and then taking the cuts. This can also be done
by vertical hand feed along with a horizontal
Fig. 5.11 Cutting grooves on a shaper
table feed. In taking irregular cuts, always start
This process is used for finishing the sides of from the higher part of the workpiece and pro
the block, squaring shoulders, squaring ends of ceed towards the lower part.
the compqnent, cutting V's and keyways. For 5.11.4 Machining a Thin Job on a Shaper
taking angular cuts, the head is swivelled to the
required angle and the apron is arranged in such While machining a thin job on a shaper, it should
a manner that the tool remains clear of the work be prevented from springing. This can be done
while feeding down. by holding the job firmly and taking very light
The angular surface can be machined by the cuts from the beginning till the end of the job.
following manner:
5.11.5 Keyway Cutting
1. By supporting the work on tapered paral
lels in a vice. Keyway cutting on a shaper is done by holding
the workpiece in a vice by using a V-block. The
axis of the shaft is set parallel to the movement
of the stroke with the help of a dial indicator.
The alignment of the shaft is done with the dial
Clapper indicator from the top and the side of the shaft.
bolt
The keyway cutting operation is carried out just
like cutting a groove on a shaper. External and
Work internal keyway cutting procedures ·on a shaper
Tool head
Ram
Fig. 5.12 Dovetail cutting on a shaper
2. By marking a layout line on the piece and

holding job in a horizontal line with this
layout line and then machining the compo Index pin
Tailstock
Worm gear
nent with a Tegular feed. Tongue
3. By holding the work in angular parallels. Fig. 5.13 Keyway cutting on a shaper
Shaper and Slotter------ -
- ----�6�
- I
Clearance Collar clamping Tool

hole '"� ::01\'
T
L I
f-r!---'.--,---'--�
.
--+--I--.
y
-
1,
'----------f">- - �
-:..-:_-:..-:_-:_ _-� Extension
\ shaper tool
V- block Y
Vice jaw
(b)
(a)
Fig. 5.14 (a) Internal keyway cutting on a shaper, (b) Checking parallelism ofjaws with stroke of ram
are shown in Fig. 5.14(a). The main difference harder the material, the lesser the speed or. vice
between groove cutting and keyway cutting lies versa), (b) the amount of material to be removed
in the method of holding the workpiece. and (c) the material of the cutting tool.
The depth of cut is the distance through which_
5.11.6 Checking the Shaper Vice and
the tool digs in the metal during its working
Workpiece·
stroke. The feed of a tool is the distance that a
To check whether the stationary jaw of the vice cutting tool moves sideways in two consecutive
is parallel to the stroke of the ram, fasten the cuts. It is not possible to set a hard and fast rule
vice securely to the table with the stationary jaw for speed, feed and depth of cut, but while tak
of the vice parallel to the stroke of the ram. ing cuts, the cutting speed should be suitable,
Hold the dial indicator in the tool holder with and the depth of cut and feed should be pro
the point of the indicator touching the finished portional. Table 5.1 may be taken as a guide
surface of the jaw, as shown in Fig. 5.14(b). for cutting speeds and feeds for different mate
Move the ram slowly back and forth and note rials.
the movement of the indicator. In case it is found Calculations for Cutting Speed
that the work or vice is not parallel, check the Let L = length of the stroke in m
vice properly; remove all burrs and repeat the N = number of strokes per minute
operation. K = ratio between return stroke time and
cutting stroke time
5.12 CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH and CS = cutting speed in metres per minute
_OF CUT Distance travelled by the tool per minute
The machining of components is carried out to CS = N x L x (1 + K) metre per minute
remove the surplus metal, bring the work to a In a shaper, the return stroke is idle and time
given size and give a smooth finish to the sur spent on the idle stroke is wasted. Generally,
face. To achieve the desired goal at least two this stroke takes 2/5 of the total time. Thus 3/5
cuts, one for roughing and one for finishing are of the total stroke time is cutting tinie, i.e. in
required on a job. For optimum use of a ma 3/5 minute the tool cuts a length = L x N. Thus,
chine, a thorough knowledge of proper speed, LxNx5
in 1 minute it will cut = - -- metres.
feed and depth of cut is necessary. 3
The cutting speed of a shaper primarily de
Thus cutting speed = } x L x N = 1.67 L x N.
pends on (a) the type of material to be cut (the
---- -Manufacturing Pro.cesses 1------ - -
---- - -
-
�---
Table 5,1 Cutting speeds and feeds of different materials
Cutting tool Cast iron Mild steel Carbon steel Brass Cast steel
material Speed Feed Speed Feed Speed Feed Speed Feed Speed Feed
in in in in in in in in in in
mlmin mm mlmin mm mlmin mm mlmin mm mlmin mm
1. High-carbon steel 10 1.5 12 0.75 5 0.5 24 0.6
2. High-�peed steel 12 2 24 1.5 12 1.25 48 1.25
3. Carbide tip tools 30 0.5 45 0.5 20 0.5 60 0.3 to 0.5
The depth of cut varies from 0.8 to 10.0 mm depending upon the material of the tool and workpiece.
Example 5.1 nL(l+k)

A plate of 600 mm x 600 mm is to be machined Solution Cutting speed=
1000
on a shaper by a HSS cutting tool. The cutting
speed of the tool is lOm/rnin, the return to cut
where n = 30, L = 240 mm, k = -2
ting ratio is 1 :4, the feed of tool is 2 mm and 3
clearance at each end is 60 mm. Find the time
required for taking a complete cut on the plate. 30 X 240 ( 1 + �)
Solution Total length of stroke or cutting speed=
= 600 + 60 + 60 = 720 mm 1000
= 12 m/min
720x 60
Cutting time = = 4.32 sec.
1000 X 10 5.13 SHAPING TOOLS
Return time l Various shaping tools are used on a shaper for
Cutting time 4 performing different operations, such as rough
ing cuts, finishing cuts, slotting, undercutting,
. 432 dovetail cutting, etc. Generally, high-speed steel
Return time= -- = 1.08 sec. tools are u_sed on a shaper, but cobalt and tung
sten carbide bits are also used, depending upon
Total time for one complete stroke
the requirement of material and the operation to
= 4.32 + 1.08 = 5.4
be performed. Large tools are used for heavy
Total number of complete strokes necessary to work because they carry away the heat from the
600 cutting edge of the tool more rapidly. Tungsten
complete the cut = - = 300
2 bit is brazed on a mild steel shank and is also
Total time required= 300 x 5.4 used for different operations on a shaper ma
= 27 min chine. It is capable of cutting at higher speeds.
All the tools used on a shaper are first ground
Example 5.2 to the required form and then held in a tool
While shaping a work, the length of stroke is holder in the proper position for shaping opera
240 mm. The number of double strokes per tions. Correct clearance angle of the cutting
minute is 30 and the ratio of return time to cut tool are a prerequisite of a haper.
ting time is 2 : 3. Calculate the cutting speed of The cutting tools used on a haper can be
the shaper. classified as follows:
----
--- - ---- --Shaper and Slotter-------- - ---·711
1. According to the direction of cutting, i.e. 3. Universal vice

left hand tool and right hand tool. 4. Vertical vice
2. According to the shape of the tool, i.e. 5. Compound machine vice
straight, gooseneck and cranked tool. 6. Precision angle vice
3. According to the operations to be perfor The plain vice The most commonly used vice
med, i.e. surface tool, parting tool, squar for all engineering operations is the plain vice.
ing tool, side recessing tool and down It consists of a solid cast iron base that carries a
cutting tool. fixed jaw at one end, as shown in Fig. 5.16. The
4. According to the shape of the cutting edge, other end carries an elevated projection which
i.e. square nose tool, round nose tool, etc. is threaded internally and acts as a nut for the
5. According to the finish of the surface, i.e. screwed spindle, which while rotating in it moves
roughing tool and finishing tool. the movable jaw (also known as the adjustable
The commonly used tools for shaping work jaw). This vice is commonly used for holding
are shown in Fig. 5.15. the work for shaping, milling and grinding op
50 50 30 erations. The movable jaw moves on a dovetail
groove cut on the base plate. This vice is very
3 ° suitable for holding jobs and enables the work
�\- �10
( \ 5)
°
(e
to remain quite close to the table, thus reducing
a 5) °
/ the chances of vibrations. The base generally
�i-
5°
�So, �
( / 3° i carries four slots which are fitted to the table of
(b)� f)
the shaping or milling machine with -T-bolts.
�" I�fy�3
Moveable
�
d-I <,> 5 0 0
Hardened
jaw plate
jaw
) (
h
( 5° )
)t ,1T7r--F---,.
Fig. 5.15 Commonly used shaping tools
5.14 JOB HOLDING DEVICES USED ON A

SHAPER
Base
Most of the jobs on a shaper machine are held Fig. 5.16 The plain vice (Courtesy: Apex tools)
in a vice, but often the job is also fixed on the
table. Whether the job is held in a vice or While using this vice on a surface grinding ma
clamped on a table, the primary requirement chine, -no T-bolt is needed, since it is mounted
while working on a shaper is that the job must to the table with the magnetic action of the table.
be held rigidly on it to withstand the forces of
The swivel base vice The swivel base vice
the cutting tool. Generally, the following job
consists of a swivel base which is mounted on a
holding devices are used on a shaper:
cast iron base. The body of the vice is mounted
Vice Vices are common devices used for hold on a swivel base and can be clamped in any
ing the work on shaping machines. The follow angular position by means of the clamping bolt.
ing common types of vices are used on a shaping A graduated scale is provided on the swivel base,
machine: which helps in adjusting the body at any desired
1. Plain or parallel vice angle relative to the base. A swivel base vice is
2. Swivel machine vice shown in Fig. 5.17. Above the swivel base this
! 72 -
. ---- -------Manufacturing Processes!---------------
The vertical vice The vertical vice is similar

to a plain vice in construction. The only differ
Fixed ence is in the position of the jaws. The vertical
jaw vice carries jaws in a vertical position and is
specifically used for holding jobs that are to be
machined at the ends.
The precision angle vice This vice consists
Base Indexed ·base of a cast iron base that carries two small vertical
Fig. 5.17 The swivel base vice (Courtesy: Apex tools) projections. One end of the body is hinged above
one projection and the other end can be adjusted
vice is similar to a plain vice in construction. in a vertical direction to the required angle, as
The vice is mounted on the table with the help shown in Fig. 5.19. One end near the hinge car
of slots and T-bolts provided on the base. It is ries a vernier scale for making correct and quick
suitable for taking angular cuts on a workpiece angular adjustments of the job in a vertical plane.
without removing the job from the vice. Thus it Hardened
is suitable for making accurate angular surfaces steel jaw Moveable
of workpieces.
The universal machine vice A universal ma
chine vice, apart from being swivelled in the
horizontal plane can also be tilted in the vertical
plane to desired angles. Thus this vice is suit
able for milling and shaping of compound angles.
It enables the machining of various surfaces that
are at different inclinations, without removing
the job from the vice. The only drawback of this
vice is that it does not have sufficient rigidity Fig. 5.19 The predsion angle vice (Courtesy: Apex tools)
and is suitable only where small cuts are to be
taken and limited material is to be removed. This The compound machine vice The compound
vice is very suitable for tool room work. machine vice is a very useful precision vice that
carries a compound slide resembling the com
Handle Screw pound slide used on a lathe. The workpiece is
Moveable held between the jaws of the vice, which is fit
t �aw Hardened
JI- ¥ jaw plates
..-- Fixed jaw
ted on the table. This table can be swivelled to
any desired angle in the horizontal plane. The
compound slide helps in the adjustment of the
work in any desired position from left to right,
front to back and vice versa. It is a very useful
vice for making angular surfaces on machines
such as shaper and milling.
Graduations for The ISI has laid down various specifications
horizontal swivel for the procurement of vices. Some commonly
Fig. 5.18 The universal vice (Coui"tesy: Apex tools) used specifications are:
----------------Shaper andSlatter--------- ---� 73-)
Jaws
Handle
Fig. 5.20 The compound vice (Courtesy: Apex tools)
IS: 2586-1975 Bench Vices (Machinists 6. Clean the workpiece and table only with a
Vices) brush.
IS: 2588-1975 Blacksmith's Vices
IS: 2587-1975 Pipe Vices (open side type 5.16 SLOTTER
and fixed sides type) A slotter (or slotting machine) is a heavy duty
IS: 7958-1976 Hand Vices shaping machine in which the cutting tool moves
IS: 8177-1976 Pin Vices vertically. The ram is mounted on an indepen
dent bearing, the upper part of which is pivoted,
5.15 SHAPER SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
to shift the ram in any angular position. The
The following safety precautions should be ob work table can be given a transverse, longitudi
served while working on a shaper: nal or rotary movement. A slotter can perform a
1. Read carefully the operation manual sup variety of .operations, such as the finishing of
plied with the machine and familiarise · external and internal plain surfaces, in addition
yourself with all the operation controls of to slotting.
the machine. A slotter works on the same principle as an
2. Make adjustments on the machine only ordinary shaper, except that the ram which car
when it is not in operation otherwise acci ries the tool moves in the vertical direction at
dents may occur, such as being caught be right angles to the work table.
tween the work and the cutting tool.
3. Use goggles to protect your eyes. 5.17 SPECIFICATIONS OF A SLOTTER
4. While working on a shaper, the job must Slotters are generally specified in terms of the
be held rigidly on the table with suitable maximum length of a stroke. A little consider
devices. ati<?n will show that the size of the job that can
5. Keep away from flying chips. be machined will be less than this size by an
( 74 -.- -� - -- ---Manufacturing Processes!------- ------
Stroke adjusting screw
Connecting rod
Crank ��--1--1-L.;..JI
Crank disk --+++-----1>�1u11
Ram guide
Ram ___._
Cone pulley
Feed rods
Connection - Feed adjusting

gear screw
Drive gear
Helical gear
Splined shaft
Fig. 5.21 Slotting machine and its principal parts
amount equal to the top and bottom clearances 10. Number of up and down
of the tool . The specifications of a 400mm slo- strokes per minute 17.2-71
tter are: 11. Maximum drawing force 2000 kgf
1. Maximum stroke 400mm 12. Motor speed for drive of
2. Diameter of circular table 800mm machine speed 1400rpm
3. Transverse movement of table 600mm 13. Floor space required by 3050mm X
4. Longitudinal movement of machine 1800mm
table 800mm 14. Belt size 100mm
5. Distance from seating surface 15. Width and spacing of 22mmx
of tool to housing 890 T-slots 160mm
6. Maximum distance from
clamping surface of table to 5.18 SLO'ITING DRIVES
lower end of ram guideways 600mm The three main types of driving mechanisms used
7. Maximum distance from tool in slotters are:
to clamping surface of table 870mm 1. Slotted disc mechanism
8. Swivel of ram 10 degrees 2. Slotted link and gear mechanism
9. Number of speeds 9 3. Hydraulic mechanism
Shaper and Slotter-------- ------ 75
J
5.18.1 The Slotted Disc Mechanism as desired. A bell crank slotted link is provided
between the driving wheels, which is connected
This mechanism consists of a pinion, a gear, a
with the ram, as shown in Fig. 5.23. The ram is
slotted disc and crank, as shown in Fig. 5.22.
connected with the counterweight arm that car
The main driving pulley is driven by the motor
ries a counterweight and moves over the ful
through V-belts. It is connected to the pinion to
crum.
drive the gear which is further connected to the
disc. The crank and connecting rod mechanism 7 6
converts the circular motion of the disc into a
reciprocating motion of the ram. The length of
the stroke is adjusted by shifting the crank pin.
The starting and finishing positions of the stroke
are adjusted by means of a hand lever provided
for the purpose. The flywheel acts as a shock
absorber and an energy supplier to the stroke.
Fig. 5,23 Slotted link and gear mechanism: J. Driving

wheel 2. Bell crank lever 3. Crank pin
6 4. Connecting rod 5. Ram 6. Counterweight
7 Fulcrum
When the eccentric revolves, the disc slides

inside the slot of the link. The crank pin slides
Fig. 5.22 Slotted disc mechanism: 1. Flywheel 2 Gear.
the ram upwards and downwards resulting in a
3. Pinion 4. Slotted disc, 5. Connecting rod reciprocating connection of the ram and thus
6. Lever. 7 Hand lever for stroke adjustment the tool. The stroke length is adjusted by vary
8. T-slot ing the swing of the link.
5.18.2 Slotted Link and Gear Mechanism 5.18.3 Hydraulic Mechanism
This mechanism of drive is particularly used in The hydraulic drive used in a slotter is similar
I
heavier slotters. The mechanisms consists of two to that used in a shaper, except for the position
driving wheels, each provided with trunnions. of the cylinder. In a slotter mechanism, the cyl
Both the wheels carry an eccentric that can be inder is kept in a vertical position, while in a
loosened or tightened with the driving wheels, shaper it is horizontal.
Manufacturing Processes 1 -
- -------------
t 76,
5.19 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SHAPER AND A SLOTI'ER
Table 5.2
S.No. Name Shaper Slotter

1. Movement of cutting tool The cutting tool moves horizontally The cutting tool moves vertically to
to-and-fro while performing the cut and-fro while performing the cut
ting operation. ting operation.
Holt:ling of job The job is held on a fixed bed _that is The job -is held· on a fixed bed .that
generally rectangular in shape. is generally circular in shape.
Cutting stroke The cutting stroke is horizontal and
slower than idle stroke.
4. Tool travel The distance of tool travel is adjusted
by the stroke adjusting screw.
5. Adjustment of depth of cut The cutting tool is moved up or down The cutting tool is moved horizon
to adjust the depth of the cut. tally to adjust the depth of cut
· ·· ··
6. Type of job Shaper is generally used to pr_oduce The . slotter is used for cutting
flat surfaces. grooves, keyways and slots on in- ·
ternal and external surfaces.
11\fULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( .f) for the right answer (c) the cutting stroke is slower than the return
1. The size of a shaper is specified by stroke
(a) horse power of the motor (d) any of the above depending upon the ma
(b) length of stroke terial to be cut
(c) ·size of table 5. In a mechanical shaper, the cutting speed of
(d) size of vice used for holding the job the tool is
2. Which one of the following is not the part of a (a) uniform during the entire cutting stroke
shaper? (b) uniform during cutting and idle stroke
(a) cross-slide (b) ram (c) maximum at the start and end of cut
(c) table (d) clapper box (d) maximum at the middle of cutting stroke
3. The following quick return mechanism is used 6. The life of a shaper cutting tool can be in
on a shaper: creased if the tool is
(a) crank and slotted link mechanism (a) hardened after grinding
(b) hydraulic mechanism (b) tempered after grinding
(c) whitworth mechanism
(d) any one of the above
4. A shaper is provided with whitworth quick re
• (c) case hardened after grinding
(d) lapped after grinding
7. The following work holding device is preferred
turn mechanism. In this type of shaper for cutting keyway in a cylindrical job on a
(a) the cutting stroke and return stroke take shaper
equal time (a) straight edge (b) V-block
(b) the cutting stroke is faster than the return (c) angle plate (d) shaper vice
stroke
----- - -------- -Shaper and Slotter---------
- ------··77 J
8. A job is to be held in a shaper vice for machin (a) with clamps, bolts and squares
ing on a shaper. For proper seating, the job (b) in a vice
should be held (c) directly on table with angle plate
(a) between the jaws of vice (d) by using V-blocks
(b) with clamps 10. The feed of a job on a shaper is provided by
(c) with parallels movement of
(d) clamps, bolts and squares (a) clapper box (b) ram
9. For shaping a large job, it should be held (c) tool (d) table
tltEvmw QUESTIONS
1. What is a shaper? What are its functions? 10. Explain the method of carrying out an opera
2. What are the principal parts of a shaper? tion on a shaper.
3. What are the different ways of classifying a 11. What are the various operations performed on
shaper? a shaper? Explain with a neat sketch the proce
4. Explain with a neat sketch the working prin dure of cutting horizontal surfaces.
ciple of a shaper. 12. Explain with neat sketches the procedure for
5. What is the purpose of the following parts of a carrying out the following operations on a
shaper? shaper:
(a) Base (b) Column (a) Horizontal cutting (b) Vertical cutting
(c) Cross-rail (d) Table (c) Irregular cutting (d) Keyway cutting
(e) Shaper head 13. Describe the method of holding jobs on a sha
6. Explain in brief the different types of shaping per.
machines used in a factory. 14. How are shaping tools classified? Sketch the
7. Explain with a neat sketch the quick return various shaper cutting tools.
mechanism of a shaper. 15. Describe the various types of vices used as hold
8. Write short notes on: ing devices.
(a) quick return mechanism 16. What safety precautions should be followed
·(b) adjustment of stroke length and position while working on a shaper?
of ram 17. What is a slotter? Explain its working.
9. Explain with a neat sketch the working of a 18. Describe the various drives used on a slotter
hydraulic shaper. machine.
6.1 INTRODUCTION planer is carried out by the stationary cutting
tool against the reciprocating job.
A variety of machines are used for producing
flat surfaces. A planer is a large machine tool 6.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEENA SHAPER
used for machining flat surfaces by means of ANDA PLANER
single point cutting tools. The work to be ma
chined is fastened .securely to the planer table Both a shaper and a planer are generally used
with suitable holding devices. This table has a for machining flat surfaces by means of a single
reciprocating movement and the length of the point cutting tool. The fundamental differences
stroke is 3-5 cm longer than the length of the between a shaper and a planer are given in Table
surfaces to be planed. A cutting operation on a 6.1.
Table 6.1 Difference between a shaper and a planer
,S.No. Shaper Planer

1. The cutting tool moves to-and-fro in the horizontal The cutting tool remains stationary
direction while performing a cutting operation
, 2. The job is held rigidly on a fixed bed The job is held rigidly on a horizontally moving table
3. The cutting stroke is slower than the idle stroke The cutting stroke is slower in this case also
4. The stroke length is regulated by the stroke adjust- The distance of rable travel is regulated by stops and
ing screw dogs
5. It is used for small works It is used for large works
6. Cutting speed during the cutting stroke varies Planers have almost constant cutting speeds
7. During machining, a single tool is used Two or more tools can be used during machining
8. The stroke length is small The stroke length is substantially greater than that -0f a
shaper
9. The tool is mounted on the tool post fitted at the The tools are mounted on tool heads mounted on cross
end of ram rails and columns
Planing Machines----------- - -
- 79 j
Saddle
Ways
Bevel gears for
�::;:::::�- cross.:rail vertical
adjustment
Tool post
Table
Drive shaft
Reverse
Bed Stroke Feed Leg

adjustment
mechanism
Fig. 6.1 Basic parts of a planer
6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANING Open-side planer An open-side planer has a

MACHINES housing or column on one side only, which per
mits the machining of wide pieces. Many plan
Planers can be classified in a number of ways:
ers are provided with one flat and one double
1. According to drive
V-ways. This allows for unequal bed and plate
(i) Gear drive
expansions, which makes them suitable for plan
(ii) Hydraulic drive
ing irregular workpieces that may extend out
(iii) Belt drive
wards over the other side of the table. The design
(iv) Crank drive
features of this planer are similar to those of a
(v) Variable-speed motor drive.
double column planer.
2. According to general construction
(i) Double-column planer Pit-type planer This is a massive planer ca
(ii) Open-side planer pable of holding very big workpieces (4.5 m
(iii) Pit-type planer wide and 8 m long). It differs from ordinary
(iv) Edge or plate planer planers in that the bed is stationary and the tool
is moved over the job. It consists of two ram
Double-column planer This planer consists type heads mounted on the cross-rail. Each head
of a heavy base on which a table reciprocates on is furnished with double clapper box tool hold
accurate guideways, and two columns. The
ers for two-way planing. In such a planer, all
column supports the cross rail and houses the ele
mechanisms are automatic and designed to op
vating screw and the machine controls. Figure
erate on both ends of the planing stroke.
6.2 shows a double housing planer. The tools
are fed manually or by power in the vertical, Plate or edge planer This is a specially de
horizontal or angular direction. This is the most signed planer used for cutting the edges of heavy
widely used planer in workshops. steel plates, pressure vessels and armoured
/
------------Manufacturing Processes 1---- ---------

r 80-·
Cross-rail bevel gears
Cross-member
Rack
Pawl
Feed screw gear
Column
Stroke dog
Feed
mechanism
Legs lever
Fig. 6.2 Double column planer with its basic parts
plates. The job to be machined is mounted rig- on sliding V-ways. The upper surface of the table
- idly on the bed and the carriage that supports has T-slots to facilitate the clamping of the work
the cutting tools is moved back-and-forth along pieces, special fixture and vices with T-bolts.
the edge. These days planers use milling cutters Its main function is to hold the workpieces and
for greater speed and accuracy of operation. reciprocate on guideways to impart motion to
the job for a planing operation.
6.4 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A PLANER
Housing The housing is a vertical casting that
The principal parts of a planer are: straddles the table and the bed of a planer. It
(i) Bed
acts as a support for the mechanism of tool head
(ii) Table
(iii) Housing operations. Its accurately machined parts pro
(iv) Cross-rail vide precision to the surface for an accurate
(v) Saddle movement of cross-rails. The side tool heads
(vi) Tool head also slide upon it.
Bed .The bed is a large rigid box-like casting Cross-rail The mechanism that acts as a guide
that acts as the foundation of a machine. It sup for the transverse travel of the saddle is known
ports the column and all the moving parts of the as a cross-rail. It supports the tool heads by
· planer. The length of the bed is slightly more means of feed screws. The cross-rail can be
than twice the length of the table, so that the moved up and down by means of feed screws.
full length of the table can move in it. For accurate working, the table and cross-rail
Table The table of a planer is a large rectan must be parallel. Cross-rails are rigidly connected
gular thick cast plate that moves over the bed to castings for accurate operation.
-------- - - ------PlaningMachines--------------811
Saddle The unit fitted to the ways of the cross

Table
rail is known as a saddle. The front of the saddle
is provided with ways to hold the tool head and
feed screws. The saddle can be moved in the
\
crosswise direction over the table.
Tool head The tool head of a planer is the
part attached to the saddle that contains the tool
post. In turn, the tool post holds the cutting tool.
The tool post is so hinged to the head that the
cutting tool is raised during the idle stroke. This Bull gear
intermediate
saves the cutting edge of the tool. The tool head
Second intermediate
of a planer is similar in design and operation to
the tool head of a shaper. A planer may be fitted Fig. 6.4 Rack and spur gear table drive mechanism
with two or more tool ·heads to perform more
the idle stroke. The quick return of the table is
than one operation.
facilitated by means of adjustable stops that come
in contact at the end of the stroke and engage
the gears of the gear trains for variable speeds.
Rack and worm wheel drive In a rack and
worm wheel table drive of a planer, the rack is
fitted to the bottom surface of the table and is
driven by a worm gear. To facilitate smooth
movement of the table, the axis of the shaft of
the worm gear is kept at an angle to the centre
line of the table. The remaining mechanism of
Fig. 6.3 Tool head of a planer
the drive is similar to that· of a rack and spur
6.5 TABLE DRIVE MECHANISM gear drive, explained before.
The various techniques used for imparting re

Hydraulic drive Hydraulic drives are becom
ciprocating motion to the table of a planer are: ing increasingly popular these days. They pro
(i) Rack and spur gear table drive vide a uniform speed throughout the cutting
(ii) Spiral rack and worm wheel stroke. Oil under pressure is used as a working
(iii) Crank drive fluid in such planers. The oil is pumped into the
(iv) Hydraulic drive piston by a variable delivery electric pump. The
(v) Belt drive speed of the piston is controlled by regulating
the delivery of the oil into the piston with ad-
Rack and spur gear drive A rack and spur
gear drive consists of a compound gear train justing valves.
with two intermediate compound gears, as shown Figure 6.5 shows a simplified diagram of the
in Fig. 6.4. The driving gear is .connected di hydraulic drive of a planer. Oil from the reser
rectly to the· electric motor and the motion is voir is forced into the piston by the pump through
transmitted to the bull gear (fitted with the table) the discharge line E and post B. At the end of
through two intermediate gears. The pinion gets the stroke, the dog or trip moves the valve in
its drive from the electric motor. The table speed the opposite direction so that the valve and post
is slower during the cutting stroke than during are aligned with lines D and S. As such, the oil
j 82 -- - ---------Manufacturing Processes 1 - -- - - -- -- -
Table
caJEiti-�
��Bc�·
.._...,..1 -piston
--++-
f.1-J?r°h===E."I..
E
� � ITU
�l:f,;--t--S
L__Ji!!t::::::t-t---Valve 0
port B
�db,&L�
•
Valve
port A
JL[§U��
Oil reservoir
Fig. 6.5 Hydraulic mechanism ofa planer: £-discharge
line. D and S s-
upply lines. R-valve
pushes the table in the other direction. Hydrau

lic drives are advantageous due to their uniform Fig. 6.6 Commonly used planer tools
pressure, quick table reversal, rapid means of
varying the stroke and relatively quiet opera
6.7 CUTTING SPEEDS AND FEEDS IN
tions. PLANING
The cutting speeds, feeds and depth of cuts of
6.6 PLANER TOOLS planers of various materials are shown in Table
The cutting tools used on planer are similar to 6.2.
those used for shaper or lathe work. The cutting
ends of cutting tools are shaped for various cut 6.8 WORK HOLDING DEVICES
ting situations. Small tool bits held in holders Most planing operations are quite simple, but
are also used for planing components. Tool bits the setting of some parts often require consider
are preferred because they are cheaper than a able skill and ingenuity. The following three
set of solid tools. The designs of commonly used points need to be considered for holding the
planing tools are shown in Fig. 6.6. workpiece correctly on a planer:
Table 6.2
Material Type of work High-speed steel Carbide tip tools

Speed Feed Depth of cut Speed Feed Depth of cut
(mlmin) (mm) (mm) (mlmin) (mm) (mm)
Aluminium General 40-65 0.5-1.5 3-12 max. table 0.8-2.4 5-19
speed
Bronze General 40-50 0.5-1.5 2-10 max. table 0.5-2.0 4-16
speed
Cast iron Roughing 18-25 3-6 3-25 42-65 1.0-3.0 5-15
Finishing 6-15 3-6 1-3 15-25 3-6 1-3
Steel General 5--45 2-18 2-10 15-20 2.:..18 1.:..12
Wrought iron General 5-55 2-22 2-12 18-25 2-18 1-15
Planing Machines,- - - ---- - --- 831
1. The workpiece should be held securely to is securely bolted to the table and the workpiece
prevent it from being shifted under the on the table for carrying out the planing opera
pressure of the cut. tions.
2. The workpiece should not spring out of
shape due to clamping pressure. Clamping
should be done rigidly all around the work.
3. The workpiece should be so held that it is
possible to give a finish to the surfaces
that require planing.
The commonly used techniques for holding
the workpiece on a planer are:
1. By using standard clamping devices (a) (b)
2. By special fixtures. Fig. 6.8 (a) Adjustable block. (b) T-slot damp
6.8.1 Standard Clamping Devices
Angle plates and step blocks For angle plates,
The standard clamping devices used for holding refer to the chapter on 'Benchwork and Fitting'
a workpiece on a planer are ci Workshop Practice by the same author. A
(i) Heavy duty vices step block shown in Fig. 6.9 is used for holding
(ii) Clamps and T-bolts components with the help of T-bolts. One end
(iii) Adjustable block
of the step block is set on the work and the
(iv) Angle plates and step blocks
other end supported on the planer table with the
(v) Planer jack
help of bolts.
(vi) V-blocks
Vices Refer to Section 5 .14 on shaper.
Clamps and T-bolts A commonly used method
of holding the job directly to the table is to use
clamps. There are several designs of clamps
available and some popular ones are shown in
Fig. 6.7.
Fig. 6.9 Step block

Planer jacks Too often it is necessary to level
the heavier workpieces on the table of a planer.
Planer jacks as shown in Fig. 6. lO(a, b) are used
Fig. 6. 7 Commonly used damps for holding workpieces
for supporting the workpiece and levelling it on
Adjustable block and T-slot clamp An ad the table. The commonly used planer jacks are
justable block consists of two serrated jaws with (a) standard planer jack, (b) vertical jack and
grooves inside as shown in Fig. 6.8(a). Another (c) bracing jack
type of clamp commonly used is a T-slot clamp, Wedges at one or two corners are also used
shown in Fig. 6.8(b). The bolt of a T-slot clamp for levelling the workpiece.
184 -------------Manufacturing Processes!---------------
The various operations performed on a planer

are:
1. Planing horizontal surfaces
2. Planing vertical surfaces
3. Planing at an angle and grooving
4. Planing slots and dovetails
5. Planing curved surfaces.
Planing Horizontal Surfaces While planing
horizontal surfaces, the workpiece is held rig
(a) (b)
idly on the table and the cross-rail is set to the
correct height. The roughing tool is placed in
Fig. 6.10 (a} Standard planer jack, (b) Vertical planer
jack the tool holder such that it is perpendicular to
the workpiece. The depth of cut, speed and feed
V-blocks Refer to the chapter titled 'Benchwork are adjusted and both the rail heads are moved
and Fitting' of Workshop Practice by the same simultaneously for the removal of the metal, with
author. the cutting tool against the reciprocating job.
The operation is continued till the roughing cuts
6.8.2 Special Fixtures are over. The finishing of the workpiece is done
Standard clamping devices discussed so far are with the help of a finishing tool by taking light
not useful for production work, as each setting cuts.
requires some time. These devices can hold only Planing Vertical Surfaces Planing of verti
one piece at a time. Special fixtures are used for cal surfaces is done either by using cross-rails
holding a large number of identical parts on the or by using a side head. Planing by using a side
planer table and for holding particular types of head is better. The bolts of the tool holder are
workpieces. The use of fixtures reduces the set loosened and the tool holder is swivelled either
ting time considerably and helps in increased to the left or the right position. Swivelling pre
production, economy and productivity. vents the tool from dragging over the planed
Fixture
surface. Before taking a cut, it needs to be en
(angle plate) Direction of cut sured that the sliding of the tool is perpendicu
lar to the horizontal surface. The tool is brought
into position and the cut is started. The tool is
fed downward by the required feed and the next
cut is taken. The operation is repeated till the
whole of the surface is machined.
Planing at an Angle and Grooving The plan
Wedge Blocks ing of workpieces at an angle is done by swivel
ling the tool head assembly around the centre
Fig. 6.11 Holding a job with the help offixture
axis with respect to the saddle. A dial gauge is
used for accurate setting of the tool holder at an
6.9 PLANING OPERATIONS
angle, as shown in Fig. 6.12. The protractor is
Before starting any planing operation, the work set at a desired angle and clamped to the table
piece is clamped rigidly on the planer table. The of the planer. Readings are taken by placing the
various clamping devices used on planers have dial gauge at different positions. Similar read
been discussed earlier. ings imply that the tool holder is properly set.
Planing Machines:-------- --- -- 851
tool is advanced by the required feed to repeat

the cut. The process is continued till the end.
For cutting the other side of the V-block (or
grooving), the tool head is set at the required
angle on the opposite side and cuts are taken till
the completion of the groove.
Planing Slots and Dovetails Slots are pro
duced by using a slotting tool in the same way
as on a shaper. The method of cutting dovetails
Table is similar to that of grooving discussed earlier.
'Planing Curved Surfaces Curved surfaces are
Fig. 6.12 Method of using a protractor and dial indica produced on a planer by using special fixtures,
tor to check the angular setting of the slide as shown in Fig. 6.14. The fixture consists of a
head A and B show two positions of the dial radius arm pivoted with the bracket. The bracket
indicator
is connected to the cross member attached to
The job is fixed rigidly on the planer bed and the housing. The slide is fastened to the radial
the planing of the surface is done by feeding the arm after removing the feed screw. While plan
tool. Cutting at an angle and grooving opera ing, the cross-feed is engaged. This causes the
tions can be understoo� easily by planing a saddle to traverse to the cross-rail and the tool
V-block, as shown in Fig. 6.13. After setting over a guided radius to produce a concave sur
the tool and clamping the workpiece, the tool face. The radius of the concave surface is pro
cuts the reciprocating part. After each cut, - the portional to the radius arm of the fixture.
Transverse path
of tool
Fig. 6.13 Setting the slide head and tool block for plan Fig. 6.14 Planing curved surfaces with the help of
ing the V-block fixtures
ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( .I) for the right answer (b) low cutting speed
1. Poor surface finish on a planer results due to (c) heavy depth of cut
(a) high cutting speed (d) coarse feed
�.
186 - --- - -------Manufacturing Processes.I-- ------- - - -- -
2. Flat thin workpiece is held on a planer by 4. Size of a planer is specified by

(a) V-blocks (a) size of table only
(b) V-blocks, T-bolts and clamps (b) size of table and height of cross-rail
(c) toe dogs and stops (c) stroke length
(d) magnetic chucks (d) speed, feed and depth of cut
5. Both shaper and planer are used for finishing
3. For planing a cylindrical job on a planer, the
flat surfaces. In the case of a planer the
job is held by (a) tool moves over stationary workpiece
(a) V-blocks and arrestors (b) job moves over stationary tool
(b) V-blocks, clamps and T-bolts (c) both tool and workpiece reciprocate
(c) magnetic table (d) both internal and external surfaces can be
(d) machine vice machined
1. What is a planer? What is its function? 9. Enumerate the various holding devices used on
2. What is the difference between a shaper and a a planer.
planer? 10. Describe the method of planing horizontal sur-
3. How are planers classified? faces.
4. What are the principal parts of a planer?
11. Outlines the procedure of planing vertical sur-
5. What do you understand by table, housing,
faces.
saddle and cross-rails of planers?
6. Explain with sketches the different types of 12. Describe the method of cutting grooves on a
planer table drive mechanisms. planer.
7. What is meant by the terms 'speed' and 'feed' 13. What are the functions of using fixtures on a
of a planer? planer?
8. Enumerate the various types of cutting tools 14. Describe a method of producing curved sur-
used on a planer. faces on a planer.
Milling and Milling
Machines
7.1 INTRODUCTION (ii) Planer milling machine

(iii) Fixed bed-type milling machine
The milling machine, invented by Eli Whitney (iv) Special milling machines, such as rotary
in 1818, carries out cutting operation on a table, duplicating and profiling.
workpiece with a revolving cutter as the work Depending upon the position of the spindle,
piece is fed against it. A milling cutter has a milling machines are classified as:
series of cutting edge on its circumference. Each (i) Horizontal spindle milling machines
acts as an individual cutter during the cycle of (ii) Vertical spindle milling machines
rotation. The spindle of the horizontal milling machine
Depending upon the type of milling opera is horizontal to the worktable, while the spindle
tion, the cutters used on a milling machine have of the vertical milling machine is at right angles
different shapes and sizes. These cutters are held to the worktable. In a vertical milling machine,
on the arbor or attached directly to the spindle the cutter can be raised or lowered by an adjust
to carry out the operation. The milling machine ment of the spindle head. In all milling machines,
is the most versatile machine for machining flat the worktable can be moved to any position to
or formed surfaces with excellent finish and ac carry out the operations.
curacy. The various operations that can be per Machine size Milling machines are specified
formed on it are cutting angles on workpieces, by the longitudinal travel of the worktable, the
slots, gear teeth, boring and surface machining. horse power of the main motor, the type of mill
ing machine and its model.
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING
MACHINES 7.3 THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A MILLING
MACHINE
Milling machines are· classified in a variety of
ways. According to the drive, milling machines A description of the principal parts of a milling
are classified as (a) cone-pulley belt drive or machine follows.
(b) individual motor drive. According to design, Column The main casting of a milling ma
milling machines are classified as: chine is known as the column. It encloses and
(i) Column and knee-type milling machine supports all the parts of a milling machine.
188-------------Manufacturing Processes 1 ------------
Arbor
Milling
cutter
Worktable
(a)
( b)
Fig. 7.1 (a) Principle of a milling machine. (b) Some shapes that can be produced on a milling machine
Knee It is a unit attached in front of the col used for supporting arbors and can be moved
umn. It moves up and down on the slide ways forward and backward.
and encloses the feed change gearing mecha
nism. 7.4 HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE
Table It is an attachment provided at the top A horizontal milling machine consists of a hori
of the knee. It is used for holding workpieces zontally mounted milling spindle, as shown in
for machining and can be moved in a longitudi Fig. 7.2. The spindle, the main feed drive, the
nal as well as a crosswise direction. knee and the milling table are supported by the
column. The main spindle is supported on sturdy
Spindle It is a large shaft located at the top of anti-friction bearings for smooth operation. The
the column having a taper.ed hole in front of it.
spindle head is provided with inside and outside
The tapered hole is used for holding arbors and
tapers _for mounting the milling cutters.
cutting tools. Rotary motion to the main spindle is provided
Overarm The portion at the top of the column by the main drive either through a stepped cone
above the spindle is called the overarm. It is pulley drive or a gear drive. Modem machines
-- - ----------Milling and Milling Machines------------ 89 I
-
Swivelling
Head
0 0
0
Column
Saddle
Fig. 7.2 Horizontal milling machine

�Base
are provided with gear drives which enable them Fig. 7.3 Vertical milling machine
to get a large variation of speeds by simple le
ver control.
The feed to the workpiece is provided by the
milling table fitted on the knee. The knee (and
thus the table) can be moved up-and-down, to
and-fro and left-and-right by various levers and
cross-slides mounted on the machines. Screw
spindles with hand wheels are used for manual
control. The milling table can also be moved by
a feed drive either from the main drive or by a
separate feed motor. The machines have a draw
key or shifting gear transmission mechanism for
various feeds. They are suitable for general mill
ing work, such as surface finishing, gear cut Fig. 7.4 Universal milling machine
ting, keyway cutting and slotting.
similar to a horizontal milling machine. The
7,5 VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE worktable of this machine is provided with an
A vertical milling machine consists of a milling other extra swivel movement with an index or
spindle mounted vertically in the milling head. dividing head located at the end of the table.
The milling head consists of a scale provided in The swivelling attachments provided on these
degrees and can be swivelled and set at any machines help in cutting spirals, gears and cams
oblique position. In construction and drive, it is in addition to normal milling operations. These
similar to a horizontal milling machine, except machines are very accurate and are used mainly
in the spindle direction. This machine is usually for toolroom work.·
· used for end milling work with end mill cutters,
and for producing flat surfaces. 7.7 OMNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE
This may be said as a modified form of a plain
7.6 UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE (horizontal) milling machine. It consists of two
In appearance, a universal milling machine is spindles, one of which is in the horizontal plane,
j 90 --- ---------Manufacturing Processes ·1--------------
while the other is carried by a universal swivel its working. The main difference between these
ling head. The latter can be set in a vertical machines is in the tool heads. In this machine,
position and swivelled up to 45 ° on both sides. motor-driven spindle carriers are mounted on
The knee of this machine can also be swivelled cross-rails. This is the largest sized milling ma
in the horizontal plane, thus enabling it to carry chine and is used for milling heavy components.
out a large number of operations. Milling operations on this machine are car
ried out by
7.8 FIXED BED PLAIN MILLING MACHINE (a) moving the table against rotating cutters
In a fixed bed plain milling machine, the table (b) feeding the cutters by moving the milling
is mounted on a fixed bed instead of a saddle heads against the stationary table
and knee, as in the case of plain milling ma (c) moving the table and milling heads simul
chine. Since the bed is fixed, it cannot move up, taneously.
down or crosswise. The machine consists of an These machines are suitable for machining
adjustable spindle head spindle carrier fixed rig flat surfaces of very heavy workpieces.
idly to the column with parallel vertical ways.
7.10 ROTARY TABLE MILLING MACHINE
The-spindle head carries the spindles, which can
be moved up and down along the column ways This is also known as a continuous milling ma-
to adjust the tool in the proper position for car . chine. It consists of a heavy and robust structure
rying out different milling operations. Other and is mainly used for large-scale production. It
modified forms of fixed bed milling machines is called a continuous milling machine since no
are duplex head and triplex head fixed bed mill idle time is needed in locating the component
ing machines. on its bed.
It consists of a heavy base, column and
spindle carrier. The column carries two vertical
spindles used for roughing cuts and finishing
cuts. A heavy circular table capable of rotating
Spindle I about the vertical axis is mounted on the base to
head I
(adjust- I hold the components. A number of fixtures are
_a_!?l!)_J used for holding components on the table. These
machines are very suitable for the mass produc
tion of components. Their production rate is
thrice as fast as that of planer-type milling ma
chines.
7.11 MILLING MACHINE MECHANISM

The mechanism of a milling machine can be
Base
divided into (a) a spindle drive mechanism and
Fig. 7.5 Fixed bed plain milling machine (b) a table feed mechanism.
In modem milling machines, the spindle drive
7.9 PLANER-TYPE MILLING MACHINE mechanism is housed in a column. The spindle
It is called planer-type milling machine since it receives power from an electric motor through a
resembles a double housing planing machine in combination of gear and gear trains fitted inside
appearance, construction and to some extent in the column, by altering the gear ratio.
Milling and Milling Machines-------- -
--- 911
The table feed mechanism is contained within Workpiece

Bolt
the knee of the machine and provides motion in �
the longitudinal, cross and vertical directions.
The power is transmitted from the feed gear box
consisting of change gears.
7.12 WORK HOLDING DEVICES
(a)
A workpiece must be held securely and rigidly Table (b)
on the milling machine table for accurate mill
ing operations. The most commonly used hold
ing devices are different types of vices. These
have been discussed in the chapter on shaping
machines. We now proceed to discuss other hold
ing devices used on a milling machine. (c) (d)
7.12.1 T-bolts and. Clamps Fig. 7.7 Clamps: (a) Plain slot clamp. (b) U-clamp.
T-bolts are used for holding the work directly (c) Goose neck clamp, (d) Adjustable clamp
on the milling machine. The milling machine

7.12.2 Fixtures
table is provided with T-slots and the workpiece
is held with the help of T-bolts, as shown in The various holding devices discussed above are
Fig. 7.6. not suitable for production work and cannot be
Workpiece
(b) (c )
(a)
Fig. 7.6 (a) T-bolt, (b) T-bolt placed in a T-slot of a milling machine, (c) Job held by a T-bolt
Clamps or straps are mild steel flats gener used for mass production and accurate location
ally 12-20 mm thick and 45-75 mm wide. They of jobs. For such purposes, fixtures are used.
are provided with a slot or opening to allow the These are especially useful when a large num
T-bolt to pass through them. Various shapes of ber of identical parts '1fe to be produced. The
clamps used for holding components are shown use of fixtures minimises loading, locating, clam
in Fig. 7.7. ping and unloading time. Depending upon the
! 92 ------------ Manufacturin
- g Processes!--- -----------
design requirements, different types of fixtures following cutter holding devices are used on
are used on milling machines. milling machines.
7.12.3 The Circular Table Arbors Cutters having a bore are mounted on
the arbor of a milling machine. A simplified
Circular tables are available in the market in view of a milling cutter mounted on an arbor is
different designs, shapes and specifications, but shown in Fig. 7.9.
with the same basic function. Circular tables are
used for milling circular surfaces. On boring Spindle Arbor Cutter
machines, circular tables are used for boring a
series of holes. A circular table may be mounted
on the machine table and used for producing
circular surfaces after centralisation. In recent
years the design of circular tables has improved
considerably and they are now available in vari
ous inclinable forms for angular work. The in
dexing principles of circular tables are based
on: (a) vernier principle, (b) dividing head in
dex plate principle, and (c) optical scale prin Fig. 7.9 Milling cutter mounted on an arbor
ciple. Vernier principle circular tables are the
most abundantly used on milling machines. The following rules must be followed while
These are calibrated precision tables used for holding cutters on a milling machine:
accurate work. 1. Use a proper milling cutter corresponding
to the diameter of the arbor.
Circular Table 2. Protect the milling spindle head and tapers
on milling arbors from damage.
3. Clean all fitting surfaces before assembly.
4. Rotate the cutter in the proper direction
and protect it from breakage by using pro
per speeds and feeds.
7.12.5 Collets
Handwheel to be A collet is an accurate, time-saving cutter-hold
Base fitted here
ing device used on milling machines. It is avail
Fig. 7,8 Hi!nd-operated drcular milling table able in various designs. The most commonly
used collet is the spring-type collet. This is fit
Figure 7.8 shows a hand-operated circular ted on the main spindle of the milling machine
milling table. Power-operated universal milling with a hand wheel draw sleeve and is operated
tables are also available for precision produc by handle fitted on it. In design, plain and spring
tion work on milling machines. Such tables are collets are similar to the collets used on a lathe.
provided with a special electric motor, indexing
mechanism and gear train to rotate the table at 7.12.6 Screwed Cutters
desired speeds. Very often, small cutters are provided with
7.12.4 Cutter Holding Devices
threaded holes at the centre. These cutters are
mounted on the threaded nose of an arbor, as
Depending upon the design of the cutter, the shown in Fig. 7.10. The arbor is mounted on the
--------------Milling and Milling Machines---------- -
- 931
spindle in the usual manner and the cutter is casing for increasing the normal speed of the
held on the other end for carrying out milling milling machine .spindle. It is used to obtain the
operations. correct cutter speed for small milling cutters.
Cutter 7,13.4 Rotary Attachment
A rotary attachment is also known as a circular
milling attachment. It is used for a variety of
circular milling operations, such as segment out
Fig. 7.10 Milling cutter screwed on an arbor lines, spline slotting segmental milling and die
making jobs. The attachment consists of a ro
7,13 MILLING MACHINE ATTACHMENTS tary table which is mounted on top of the ma
chine table and provides rotary motion to the
Many standard or special auxiliary devices are
workpiece. The circular table may be rotated by
used on a milling machine for augmenting the
range, versatility, productivity and accuracy of hand or with the help of power, by linking the
operation. Some milling attachments are used rotary table mechanism with the lead screw. The
for positioning and driving the.cutter by altering circumference of the table is graduated in de-.
the axis of rotation. Other devices are used for grees for accurate work.
positioning, holding and feeding the work. We 7.13. 5 SIottmg·
Attachment
now discuss various attachments used on mill-
ing machines.. The slotting attachment consists of a tool slide
and an eccentric or crank housed within the at
7.13.1 Vertical Milling Attachment
tachment. It converts rotary motion into recipro
It is an attachment used for converting a hori cating motion, making the machine operate like
zontal milling machine into a vertical milling a slotter. It is largely used for making tools,
machine by orienting the cutting spindle axis keyways and splines. The attachment can be set
from the horizontal to the vertical position. A at any angle from O to 90° .
vertical milling attachment is used for vertical
milling operations with large endmills and face 7.13.6 Rack Milling Attachment
mills. The spindle head can be swivelled to any The attachment consists of a gear train and en
degree for milling operations. ables the spindle axis to be oriented at right
7.13.2 Universal Milling Attachment angles to the machine spindle. It is used for
cutting rack teeth but can also be used in con
The spindle of a universal milling attachment
junction with .the universal spiral index for cut
can be swivelled about two mutually perpen
ting worms and other miscellaneous operations.
dicular axes and be set at any angle in both
planes. In other respects it is similar to a verti 7,13,7 Universal Spiral Milling Attachment
cal milling attachment. This attachment is espe
cially useful when the spindle needs to be set at It is a device used principally for milling helical
an angle to the table for angular milling. and spiral gear teeth. The attachment is used on
a plain or universal milling machine by bolting
7.13.3 High-speed Milling Attachment on the face of the column. It is suitable for ver
A high speed milling attachment consists pri tical and angular milling for cutting worms and
marily of a number of gears (4-6) enclosed in a grooves on milling cutters and twist drills.
194 ------ - - ----Manufacturing Processes!-- - ---- --- -
-
7,13.8 Dividing Head Attachment vertical plane. A helical dividing head is similar
to a plain dividing head in design but its spindle
A dividing head is also called an indexing head.
can be connected to a table lead screw through
It is mainly employed on milling machines for
setting the workpiece and rotating it through pre intermediary gears. In this way two types of
determined angles and dividing circles into the motions can be imparted to a job-rotary and
required number of parts. The work is mounted translatory. This arrangement is suitable for cut
either on a chuck fitted on the dividing head or ting helical gears along the line AB, as shown
supported between live and dead centres. This in Fig. 7.13.
attachment is very suitable for dividing the pe 7.13.9 Index Plates
riphery of the workpiece into an equal number
of parts. It can also be linked with the table lead Indexing plates are used on dividing heads for
screw for cutting equally spaced helical grooves dividing the periphery of a component into equal/
on the periphery of a cylindrical work. The in required degrees. These plates have equally
dex head is a worm gear reducer having a ratio spaced holes arranged in circular rows. Each
of 40: 1, i.e. 40 turns of the crank rotate the plate has six concentric circular rows. With
workpiece through one revolution. these plates the division of a circle is possible
Rapid spacing Plain head

Plain head plate Worm wheel
Worm wheel
Ir
Spindle
Drive,
Index pin
Index crank
Clamp nut
'
Sector Worm r
gear
�::�: plate
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.11 (a) SMe view of a plain dividing head showing its basic parts. (b) Sectional view of a plain dividing head
showing its parts
The three types of dividing heads commonly in a range from 2 to 20,000 parts. An index
used are plain, universal and helical. The spindle plate mounted on a dividing head is shown in
of a plain dividing head rotates on the horizon Fig. 7.1 l(a).
tal axis. The main parts of a plain dividing head
are shown in Fig. 7. l l(a) and (b). A universal 7.14 MILLING CUTTERS
dividing head is a modified form of plain divid These are multitooth rotary cutting tools gener
ing head whose spindle can be swivelled in a ally made of high-speed steel or sintered carbides.
- - - - - ------- -Milling and Mflling Machines---------- - - -951
Circular Angular Depending upon the type of operation, mill

guide clamp bolt ing cutters are classified as
Swivel or
universal Spindle (i) plain milling cutters
head casting (ii) side milling cutters
(iii) end mill cutters
(iv) angle milling cutters
(v) slitting saws
(vi) form milling cutters
(vii) T-slot cutters
B According to the way of mounting on the
machine, milling cutters are classified as
(i) arbor cutters
(ii) shank cutters
(iii) face cutters
Plain milling cutter This is also known as a
mill cutter. It is disc-shaped cutter having teeth
on its circumference. The two types of com- .
monly used plain milling cutters are plain straight
Fig. 7.12 Arrangement for swivelling the spindle of teeth cutter and plain milling helical cutter,
the universal dividing head shown in Fig. 7.14(a) and (b), respectively.
Helix erroneously called Side milling cutter A side milling cutter re
"spiral" sembles a plain milling cutter, except that its
Cylindrical work
teeth are on the side, as shown in Fig. 7.14(c).
Tailstock Side milling cutters are used for side milling
centre and slot cutting and may have plain, helical or
staggered teeth. Helical teeth cutters are pre
ferred on milling machines since they require
Longitudinal
less power for machining as more than one teeth
Rotary movement
(spindle movement) movement (table performs a milling operation at a time.
movement) Slitting saw cutter These are very thin cut
Fig. 7.13 Production of a helix by combination of the ters, varying in thickness from 0.5 to 5 mm.
rotary and longitudinal feed They are used for cutting deep slots and parting
off materials into pieces. These cutters are thin
A milling cutter is specified by (a) type of the ner at the centre than at the edge to provide
cutter, (b) outer diameter of the cutter, (c) width clearance and to reduce friction.
of the cutter, and (d) shank size of the cutter. Angular cutters All cutters which have their
cutting teeth at an angle to the axis of rotation
7,15 CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING are known as angular cutters. Angular cutters
CUTTERS are classified as single angular cutters or double
Milling cutters are classified in different ways. angular cutters, as shown in Fig. 7.14(e) and (f),
According to the shape of the tooth, milling cut respectively.
ters are classified as milled tooth cutters and Form milling cutters Cutters designed to cut
form relieved cutters. definite shapes are known as form milling
J96 -------------Manufacturing Processes I---------------
(a)
(b)
( c) (d)
(e)
(f)
G)
Fig. 7.14 Milling cutters: (a) Straight teeth plain milling cutter. {b) Plain helical milling cutter. (c) Side milling
cutter. (d) Slitting saw (e) Single angle cutter. (f} Double angle cutter. (g) Convex cutter. (h) Concave
cutter. {i) End mill cutter. (j) T-slot cutter
cutters. These cutters can be classified accord Primary clearance angle

ing to their shape as convex or concave cutters,
gear cutters, flute cutters and corner rounding
cutters.
End mill cutters An end mill cutter is similar Face of tooth
to a reamer in shape. It is a milling cutter hav � Direction of
ing its teeth on its end. It has cutting edges on l rotation
Cutting
its periphery and is used for milling flat sur edge
faces, milling slots and profiles. Tooth depth
T-slot cutters AT-slot cutter, as shown in Fig. radius

7. l 4(j) is used for cutting T-shaped slots similar
to those in the milling machine table. Woodruff
Fig. 7.15 Elements of a plain milling cutter
key cutters are special T-slot cutters used for
cutting Woodruff keys on shafts and spindles. Body of cutter The main frame of the cutter
7.16 ELEMENTS OF A PLAIN MILLING on which the teeth rest to form an integral part
is known as body of the cutter. It is the portion
CUTTER
left after excluding the teeth and the portion on
Figure 7.15 shows the principal parts and angles which the teeth are attached.
of a plain milling cutter. The various elements Periphery The locus of the cutting edge of a
of a plain milling cutter are as follows. tooth of a cutter is called its periphery.
-- - -
--- - - -- - Milling and Milling Machines-- - -- - - - --�911
-
_
Cutting edge The intersection of the tooth face \ Cutting edge

and the tooth flank is known as the cutting edge. \.)?
Primary clearance
1 arigle
It is the only portion-that touches the workpiece
- Eland
during a milling operation.
�-- ' 11T.L.tp angle
Face_ A c�tter portion_ adjacent to the cutting CeAtre of Clearance
edge on which the chip impinges during a mill cutter for chips
ing operation.
Fillet A reinforcement to the cutting teeth. It Fig. 7.16 Cutter angles
is provided at the bottom of the gash which joins
one tooth and the face of the other tooth. Secondary clearance angle This is the angle
formed by the secondary clearance surface of
Gash The space between the back of one tooth the tooth and the tangent to the periphery at the
and the face of another. It is needed for clearing cutting edge. It is usually 3 ° greater than the
the chip off the workpiece. clearance angle.
Land Top land means the top surface of a cut ReliefAngle The angle between the land of a
ter. Bottom land means the blank surface be tooth and the tangent to the outside diameter at
tween two consecutive teeth. the cutting edge.
Lead The distance the cutter advances in one Rake A milling cutter so ground that the sur
complete revolution or tum. face against which the chips bear, while being
Outside diameter The diameter of the cutter served, inclines in such a way that the keenness
passing through the centre and joining two ends of the cutting edge increases. Rake angles are
of the periphery. classified as zero, positive or negative.
Root diameter The diameter between the bot Zero rake When the radial line and tooth face
tom of the fillets. coincide, the cutter is said to have a zero rake.
Positive rake If the face and tooth of a cutter
7,17 CUTTERANGLES are on the same side of the radial line, the cutter
A milling cutter is provided with a rake, clear is said to have a positive rake.
ance angles and other cutting angles for the ef
ficient removal of chips. The different angles
provided on cutters ar now discussed.
Clearance Angle There are two types of clear
ance angles on a milli_ng cutter, i.e. primary clear
Zero
ance angle and secondary clearance angle. rake
Primary clearance angle This is the angle
between the surface of a land and a tangent to rake
the periphery at the cutting edge. It is provided Fig. 7.17 Rake angles
on the cutter to prevent the back of the tooth
from rubbing against the job. Depending upon Negative rake If the face of the tooth and the
the size of the cutter, the primary clearance angle tooth body are on opposite sides, the cutter is
varies from 3 ° to 12° . said to have a negative rake.
- anufacturing Processes!------------
[ 98 -- - - - - - - - - - M --
-
Helix Angle The inclination of a helical curve 3. Power consumption by helical cutters is
relative to its axis. less. The helix angle of cutters varies from
Axidl Rake Angle The line between the line 20 ° to 45 ° to ensure efficient and smooth
of the peripheral cutting edge and the axis of milling operations.
the cutter. 7.18.2 Functions of Relief and Clearance
Lip Angle The included angle between the Angles
land and the face of the tooth. 1. Relief angles are provided on· cutters to
7.18 ELEMENTS OF A SIDE MILLING prevent interference between the land and
CUTTER the work surface. The relief angle varies
with the material of the workpiece.
Figure 7.18 shows the principal parts of a side 2. Insufficient or improper relief angle results
milling cutter. The definition and functions of in excessive wear an�ear of the cutter.
various elements, as described in Secs. 7.16 and
7 .17 hold good for this cutter also. Side milling 7,19 MILLING CUTTER MATERIAL
cutters are cutters with teeth on both sides as The commonly used materials for milling cut
well as on the periphery. They are used for cut ters are:
ting slots requiring accuracy in width. 1. High-carbon steel
2. High-speed steel
3. Cemented carbide tools
4. Stellite
2 5. Ceramics
High-carbon steel This is very rarely used
since these cutters lose their cutting properties
as soon as the ·temperature at the cutting portion
rises above 200 ° C. It is used for milling brass
or aluminium pieces at a slow rate of produc
Fig. 7.18 Elements of side milling cutter: 1. Cutting
tion or for producing a few items only.
edge 2. Side cutting edge 3. Width of cutter
4. Primary face clearance angle 5. Secondary High-speed steel This is the most commonly
face clearance angle 6. Radial rake angle used material for milling cutters. Commonly used
7. Primary peripheral clearance angle 8. Sec high-speed steel contains 18% tungsten, 4%
ondary peripheral clearance angle chromium and 1% vanadium. Such steels are
capable of cutting at high speeds and retain their
7.18.1 Influence of Tooth Angles on cutting properties up to 580° C. Super-high-speed
Cutter Performance steels contain either 4% or 10% cobalt. Such
Small size milling cutters have straight teeth, steels have better properties than high-speed
whereas wider milling cutters have helical teeth. steels.
Helical cutters are preferred over plain milling Tungsten carbides They are also known as ce
cutters due to the following reasons: mented carbides and are capable of cutting 2V2
1. The operation of helical cutters is smoother times faster than high-speed steels. These are
than that of plain (straight) teeth cutters. very commonly used cutting materials, gener
2. Helical cutters do not produce a chattering ally in the form of small inserted bits in a mild
and hammering action. steel body.
--- ---Milling andMillingMachines--------
- - - -- - - -- -
- 991
Stellite This is a very useful milling cutter ma

terial for machining hard materials, e.g. bronze
and cast iron.
7.20 MILLING OPERATIONS

Milling operations or methods refer to the pro
cesses that are carried out on a milling machine.
For proper and accurate milling of a compo
nent, the following factors need consideration: (a)
1. Select the proper milling cutter. It should Milling a flat surface on: (a) Horizontal mill-
Fig. 7.19
be of the right size and type, which helps ing machine. {b) Vertical milling machine
in the successful performance of the op
eration in minimum time. cut. Take another cut if necessary. Perform the
2. Mount the cutter on the milling machine finishing operation by setting the cut from a
as near to the spindle as possible. graduated dial.
3. Mount the workpiece rigidly on the mill- Table 7.1 shows the application of different
ing table. cutters for different operations on a milling ma
chine.
7.21 MILLING FLAT SURFACES
7.21.1 Squaring Stock by Milling
This process is also known as plain or slab mill
ing and is used for machining flat surfaces. Be Squaring stock by milling means the milling of
fore carrying out the operation, select a proper flat surfaces at right angles to horizontal sur
cutter and fix it rigidly on the spindle or arbor faces. Two commonly used processes for squar
of the milling machine. Clear the table, vice, ing stock are using end mill cutters and two
etc. and fix the job at the proper position. Ad milling cutters. The process of squaring stock
just the saddle and bring the work in the centre by two milling cutters is called straddle milling.
of the cutter. Set the graduated dial and take the It is shown in Fig. 7.20(a).
Table 7.1
Name of the cutter Applicationsluse.s for milling

Plain milling cutter or mill Flat surface
Face m,illing cutter Face milling of flat surfaces
Cylindrical !llllling-cutter Roughing and finishing of flat surfaces on the hori
zontal milling machine
End mills Plain surfaces and rectangular steps on horizontal and
vertical milling machines
Side and- face milling cutter Narrow recesses
Circular saws Cutting off and milling narrow recesses
Interlocking side milling cutters Extremely accurate slot width
Angle milling cutter Angles and V-guides
Dovetail milling cutter Manufacturing dovetail guides
Fonn cutter Formed and irregular surfaces
Fly cutter Intricate shapes
Inserted tooth carbide. cutter Heavy duty work
1100�· ---- -- ----Manufacturing Processes!--- - --------
7.21.2 Face Milling 7.21.4 Slot or Keyway Milling

This is the process of milling flat surfaces using Slot milling is the process of cutting a slot on a
a milling cutter such that the surfaces generated milling machine. The operation is carried out by
is at right angles to the axis of the cutter, as using an end mill cutter on a vertical milling
shown in Fig. 7.20(b). It is generally used for machine, as shown in Fig. 7.22(a). Keyway mill
milling castings or components having large sur ing resembles slot cutting and is the process of
faces. cutting keyways on shafts. Open type keyway
cutting is performed by thin cutters on horizon
tal milling machine, as shown in Fig. 7.22(b).
Endrnill or
face cutter
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.20 (a) Straddle milling. (b) Face milling with an
inserted tooth cutter
7.21.3 Angular Milling

(a) (b)
The process of milling surfaces at an angle other Fig. 7.22 Milling a slot on: (a) A vertical milling
than right angles is called angular milling. The machine by using end mill {b) Open keyway
various processes used for angular milling are: milling on horizontal milling machine
1. By _tilting the workpiece, as shown in Fig.
7.2l(a). 7.21.5 Slitting
2. By tilting the cutter at the required angle, Slitting, also known as parting· off or cutting
as shown in Fig. 7.2l(b). off, is performed on a horizontal milling ma
3. By using a cutter of the required angle, as chine, as shown in Fig. 7.23. It is done by using
shown in Fig. 7.21(c). a slitting saw which is held on the arbor of the
horizontal milling machine.
(b)
(a}
Fig. 7.23 Slitting operation on a milling machine
(c)
7.21.6 Form Milling
Fig. 7.21 (a) Milling by tilting the work (b) Milling by Form milling is used for milling irregularly
tilting the cutter. (c) Milling by an angle cutter shaped surfaces. T�e operation is carried out on
--------------Milling andMillingMachines,---- - -------Wll
a horizontal milling machine by using a form 7.21.8 Negative Rake Milling

cutter, as shown in Fig. 7.24.
Cutters having a negative rake are known as
negative rake cutters and are a recent develop
ment in milling practice. The development of
tungsten carbide tools has greatly enhanced the
rate of machining. These tools are capable of
Generated
machining 2Y2 to 3 times faster than high-speed
surtace steel cutters. It is also possible to machine ma
terials having high tensile strength and hardness
by this process.
The main drawback of tungsten carbide tools
is that they are brittle and cannot be used as it is
Fig. 7.24 Form milling with a form milling cutter on a milling machine. In order to overcome this
drawback, tungsten carbide cutter teeth are in
7.21.7 Gang Milling serted on a mild steel cutter body, as shown in
Fig. 7.26. A positive rake maintains the tip un
Milling with a combination of several milling der compression due to the action of cutting
cutters with different diameters is called gang forces. Carbide tools are preferred over high
millin�. The operation performed by gang mill speed steels due to the following reasons:
ing cutters is called gang milling. By gang mill- 1. At greater speeds, the power required for
. ing, profile of different shapes can be milled in machining is lesser than that for high-speed
one operation (Fig. 7 .25). steels.
2. The chances of a crater in carbide tip tools
are less.
3. Carbide tools have greater resistance to
abrasion.
4. The surface finish of components is better.
5. No coolant is needed in negative rake mill
ing.
Tungsten carbide tools contain 94% tungsten
and 6% carbon by weight. A recent develop
ment is the process of applying 0.005 mm coat
Fig. 7,25 Gang milling
ing of tin, which further increases tool life.
I
Cutter
Negative Rake
Positive Rake
Resultant Force
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7.26 (a) Positive rake milling. (b) Negative rake milling. (c) Carbide tooth inserted on a cutter body
1102-------------Manufacturing Processes!--- -- - -- - - -
-
7.22 UPMILLING AND DOWNMILLING beginning. This type of load is suitable for work
ing with carbide tools. In both upmilling and
Upmilling and downmilling are also known as downmilling, the shape of the tooth is the same,
conventional milling and climb milling, respec but in upmilling as the cutter advances, the chip
tively. In upmilling, the cutter rotates in a direc thickness increases gradually. In other words,
tion oppo_site to that in which the work is fed. the chip thickness in conventional milling is zero
The chip thickness varies from nil at the tooth at the start of the cut and maximum at the end.
entrance to a maximum at the tooth exit. This The selection of a particular method of mill
gradual increase of thrust on the cutter tooth ing depends mainly upon the nature of work.
may be considered an advantage, but it is so Upmilling is mainly used for the milling of cast
only if the cutter tooth is really sharp. Gener ings and forgings. Downmilling is useful for fin
ally, this is not so and the cutting operation does ishing operations such as slotting, grooving,
not start from zero chip thickness. This produces sawing, keyway cutting, etc. as it produces a
friction between the cutter tooth and the good surface finish.
workpiece and further increases the wear of the
tooth. The cutting forces in upmilling are gener 7,23 CUTTING SPEED AND FEED
ally directed upwards, as shown in Fig. 7.27(a) The cutting speed of a milling cutter is the speed
and this tends to lift the workpiece from the with which the cutting tip passes the work, mea
table. sured in m/min or ft/min.
Suppose the diameter of the cutter is D
(in mm) and it is moving at N rpm. Then the
distance travelled by the cutting edge in one
revolution
!tD
---
1000 m
Distance covered in N revolutions
(a) (b)
1tDN ml
Fig. 7.27 (a) Upmilling. {b) Downmilling =-- mm
1000
In downmilling, the direction of rotation of The above expression shows that the cutting
the cutter coincides with the direction of motion speed is directly proportional to the diameter of
of the workpiece. In this system, the cutting tooth the cutter. Table 7.2 shows the cutting speeds of
is subjected to a maximum load from the very different materials.
Table 7.2 Cutting speeds (in m/min)
Material High-speed steel Carbide tip tools

Rough milling Fimsh milling Rough mi-lling Finish milling
Cast iron 15-18 25-32 60-70 115-135
Malleable iron 25-35 35-50 90-110 140-165
Steels 20-30 25-35 100-110 100-120
High-carbon steel 15-25 20-30 90-100 100-110
Alloy steels 18-25 20-30 85-100 100-110
Copper and its alloy 35-65 50-80 200-220 300-320
Aluminium and its alloy 120-140 220-250 250-290 350-370
Magnesium and its alloy 130-150 240-270 270-300 380-400
Stainless steel 25-30 30-40 80-100 100-120
- -- - -- - - ---Milling andMilling Machines--- - - - - ----1031
The cutting feed of a material is the distance cally rotates to the direction of the helix be
advanced by the cutter in one complete revolu cause the table and indexing head are connected
tion. It is generally expressed in mm/min. The by a gear train.
normal practice is to give as much feed as the
machine can withstand. 7.25 INDEXING
7.24 GENERATING HELICAL GROOVES The process of dividing a circular or straight

part into equal spaces by means of a dividing
The top of a V-thread of uniform diameter and head is known as indexing. The indexing head
lead represents a helical curve. If a helical curve is also known as dividing head.
is unwound so that it coincides with the flat The indexing head is an attachment that forms
surface, the helix forms the hypotenuse of a
right-angled triangle. a part of milling machines, by means of which
Horizontal as well as universal milling ma the circumference of a cylindrical part can be
chines are used for milling helical grooves on a divided into any number of equal spaces. It is
cylindrical surface. Helical milling is carried out also used for imparting a rotary motion to the
with the help of dividing heads. For milling he work. For example, if some circul� part requires
lical grooves, the index or dividing head is so 24 equally spac-ed grooves, the dividing head is
arranged that it rotates the work very slowly as used to rotate the work 1/24 after cutting each
it feeds past the cutter, thus forming a helical groove.
groove. After each groove is milled, this index The three systems of indexing used on a
head is also used for turning the work to the milling machine are (a) simple indexing, (b)
required fractional part of the revolution by ad compound indexing and (c) differential index
vancing a given number of divisions from the ing.
index plate.
Gear on worm
Second gear
on stud
"-��
��'
Gear on screw
(b)
(a)
Fig. 7.28 Helical cutting: (a) Gear train for cutting a helix, (b) Setting the table to helix angle
For milling a helix, calculate the helix angle 7.25.1 Simple Indexing
and select a suitable gear train. Set the table at
the angle of the helix as indicated on the dial. Simple indexing on a milling machine is carried
Cut the flute with a proper right milling cutter, out by using eith�r a plain indexing head or a
When the table feed is given, the job automati- universal dividing head. This method of index-
1104-------------Manufacturfng Processes!--------------
ing involves the use of crank, worm, worm wheel For 8 divisions, �O = 5 revolutions
and index head. The worm wheel generally car
ries 40 teeth and the worm is single threaded.
. 40 = 1 11 .
With this arrangement, when a crank completes Fro 29 d.1v1s10ns,
. revol uttons
29 29
one revolution, the work wheel rotates through
1140th of a revolution. Similarly, a worm wheel In the last example above, 40/29 is not a
rotates through 2/40 (l/20)th of a revolution, whole number. This indicates that the crank
and so on. Thus, for one revolution of the work moves by 1 rotation and 11/29 parts of the sec
piece, a crank needs to make 40 revolutions. ond revolution. In the fractional system, the nu
The holes in the index plate further help in sub merator shows the number of holes to be moved
dividing the rotation of the workpiece. and the denominator shows the number of holes
Suppose the work is to be divided into a num on the index plate to be used. Thus, in this in
ber of parts. The· corresponding crank movement dexing system, for each division on the job, the
will be as follows. crank will move through one revolution and 11
holes on the 29 holes index circle on the index
Bracket
plate.
- -----
Example 7,1
Describe the procedure of indexing 5 divisions
on a workpiece.
Solution
Carrier Let A = number of turns through which the in
dex crank is to be rotated
Plunger
Index and N = number of divisions required (= 5)
crank .
Indexing
arm Using the equation,
plate 40 40
A = = =S
Fig. 7.29 Universal dividing head N 5
Workpiece
Thus, for 1 division of the job, the crank should
be rotated through 8 turns.
Dividing head spindle Example 7.2
Indexing of 6 divisions
Solution Here,
Single thread
worm
Index plate
A=
40 = 20 =
6 £.
Fig. 7.30 Simple indexing 6 3 3
The above equation consists of two parts, i.e. a
For dividing the work in two equal parts, a whole number 6 and 2/3 a fraction. The fraction
crank will make
2 2 6 12
40 (i) -=-X-=-
. 3 3 6 18
2 = 20 revolutions for each division.
For 5 divisions,
40
= 8 revolutions £.
(ii) £_= X� = .!§_
3 3 8 24
5
-------�------1Milling and Milling Machines-------- - - -
- 1051
... ) 1-lx 10 _ 20 These two movements will tum the worm

(m -
3 3 10 - 30 through
The solution for part (i) is that the crank·
should be rotated through 6 revolutions plus 12 J__+__! = �
15 12 15
holes in any 18 hole circle of the index plate.
Since 40 turns of the worm tum the workpiece
Similarly, the solution for (ii) is, that the crank
through one revolution, 8/15 turns will move
should be rotated through 6 revolutions plus 16
the workpiece through
holes in the 24 hole circle of the index plate.
�xl - J__ revo1ut10ns ·
Example 7.3
15 40 - 75
How will you index 180 divisions by a dividing
Thus, the work will be divided into 75 parts.
head?
Let us take another example in which the in
Solution Here, N= 180 dex plate and the crank are rotated in the re
40 2 verse direction.
Thus, =
A 180 =9 Suppose the crank is turned through 6 holes
Multiply 2/9 by the appropriate number in in the 18-hole plate and both the crank and crank
the numerator and denominator to correspond to pin are turned in the reverse direction through 4
the hole circle available on the indexing plate. holes in the 16-hole plate. Then the worm will
2 2 3 6 tum through
Thus, - = -x-=-
9 9 3 27 6 4
revolutions
2 2
- = -X-=- 4 8 18 16 12
9 9 4 36 Due to the above two movements, the work
Thus, the solution is to select a 27 hole circle will move through
on the index plate the move the crank lever 1 X-=-
1 1-
through 6 divisions. Repeat the process till the =-
12 40 480
end.
Thus, the job can be divided into 480 parts.
The following procedure is used for compound
7,25.2 Compound Indexing indexing:
When the number of divisions required on the 1. Factorise the standard number 40 and the
job is outside the range of simple indexing, the number of divisions.
method of compound indexing is used. The op 2. Select two circles on the index plate and
eration is carried out by providing two separate factorise their difference.
simple indexing movements-(a) by turning the 3. Factorise the number of holes of both the
crank in the same way as in simple indexing, circles.
and (b) again turning the index plate and the Place the factors as shown below:
crank either in the same or in the opposite di Factors of divisions required x
rections. factors of difference of hole circle
The principle of compound indexing can be
Factors of 40 x factors of first circle x
best understood from the following practical ex
ample. factors of second circle
Suppose the crank is turned 3 holes in a Suppose we get l/x after simplification, If a and
15-hole circle and both the index plate and crank b are the number of holes on the two circles, the
are turned 4 holes in a 12-hole circle. indexing movement is
1106---- - -------Manufacturing Processes 1---------------
X X
or
X X
6 7 114 + 126 240
a b b a Check -+-= =
18 19 342 342
After finding the values of a and b, check the
algebraic sum of the two movements by the for = 40(40)
mula 57 N
40 Hence the result obtained is correct.
�+�
a b N
7.25.3 Differential Indexing
Example 7,4
Compound indexing for 57 divisions. Differential indexing greatly resembles com
pound indexing. This process is also carried out
Solution Required movement of the workpiece in two stages. In the first operation, a crank is
40 moved in a certain direction. In the second phase,
57 movement is added or subtracted by moving the
Suppose we select two circles of 18 and 19 plate by means of a gear train. For differential
holes. Substituting the values in the expression indexing, the dividing heads are supplied with
standard sets of change gears. Brown and Sharpe
Divisions required xdifference of hole circle supplied the dividing head with the following
40 xno. of holes of first circle x change gears.
no. of holes of second circle 24 (2 nos.), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86,
100 teeth
= 57 X 1 1
40xl8xl9 2 40
Since the numerator is unity, the circles se

lected are correct.
The required indexing movement is given by
2 40 240 2 40 240
---- or
18 19 19 18
12 12
or 13_&_ _ 12 or 12 -13_§__
18 19 19 18
Fig 7,31 Differential indexing, a. b, c and e are inter
Taking 13 as common, the above expression be
changeable gears, d is idler gear. Index plate
comes can move either in same or in opposite direc
6 7
-+- or ----
7 6 tion
18 19 19 18 Depending upon the number of teeth to be

Similar signs means that the movement will be cut, both simple and compound gear trains are
in the same direction. used for differential indexing. In a simple gear
The above expression shows that the crank train, motion is gained or lost depending on
will move 6 holes i_n a 18-plate circle and the whether one or two idler wheels are used. In a
crank and the index plate will move 7 holes in a compound gear train, the corresponding num
19-hole circle to get 57 divisions. bers are O and 1 .
Milling and Milling Machines- - - ------
- 1071
Example 7.5 7.26 PANTOGRAPH MILLING

Differential indexing for 121 divisions This machine is a special adaptation of a verti
SoluUon Selecting the suitable number of di cal milling machine and is used for manufactur
visions, say 120 ing dies, moulds, metal patterns and for shallow
. 40 1 6 and deep engraving. It is basically a duplicating
Simple .mdexmg.
= 120 = 3 = 18 machine developed for moulding, pattern mak
i.e. 6 holes on a 18-hole circle. ing and engraving.
Movement of crank for 121 divisions = 121 x A commonly used pantographic milling ma
chine consists of a worktable, a master-table,
.l = 40.l graduated dials and a power transmission sys
3 3
i.e. 1/3 more than 40 revolutions. tem. The worktable and the master-table can be
Since the movement required is more, it is to located conveniently in any desired position by
be decreased by 1/3 revolution from the required using the cross adjustment and vertical adjust
40 revolutions through plate movement. ment of the knee. Both the worktable and the
master-table can be adjusted independently of
. . 1 1 16
The geanng rat10 = - = - x - one another. The template can be swivelled
3 3 . 16
through 360° .
16 Driver A pantograph linkage is used for reproducing
48 Driven the shape from the pattern or the template. The
Results: size of reproduction may be equal, larger or
1. Use a simple gear train. smaller than the actual size of the template. An
2. Driver with 16 teeth and driven with 48 increase or a reduction in size is obtained by the
teeth.
linkage arrangement. Two commonly used pan
3. Crank movement: 6 holes on a 18-hole
tographic milling machines are (a) two-dimen
circle.
sional and (b) three-dimensional.
7.25.4 Angular Indexing

In a dividing head, the gear train is such that 40
revolutions of the crank rotate the workpiece
-through one revolution. In other words, 40
turns of the crank rotate the job through 360° .
Thus, one turn of the crank rotates the job
through 9° .
Now let us consider a IO-hole circle. Ad
vancement of tl:le crank through one hole will
rotate the job through 9/10 degree or 54'. Simi
larly, advancement of the crank through one hole
on 8, 9, 12, 15 and 18-hole circles will move
the job through 9/8 (1° 7'30"), 9/9 (1 °), 9/12
(0°45'), 9/15 (36') and 9/18 (30'), respectively. Fig 7.32 Pantographic machine
jt08- - -- ---- -
--Manufacturing Processes 1 - --- - - -- - ---
The workpiece on a pantographic machine Template Holder

can be machined to any shape or size. The power Clamping area 320 mm x 480 mm
to the machine is supplied by an electric motor Maximum distance from
with everything automatic within the cycle. The pantograph arm to
machining of the workpiece is regulated with copy holder surface 200 mm
Swivel range 360 °
the help of pantographic mechanism. The tracer
Number of T-slots 5
is connected at one end with an endless chain.
Least count of graduated
The other end of the belt is fitted to the cutter dials 0.025 mm
mechanism. In addition to standard equipments, these ma
The tracer is moved over the masterpiece for chines are also supplied with special attachments,
copying at the required speed to different shapes such as a rough milling attachment and a roll
and sizes. Exactly similar movements are ob engraving attachment. A rough milling attach
tained over the cutter through the pantograph. ment is used for heavy metal removal in the
The shape of the component is the same as pro initial stages. It increases economy of operation
duced by the tracer. During operations, light due to an increased metal removal rate. A roll
pressure is applied · on the tracer. Antifriction engraving attachment facilitates the engraving
angular contact bearings are used to reduce of cylinders over their whole periphery.
losses due to friction and ensure true running of 7.27 · DIE SINKING
the machine.
The specifications of a three-dimensional pan Drop forging dies consist of impressions for pro
ducing forgings of desired shape. Dies used for
tographic milling machine are as follows:
die casting consist of impressions for forming
Maximum collet capacity 8 mm castings. The machine used for cutting out these
Spindle vertical adjustment 10 mm coarse impressions is known as die sinking (or profil
2 mm fine ing machine). A simple die sinking machine is
Range of"spindle speeds 500 - 10000 rpm similar, in its general arrangement, to a vertical
Number of spindle speeds 14 spindle milling machine. The cutters used in die
Pantographic ratio 1:8 minimum sinking machines reproduce the impression re
1:2 maximum quired f or the die cavity from the master pat
Spindle motor three-phase, tern. The machine is largely manipulated by hand
50 cycles, 0.5 hp/ and the process of producing the cavity involves
037 kW at chipping, filing or scraping by hand. Many dies
1440 rpm require circular or spherical sections. The pro
cess of producing circular or spherical impres
Work Table sions by die sinking is known as cherrying, for
Clamping area 200 mm x 300 mm which special cherrying heads are used. The
Maximum distance from workpiece produced is of the same size or shape
spindle nose to table as the· template.
surface 375 mm A die sinking machine is used for repetitive
Longitudinal travel 335 mm work. It can be operated automatically for lon
gitudinal and transverse feed. The table move
Transverse travel 180 mm
ment can be controlled by trip dogs or manually
Number of T-slots 4
by push bottons. The knee movement and the
Least count of graduatedOOO copying deflections are actuated by the stylus
dials 0.025 mm servo valve in the tracing unit.
-------- - -
-Milling and Millin g Machines-------------1091
The specifications of an electronic die sink

ing machine, as developed by Mis Hindustan
Machine Tools, are as follows:
Column Machine Specifications
Job Accommodation
Table size 2240mm x 635 mm
'--+--+--- Cutter Table working surface 2020mm x 635mm
spindle Work clamping area 1010mm x 635mm
Maximum size of
workpiece 950mm x 630mm
Saddle
x 400mm
Number of longitudinal
Fig. 7.33 Electronic die sinking machine T-slots 3
Distance between table
A recent development in die sinking machine top and spindle face: maximum 695mm
is that of electronic controls, which make it ver minimum 170mm
satile in the field of copy milling. The machine
Spindle
consists of a three-dimensional electronic trac
Spindle nose taper IS 050
ing system which includes servo motor for the Diameter of front bearing 95mm
axis drive. The feed motors are mounted on the Speed range 40- 2000rpm
exterior of the machine. It has a bed-type con
struction with longitudinal and cross movements Copying trasverses
Longitudinal (by power) 1150mm
for the workpiece and a vertical movement for
Cross (by power) 630mm
the spindle (tool). All the main elements of the
Vertical (by power) 425mm
machine, such as bed, column, table and head
Quill (manual) 100mm
are produced from stress-relieved high-grade cast
Stylus adjustment
iron. Preloaded guideways are provided on the Longitudinal distance between spindle and sty
machine for clearance-free operation.For heavy lus
loads, the longitudinal and cross axis are pro minimum 750mm
vided with linear recirculating bearings running maximum 1050 mm
on hardened steel guideways. Tne lateral guide Longitudinal travel 300mm
and upward retention are provided with poly Cross travel 140mm
tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)strips. The slides are Vertical travel 150mm
driven by a permanent magnet and fast response Copying accuracy
de motors, enabling high acceleration/retarda Part to part ±0.025mm
tion and accurate contouring with infinitely vari Template to part ±0.03mm
able rates. The main spindle drive elements are Power
lubricated through a splash lubrication system. Main motor 7.5 kW
All axial movements are manually operated Hydraulic motor 2.2 kW
through electronic hand wheels, requiring no Coolant motor 0.18 kW
physical effort. Lubricant motor 0.09 kW
1110----- -------Manufacturing Processes 1-- - ----- ---- -
-
7,28. COPYING MILLING MACHINE This movement is controlled by the sig

nals of the tracer.
It is a three-dimensional milling process, that
(iii) The vertical movement of the saddle with
involves· milling to full-scale patterns of die
the spindle head on the stationary column.
moulds, iron moulds, dies, punches and other
Three-dimensional copying can be done by
complex shapes.
the following two methods:
The machine tool as shown in Fig. 7.34 con
The first method is also known as horizontal
sists of bed, table, upright, column, saddle and
line-by-line milling. By this process, the table is
spindle. The table travels along the guideways
imparted a continuous input feed movement to
of the bed together with upright, whose upper
gether with the workpiece and the pattern.
work surface is used to clamp the pattern. The
The spindle head moves along the axis of the
lower surface of the upright holds the stationary
spindle and also makes an intermittent vertical
column. The saddle travels vertically along the
travel for the next line after completing each
guideways of the column. Spindle head with
pass. At the end of each pass, the table auto
spindle travel horizontally in the guideways of
matically reverses its movement and the machin
the saddle along the spindle axis. Electric copy
ing continues. Once the whole surface is
ing attachment is mounted on the spindle head
machined, the milling cutter is fed axially to the
casting.
Spindle head
Spindle Saddle
Base
Fig. 7.34 Copying milling machine
In a tracer-controlled semi-automatic milling depth of cut and the next machining cycle is
machine, the required surface is formed by the carried out.
motion of the milling cutter. and the workpiece The second method is also known as vertical
relative to each other. This motion is a combi- line-by-line milling. In this process, the spindle
nation of the following movements: ,. head is imparted a vertical input feed and a trac
(i) The horizontal movement of the table along
the guideways of the bed. ing feed along the spindle axis. The table makes
(ii) The horizontal movement of the _spindle an intermittent horizontal travel for the next ver
head on the saddle along the spindle axis. tical line.
- - - - - - -- - - M
- illing andMillingMachines-- - - - - - - - -1111
D_uring a cutting operation, the tracer stylus appropriate contacts in the circuit are thereby
traces the surface pattern and produces command closed and actuates the feed motors in the re
signals into the electric control circuit. The quired direction.
tMULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark (v") for the right answer (b) be smaller than the surface to be ma
I. An important parameter of specification of chined
a milling machine is (c) equal to the width of the surface to be
(a) horse power of the motor machined
(b) spindle diameter (d) nearly half the side of the surface to
(c) size of the table be machined
(d) movement of the table 8. Steps and grooves are to be machined by
2. A milling machine whose table can be
plain milling cutters. It will
swivelled and set to any angle is known as
(a) produce good surface finish
(a) plain knee and column type milling
machine (b) produce rough surfaces
(b) universal knee and column type mill (c) decrease friction between surfaces
ing machine (d) cause rubbing of surfaces
(c) piano milling machine 9. Staggered tooth milling cutters are pre
(d) universal milling machine ferred over straight tooth milling cutters
3. The cutter on a milling machine is mounted as they permit
on a· (a) deeper cuts
(a) spindle (b) tool holder (b) smoother cutting action
(c) arbor (d) chuck (c) more chip clearance
4. The standard arbor size of a milling ma (d) all the above
chine is 10. Milling machine spindles are generally pro
(a) 25.4 mm (b) 27 mm vided with following standard taper:
(c) 32 mm (d) all the above (a) Chapman taper
5. The arbor of a milling machine is used to
(b) Brown and Sharp taper
hold the
(c) Morse taper
(a) milling cutter (b) workpiece
(d) Seller's taper
(c) mandrel (d) vice
6. Finishing of workpiece by removing very 11. A cylindrical piece is to be milled to a
thin chip with endmill perfect square. It can be milled by mount
(a) increases tool life ing on
(b) cause tool breakage (a) dividing head
(c) sharpen the cutting edge (b) index plate
(d) dull the cutting edge quickly (c) a differential
7. To get good surface finish and accuracy, (d) V-blocks
plain milling cutters should 12. A milling machine is classified as hori
(a) be wider than the surface to be ma zontal milling machine or vertical milling
chined machine. This classification depends on
j112-·-------------Manufacturing Processes!----------- - -
(a) movement of table heavy duty face milling cutters, these cut-
(b) position of spindle ters have
(c) method of holding the cutter (a) less number of teeth
(d) type of cutter (b) more number of teeth
13. If the feed rate on a milling machine is too (c) more clearance angle
low, it will result in (d) more body thickness
(a) less power consumption 15. A universal dividing head is used for cut-
(b) better surface finish ting teeth on a gear blank. The operation
(c) rubbing-and scraping of the surface of is known as
the workpiece and reduce tool life (a) plain indexing
(d) smooth cutting of hard materials (b) compound indexing
14. Light duty face milling cutters are used for (c) complex indexing
finishing the surfaces. As compared to (d) differential indexing
1. Explain the working principle of a milling (a) Knee (b) Spindle nose
machine. (c) Milling arbors (d) Adaptors
2. Enumerate the various methods used for (e) Rack milling attachment
classifying milling machines. 9. Explain with neat sketches the working of
3. (a) What are the principal parts of milling the following attachments on a milling ma
machines?
chine:
(b) Explain the function of any four parts
(a) Vertical milling attachment
of a milling machine.
4. Describe the main features of the follow (b) Indexing head
ing milling machines: (c) Slotting attachment
(a) Plain 10. What are the various job holding devices
(b) Vertical used on milling machines?
(c) Universal 11. What are the various cutter holding de
5. Make a neat sketch of a universal milling vices used on a milling machine?
machine indicating the various controls and 12. How are milling cutters classified? Explain
constructional features. with neat sketches the various types of cut
6. Describe briefly the main functions of: ters used on milling machine.
(a) Horizontal milling machine 13. Sketch and describe the functions of the
(b) Universal milling machine
following milling cutters:
(c) Omniversal milling machine
(a) Plain milling cutter
(d) Fixed bed plain milling machine
(e) Planer-type milling machine (b) Side milling cutter -
7. What are the main attachments needed for (c) Slitting saw cutter
working on a milling machine? (d) Angular cutter
8. With the help of neat diagrams, describe (e) Endmill cutter
the working of the following: (f) T-slot cutter
-- --- - -- - ---Milling and Milling Machines------- ----�-1131
14. Explain the functions of negative rake mill (c) Angular milling
ing. (d) Keyway milling
15. What are the various elements of a plain 18. Differentiate between upmilling and down
milling cutter?- milling.
16. Explain the relative merits and demerits of 19. Describe the process of generating a heli
various materials -used .for milling cutters. cal groove on a milling machine.
17. Explain the method of carrying out the fol 20. What do you understand by indexing?
lowing milling operations: What are the various methods of indexing?
(a) Milling flat surface 21. Describe the construction and working of
(b) Squaring stock by milling a copying milling machine.
8.1 INTRODUCTION must be acquainted with them. The principal
cutting tool used for carrying out drilling
In all machining operations, the metal is forcibly
ruptured by cutting tools. During the cutting operations is the drill. Drilling is the operation
action, the metal comes in contact with the edges of producing fresh round holes with the help of
of the cutting tool as in drilling and reaming.,J.n- drills. Reaming is the operation of finishing
round holes to accuracy with the help of reamers.
' drill�•....!!!_e un��d grains of th� metal are
+�
--
removed continuously by the cutting edge of --a Pressure
drill.
Direction of
rotation
Fig. 8.2 Working of a drill
8.2 HOLES IN WORKPIECES

Drilled holes in a workpiece can be classified as
Fig. 8.1 Drilling on a drilling machine
through holes or blind holes. Drilled holes serve
In a drilling operation, the two cutting lips of many purposes, i.e. to provide positions for riv
the drill work continuously for removing the ets, screws, bolts, shafts and pistons. Punching,
metal stock. In a workshop, drilling operations flame cutting, perforating and casting are also
are carried out with a large number of machine used for making holes. However, none of these
tools. In order to use the drills efficiently, one methods is as accurate as drilling.
--------- - - illing and Reaming-
--- Dr -- - --------115j
8.3 SPECIFICATIONS OF DRILLS shank drills are provided with various tapers
(known as mtirse tapers) a are self-1iol ding.
A drill is a rotary en d cutting tool generally
Tape:i?'on are provided from No. 1 ·10 5
having two cutting edges and flutes throughout·
morse tapers.
the body. Drills are classified in the following
ways: 8.4.4 Tang
1. Based on the shank of drills
A tang is found onl y on ta:rered shank d rills. It
(iL Straight shank drills
is desiw.ed to fil-into a sloLin the socket o.r the
(ii) Taper_sha�s
spindle of ...=
thc:.,;
e"-'d ril· s..
l �--�"'-
2. Base d on the number of flutes ,.._ ,..
(1) Double-flute.ct d · 8.4.5 Web

(ii)- hree-fluted ru-il
The� mn that separates the d rill fro
(iii) four-fluted drill
'11ieflutes is known as we . t runs the entire
3. Based on the d iameter of the drill
length between die flutes aiid acts as a support
-
4. Based on the material of the drill, .s uch as ing section of the flutes.
high-carbon d rill an d high-speed steel drill.
� Margin The margin of a drill is shown in
---
Fig. 8.3. It is the full diameter of the drill and
----
8.4 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A DRILL
exten d s across tiie entire length of th�ute.
The principal parts of a drill are
(i) bo d y Lip clearance Th aee,,o he..p.u.int that i,s
(ii) cutting unit �g. r ound.aw elieved ·ust back of the cutting
(iii) shank e d ge of the drill is known as lip clearance.
(iv) tang Point of a drill The entire cone-shaped sur

(v) web. face at the cutting end 1s kaowtt:as the--pQint of
a d rill. It is differe - ad-centre.
8.4.1 Body
Body clearance The bo d y clearance of a d rill
The portion between the point and shank of a is shown in Fig. 8.3. It is small er in diameter
d rill is known as the b o d y. The various parts of than the margin and is provided to reduce fric
a bo d y are flutes, margin body clearance an d web. tion between the drill an d the walls of the holes
8.4.2 Cutting Unit of the workpiece being drilled.
The unit that actually cuts away the materig 8.5 TWIST DRILL
w 1 e ri Im ho es is know a · the cuttin unit. A d rill having two flutes and two cutting e d ges
17
t is as sharp as a knife. Each flute of a drill is known as a twist d rill. Twist drill s are classi
..£_onsists of cnttiA�oog0s..l:Si'.t.t:mg urut-of:.,a drill-- fie d according to the design of the shank as
generally consists of two cutting edges,.,.but maY. straight shank drills or tapered drills.
have three or four cuttin eqges al so. Such driJls.... The tapered shank on the drill enables it to
a� used for �Iarging cored an d punched hol es. be quickly and accurately inserte d into the ma-
--..-.�-··-�
an chine spin d le. The taper of the spindle an d the
shank of the drill match each other. When the
.Jhe portion used for hol din3 a dril l in the drill - drill is inserted into. the spindle under thrust,
..mg machine is,Jsnown as shank. Drills are madt' they are wedged together. While drill ing, the
either in straight or tapered sfi'ailks. Straight thrust increases further and the drill remains in
_shank drills are used with a chuck.t1"aper@- position.
J116- -- --------Manufacturing Processes I--------------
Tang
----Axis
Lip or
cutting edge
..,___,_\_'1--��- Margin
Lip or cutting Lip clearance

edge
Point
Fig. 8,3 Parts ofa twist drill
Indian Standards Institution has standardised Table 8.1 Decimal equivalent of.drill sizes
various dimensions of drills. Some of the stan-
,lneh mm No. Decimals of an inch�.
dards are given below for reference.
IS: 6708-1977 Centre drills type A 80
IS: 6799-1977 Centre drills type B f 79
1/64
IS: 5100-1969 Twist drills, parallel shanks, 0.4
··,,:'·-1. .. ...
stub series for right-hand cut-
ting
IS: 5362-1969 Twist drills, parallel shanks, 0.5
stub series, left-hand cutting
for automatics
IS: 5101-1969 Twist drills, parallel shanks, 74
jobber services , 0.6
IS: 5102-1969 Twist drills, parallel shanks, 73
72
long series • 0.65
IS: 5103-1969 Twist drills with morse taper 71
shank 0.7 0.0276
- ------ ---- Drilling�d
- Reaming------ -
----
65
45
2.2
2.25
0.95
62 2.3
61 2.35
42
2.4
1.05 0.0413
58 0.0420 2.45
57 0.0430
0.0433 - 2.5
0.0453
56 0.0465 38
3/64 0.0469
0.0412 37
2.7
36
55
54
0.0551 2.8
0.0571
0.0591
0.0595
32
1/16
31
52 0.0635
0 })6.50 1/8
1.7
·i
E Manufacturing Processes I
9/64 0.1406 5.3 0.2087

3.6 0.1417 4 0.2090
27 0.1440 5.4 0.2126
3.7 0.1457 3 0.2130
26 0.1470 5.5 0.2165
3.75 0.1476 7/32 0.2188
25 0.1495 5.6 0.2205
3.8 0.1496 2 0.2210
24 0.1520 5.7 0.2244
3.9 0.1535 5.75 0.2264
23 0.1540 0.2280
5/32 0.1563 5.8 0.2283
22 0.1570 Inch mm Letter sizes Decimals of an inch
4 0.1575
21 0.1590 5.9 0.2323
20 0.1610 A 0.2340
. 4.1 0.1614 15/64 0.2344
4.2 0.1654 6 0.2362
19 0.1660 B 0.2380
4.25 0.1673 6.1 0.2402
4.3 0.1693 C 0.2420
18 0.1695 6.2 0.2441
11/64 0.1719 D 0.2460
17 0.1730 6.25 0.2461
4.4 0.1732 6.3 0.2480
16 0.1770 1/4 E 0.2500
4.5 0.1772 6.4 0.2520
6.5 0.2559
15 0.1800
F 0.2570
4.6 0.1811
6.6 0.2598
14 0.1820
G 0.2610
13 0.1850 6.7 0.2638
4.7 0.1850 17/64 0.2656
4.75 0.1870 6.75 0.2657
1/8 0.1875 H 0.2660
4.8 0.1890 6.8 0.2677
12 0.1895 6.9 0.2717
11 0.1910
4.9 0.1929 7
IO 0.1935 J 0.2770
9 0.1960 7.1 0.2795
5 0.1969 K 0.2810
8 0.1990 9/32 0.2812
5.1 0.2008 7.2 0.2835
7 0.2010 7.25 0.2854
13/64 0.2031 7.3 0.2874
6 0.2040 L 0.2900
5.2 0.2047 7.4 0.2913
5 0.2055 M 0.2950
5.25 0.2067 7.5 0.2953
Drilling and Reaming
�
19/64 0.2969 z 0.4130
7.6 0.2992 10.5 0.4134
N 0.3020 27/64 0.4219
7.7 0.3031 11 0.4331
7.75 0.3051 7/16 0.4375
7.8 0.3071 11.5 0.4528
7.9 0.3110 29/64 0.4531
5/16 0.3125 15/32 0.4688
8 0.3150 12 0.4724
0 0.3160 31/64 0.4844
8.1 0.3189 12.5 0.4921
8.2 0.3228 1/2 0.5000
p 0.3230 13 0.5118
8.25 0.3248 33/64 0.5156
8.3 0.3268 17/32 0.5313
21/64 0.3281 13.5 0.5315
8.4 0.3307 Inch .mm Decimals of an inch
Q 0.3320
8.5 0.3346 35/64 0.5469
8.6 0.3386 14 0.5512
R 0.3390 9/16 0.5625
8.7 0.3425 14.5 0.5709
11/32 0.3438 37/64 0.5781
8.75 0.3345 15 0.5906
8.8 0.3465 19/32 0.5938
s 0.3480 39/64 0.6094
8.9 0.3504 15.5 0.6102
9 0.3543 5/8 0.6250
T 0.3580 16 0.6299
9.1 0.3583 41/64 0.6406
23/64 0.3594 16.5 0.6496
9.2 0.3622 . 21/32 0.6563
9.25 0.3642 17 0.6693
9.3 0.3661 43/64 0.6719
u 0.3680 11/16 0.6875
9.4 0.3701 17.5 0.6890
9.5 0.3740 45/64 0.7031
3/8 V 0.3770 18 0.7087
9.6 0.3780 23/32 0.7188
9.7 0.3819 18.5 0.7283
9.75 0.3839 47/64 0.7344
9.8 0.3858 19 0.7480
w 0.3860 3/4 0.7500
9.9 0.3898 49/64 0.7656
25/64 0.3906 19.5 0.7677
10 0.3937 25/32 0.7812
X 0.3970 20 0.7874
y 0.4040 51/64 0.7969
13/32 0.4063 20.5 0.8071
1120 ----- -
------Manufacturing Processes!-------------
13/16 0.8125
21 0.8268 31.5
53/64 0.8281
27/32 0.8438 32 1.2598
21.5 0.8465 1.2656
55/64 0.8594 32.5
22 0.8661
7/8 0.8750
22.5 0.8858 1.2969
57/64 0.8906 33 1.7�92
23 0.9055
29/32 0.9063
59/64 0.9219
23.5 0.9252
15/16 0.9375
24 0.9449
61/64 0.9531
0.9646
31/32 0.9688
25 0.9843
63/64 0.9844 35
1 1.0000
25.5 1.0039 35.5
1.0156
26 1.0236 36
1.0313 127 64
36.5
26.5 1.0433
1.0469
1.0625
Drill Size
27 1.0630 The four traditional ways of designating the sizes
1.0781 of drills are
27.5 1.0827
1.0938
28 1.1024 Two-lip
28.5
1.1094
1.1220
u\ &IE==:='===-o��
Three-li
()
p
1.1250
1.1406
c� Four-Lip
1.1411
Fig. 8.4 Types of twist drill
1.1562
29.5 1.1614 (i) Fractional drills
PY&i 1.1719
(ii) Number dril-ls
30 Ll811
1 Yi6 1.1875 (iii) Letter drills
1.2008 (iv) Metric drills
1 1 y64 1.2031 Fractional drills are also known as inches
. 1%2 1.2188 drills. In this system the diameter of the ·drills
31 1.2205 varies in steps of 1164th of an inch. Such drills
are available in sizes ranging from 1/64 to 3.0
-------- ------Drilling and Reaming------------
inch. Many jobs require drilled holes that do not 8.6 DRILL CHUCK
exist in a fractional system. To overcome this,
Drill chucks are used on a drilling machine for
drills are also available in standard wire gauge holding the straight shank drills. The drill chuck
sizes and are known_ as number drills. Number consists of an arbor having morse tapers and is
drills are available in numbers from O to 80. inserted into the spindle for fixing under pres
Similarly, letter drills are available from A to Z sure. The drill is inserted into the drill chuck
letters. Table 8.1 shows the diameters of differ and fitted with a drill chuck key to grip the drill
ent types of drills. Metric drills have diameters rigidly. It consists of three holes that are used
varying in steps of 1/1-0th of a millimetre. Fig for tightening the drill.
ures 8.5 and 8.6 show the method of measuring Drill chucks are available in various designs.
the drill diameter with a micrometer and a drill According to the number of jaws used for hold
gauge, respectively. ing drills, drill chucks are classified as
(i) Two-jaw drill chuck
(ii) Three-jaw drill chuck
Figure 8.7 shows a three-jaw chuck used for
holding drills. It is also known as a self-center
0.2 ing chuck. It consists of a knurled ring tightly
fitted on the nut having an internal taper with
buttress threads. When the ring and nut are
turned together, the jaws move downward or
upward, thus tightening and loosening the drill.
For more details refer to chapter of Fitting book
of Workshop Practice by the same author.
Fig. 8.5 Measuring drill diameters with a micrometer
0
5 !
1
2 16 0
64 0 8 0 5
t
64 0
3 3
0:0 32 o
27 7
64
64 0_!_!_0
32 1
7 5
8 0
64
16 0�0
64 0
5
2 16 0
6490�
0
32
19 no
64 0 64 0
Fig. 8.7 Three-jaw self.centering drill chuck: (a) Cross
15
32 0 section of a drill chuck. {b) Method of setting
9 0 3 the chuck in the spindle bore
13 0
16
31032
64
17
0 640
7
8.7 DRILL SLEEVES
64
1 0 �o
1 0
- I
Drill sleeves are used for liolding tapered shank
2 4
64 <.lnns and are pi'bvidectwi'fn"Ifi se tapers. lne
Fig. 8.6 Drill gauge commonly used morse tapers 6n arill sleeves
1122-- - - - - - - - -----
--�Manufacturing Processes!- - - - ----
-
zw
are Nos. 1-5 of which Nos. 2 and 3 are more Dead centre angle
extensively used.
A drill with No. 2 morse taper will not fit
into No. 3 or 4 morse taper. Different tapers are
provided on the inner and outer surfaces of the
sleeve. A sleeve having No. 2 morse taper on
the inner surface will have No. 3 morse taper on
the outer surface.
Taper No. 3 Taper No. 2
Fig. 8.8
{¥
Sleeve for tapered shank
Fig. 8.10
8.9 GRINDING OF DRILLS

Drill angles
Grinding of drills is done in three ways:

�ed shank drills are removed from the (i) By hand with a pedestal grinder
sleeve with the help a drill,.drift and hammer. (ii) By a special drilling attachment
Figure 8.9(a) shows a drill drift and Fig. 8.9(b) (iii) By a special drill grinder
shows the method of removing a drill from the Generally, the grinding of drills is done by
sleeve. hand with a pedestal grinder. This technique of
grinding is as follows:
0
(i) Thoroughly inspect the grinding machine
I before starting the grinding operation.
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.9 (a) Drill drift, (b) Method of removing a drill
by drill drift
8.8 DRILL CLEARANCE ANGLES

The cutting face of a drill is ground to three
angles. These are the dead centre angle, the lip '
angle and the rake angle, as shown in Fig. 8.10.
Practical experience has shown that 59° (in
cluded angle of 118° ) is the best general pur
pose angle to grind a drill. It is very suitable for
steel and cast iron. A 70 ° · angle is used for hard
materials and 40 ° for soft materials. Fig. 8.11 Grinding of drills
Drilling and Reaming-- -- - - - - - - - -
-1231
(ii) Hold the drill body in your left hand as Counterboring The operation of boring a sec
close to the point as possible. Grip the e
ond hole, larger in aiameter than t first ts
shank in the right hand. known as counterboring. On a drill press this
(iii) Place the left hand on the rest. operation is performed in a manner similar to
(iv) Press the cutting edge slightly against the boring by llSing_.a..f-ounterbo� The�c unterb.ore
face of the grinding wheel. consists of a small diameter. at the encl, known
(v) Keep the drill in contact with the grinding as �il�t. This kee£S--1. h� �oim.teroore -concen�
wheel. Grind the drill gently by giving it. tiic �1.he&ijg,irra_Lhok.-
an even twist about its axis. Reaming A hole produced on a drilling ma
chine is se�e. { ) asIDtll
8.10 CENTRE DRILL (FIG. 8.12)
slightly oversize . Accurate holes are produced
This is also known as a combined drill and coun by realne . he reamer is inserted into the
tersink. As its name implies, it is used for mark "spmclte-ano a small amount of material is re
ing centres prior to drilling operations. Holes moved by rotating the reamer in the workpiece
are sometimes marked and drilled by this tool. to produce accurate holes.
The operation is known as combined drilling Countersinking The operatipn of lev�the
and countersinking. mouth of a hole wrth lf rotary toolisbiown s-
. counlersitiking. ountersinks are made in vari
ous- size - rn'o angles. The standard included
angles of countersink aree_0 ° , 82 ° and 90;,.
Tapping Holes to be tapped are first drilled to
Fig. 8.12 Centre drill
the requisite size. The tapping operation is then
8.11 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON carried out by using a special tapping chuck. It
DRILLING MACHINES is not customary to tap holes on a drill press.
Drilling machines are primarily designed for Lapping It is known as a refined abrasing pro
drilling operations. In addition to drilling, the cess emp oyea for correcting errors. On a drill
following operations are also performed on them. ingJ)lacliine it is carried out by using...an_abrasive.
(i) Boring In this process a very small amount of material
(ii) Counterboring is removed to get accurate les. It is a long and
tedious job.
(iii) Reaming
(iv) Countersinking Polishing Polishing is the production of bright
(v) Tapping lustre on surfaces. On a drilling machine this
(vi) Lapping operation is perform.!;d by using any wheel hav-
(vii) Polishing ing a polishing abrasive glue'd H5 i� .
(viii) Spot facing Spot facing It is the process of-;i;,ing a
Boring I.his i.s..�epera!i.oo of e11larging al- shoulder or a bear1ng sur ace Ior theneao of a
u.a.d.¥-drilkd hill�.,, On a drill press it is carried , o t. Spot-fueing-is-perfemied with tlie help of a
f
-�ut by holding the boring bar carrying -the bor-,- spor acmg too that is provided with a pilot that
_ i_ng bit in the-saddle. Principallyit involves turn- fits into the drilled hole and acts as a guide to ,
ing prevfously drilled holes. align the cutting edge.
jl24 Manufacturing Processes!--------------
8.12 DRILLING MACHINES

Rotary motion and relative longitudinal feed are
the primary requirements of a drilling machine.
These can be imparted by a number of machines,
such as lathes, milling and boring. This chapter
deals only with machines designed and con
structed primarily for drilling.
A drilling machine consists of a base, col
umn, powerhead, worktable and spindle. De
pending upon the design, a base may rest on the Fig. 8.13 Hand drilling machine
bench, pedestal or floor. Larger and heavy duty
machines are always grounded on the floor, drill is held in the left hand while the right hand
whereas small machines rest on a bench or ped turns the crank, which in turn causes the drill to
estal. rotate. Pressurds applied on the workpiece witli
The head (also known as powerhead) con
the help of the left hand. It is very slow drilling
sists of an electric motor-and a means for driv
ing the spindle fitted with suitable devices for process and is used for drilling holes of up to
varying spindle speeds. Variations in speeds are 8 mm diameter.
regulated by a step cone-pulley or a geared ar 8.13.2 Portable Drilling Machine
rangement in small and big machines, respec
tively. The column consists of a rigid, smoothly This is a small portable drilling . machine that
finished pillar. It is generally round in shape can be carried out and operated anywhere in the
and enables the movement of the table up, down workshop for drilling holes in workpieces. It
and in a circular path. can be used for drilling holes in any position,
The spindle is the most important part of a which is not possible with conventional drilling
drilling machine. For true holes, the spindle must machines. These machines are driven by indi
rotate accurately. In virtually all machines, the
vidual motors. The entire drilling mechanism is
spindle rotates on bearings. In small machines a
spindle is fed by hand while in large machines enclosed in a compact case, as shown in Fig.
it is fed by power. The spindle contains a hole 8.14. The motor is generally of a universal na
with a morse taper at its lower end to hold the ture and can be operated both on ac and de
drill chuck or drill. supply. Such machines are used for drilling holes
of up to 18 mm diameter. Since the diameter of
8.13 KINDS OF DRILLING MACHINES the holes to be drilled is small, such machines
The commonly used drilling machines are (a) hand are operated at high speeds.
drill, (b) portable electric drill, (c) vertical spindle
drilling machine, (d) multiple spindle drilling
machine, _(e) gang drilling machine, (f) radial
drilling machine, and (g) turret drilling machine.
8.13.1 Hand Drill
This is a very light common drilling tool used
for extremely light work. The handle of the hand Fig. 8.14 Portable electric drilling machine
Drilling and Reaming--------------1251
8.13,3 Vertical Spindle Drilling Machine justments for locating the workpiece under the
spindle. The table moves up and down on the
Vertical spindle drilling machines can be classi column for accommodating workpieces at dif
fied as ferent heights. It can also be moved in an arc on
(i) Sensitive drilling machine the column, whi-ch enables proper setting of the
(ii) Upright drilling machine workpiece at a suitable position.
Upright drilling machines can be further clas
sified as
(a) Pillar drilling machine Main drive
(b) Box column drilling machine
Sensitive drilling machine This is a light ver
tical drilling machine designed for small holes
at high speeds in light jobs. It consists of a base
mounted on a pedestal or bench. A sensitive
drilling machine is shown in Fig. 8.15. Sensi
tive drilling machines are not provided with au
tomatic feed arrangement. The drill is fed into
the work purely by hand control. This enables
the operator to feed or sense the progress of the Base plate
drill into the workpiece. Since the operator can
sense the cutting action of the drill at any in Fig. 8.16 Plain vertical spindle drilling machine
stant, it is known as a sensitive drilling machine.
These machines are used for making holes from
1.5 to 15 mm in diameter.
Fig. 8.17 Guide of the drill spindle
It is not a very rigid machine because the

Fig 8.15 Bench model hand feed {sensitive) drilling
machine
workpiece is supported on a horizontal arm. This
machine is used for light work, up to 40 mm in
Pillar drilling machine This is also known diameter.
as a round column upright drilling machine. The
machine consists of a round column that rises Box column drilling machine It consists of
from the base which rests on the floor. The arm a box column section fitted on the slides at the
and table of the machine consists of three ad- front face of the machine tool column. The table
j126---- - - -- - -
-Manufacturing J?rocesses !- ------ - - ----
-
is moved up and down by an elevating screw

that provides additional support to the table. The
heavy box column is a special feature of this
machine, which permits it to support heavier
workpieces on the table. These machines are
used for drilling holes of up to 50 mm diameter
on heavier workpieces.
The linear feed motion to the drill spindle is
provided with a gear rack and mesh gear, as
shown in Fig. 8.18. The gear is turned by a
hand lever. The drill spindle moves up and down
in a bearing. The upper end of the spindle is
held in position by two ring nuts. An antifriction
bearing is· situated between the collar and the
sleeve to reduce friction. Rotary motion to the
spindle is provided from the upper end either by
cone-pulley or gears.·In larger machines, a worm
and worm wheel are used for providing vertical
movements to the spindle. An automatic trip
ping is used on many machines for regulating Fig. 8.18 Box column drilling machine (Courtesy: HMT
the depth of the cut. Ltd)
Table 8.2 Cutting s peed (V) in m/min. feed (s) in mm/rev and coolant for drills of HSS
Material Diameter of drill (in mm) Coolant

5 JO 15 20 25 30
Steel *up to sO.l 0.18 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.34
40kg/mm2 V15 18 22 26 29 32
Steel up to sO.l 0.18 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.35 or
60kg/mm 2 Vl3 16 20 23 26 28 s
Steel up to s0.07 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.21
80kg/mm 2 VI2 14 16 18 21
Cast iron up to s0.15 0.24 0.3 0.32 0.35
18kg/mm2 V24 28 32 34 37 d:r
Cast iron up to s0.15 0.24 0.3 0.33 0.35 dr
22kg/mm2 VI6 18 21 24 26 E
Brass upto sO.l 0.15 0.22 0.27 0.3 0.32 E
40 kg/mm2 V 60-70 m/min or S
Bronze up to sO.l 0.15 0.22 0.27 0.3 or dr
30kg/mm2 V 30-40 m/rnin
Aluminum pure s0.05 0.12 0.2 0.3 0.35 E
�- or S
Aluminium s0.12 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.46 0.5 or elf
alloy V 100-150 m/rnin
_Magnesium s0.15 0.2 0.3 0.38 0.4 0.45 dr
alloy V 200-250 m/min
*
tensile strength
E = diluted soluble oil, S = cutting and cooling oil, dr = dry.
Drilling and Reaming----- - - - - - -1271
Radial drilling machine Many components a horizontal axis, which enables the drilling of
are too big to be moved easily. Some compo holes at any angle.
nents also require a large number of drilled holes. Gang drilling machine When a number of
For such components, a radial drilling machine drilling spindles are mounted side by side on a
is used. The machine consists of a heavy sound common base, the arrangement is known as a
vertical column mounted on a large base, as gang drilling machine. Gang drilling is used for
shown in Fig. 8.19. The column supports the production work, where several operations are
radial arm, that can be raised, lowered and swung
to be performed. Generally it contains four to
to any position over the bed. The head of the
six spindles. In some machines the drill spindles
drilling tool encloses the rotating and feeding
mechanism and can be moved horizontally on are permanently spaced while in others the spac
the guideways and clamped at any desired posi ings can be adjusted. The speeds and feeds of
tion. These movements enable the drill to be various spindles are controlled independently.
located where desired. When several holes are On this machine a series of operations can be
to be drilled, the positions of the arm and the performed on the work by simply shifting it from
head are altered by moving the drill head to one position to another. The mechanism of op
locate the drill at the desired position. Radial eration is similar to that of operating several
drilling machines can be further classified as independent drill presses.
(i) Plain radial drilling machine
(ii) Semi-universal radial drilling machine
(iii) Universal drilling machine
Fig. 8.20 Gang spindle drilling machine
Multiple spindle drilling machine A multiple

spindle drilling machine is used for drilling sev
eral holes independently. It is essentially a pro
Fig. 8.19 Radial drilling machine
duction machine used for drilling identical holes
A plain radial drilling machine drills only in on similar pieces. These machines consist of sev
the vertical position. In a semi-universal drill
eral spindles driven by an electric motor. Feed
ing machine the drilling head can be swung about
the horizontal axis perpendicular to the arm, ing motion is secured either by raising the
which permits the drilling of holes at an angle. worktable or by lowering the drill heads. The
In a universal radial drilling machine the arm spindles are so constructed that their central dis
holding the drill head can also be rotated around tances can. be adjusted to required positions.
1128-------------Manufacturing Processes I--------------
lem is overcome by using a turret drilling ma

chine. A variety of tools are used to carry out
different operations. The operation of drilling is
carried out by using a variety of clamping
devices.
8.16 REAMING
Holes produced by drilling have less geometri
cal accuracy and surface finish that is required
by modern engineering assemblies. Reaming is
the process -of enlarging and finishing holes to
accurate dimensions. It is one of the most ex
Fig. 8.21 Multiple spindle drilling machine tensively used operations for getting precision
fits in components. A reaming operation is car�
The head assembly consists of a number of ried out with the help of reamers. The operation
fixed upper spindles driven from a pinion sur can be carried out either by hand or by machine.
rounding a central gear. The spindles are lo Flutes act as cutting tools for reamers.
cated below the central gear and are connected
by tubular drive shafts and two universal joints. 8.17 REAMER TERMS
A reamer consists of a multiple tooth body, cut
8.14 DEEP HOLE DRILLING MACHINE ting lip and shank. The important terms related
The drilling of deep �oles on many components, to a reamer are angle of chamfer, flutes, flute
such as rifle barrels, long spindles and long length, land, margin, body clearance angle, cut
shafts cannot be carried out on ordinary drilling ting lip and cutter sweep. Depending upon the
machines, because in such machines as the drill shapes of the shank, reamers can be classified
hole length increases, it becomes more and more as straight shank and taper shank reamers. The
difficult to support the work. Deep hole drilling various parts of a reamer are shown in Fig. 8.22.
machines are used for such purpose. The portion that performs cutting operations is
These machines are available in various sizes known as the body. It consists of a number of
and designs. According to the movement of the flutes and lands. The part between the two flutes
spindle, they are classified as vertical or hori is known as the land.
zontal deep hole drilling machines. Most ma Angle of
chines are of horizontal design. While carrying chamfer
\
Land
out a drilling operation, the job is held rigidly at
many points to avoid deflection. The work is
usually rotated while the drill is fed into the
8 /
Shank
o�
'(11( Body or
�
Cutting
lip
work so as to feed the drill in straight path. flute length
Cutter
sweep
8.15 TURRET DRILLING MACHINE
Fig. 8.22 Parts ofa reamer
A turret drilling machine is a numerically con
trolled drilling machine. A gang drilling machine The small parallel strip lying between the
tool requires a lot of surface area, which prob- angle of chamfer and the end of the land is
-- - - - ---- - - --Drillingand Reaming-- - - - - - ---- - 129J
�
known as the margin. Reamers are generally pro

vided with zero _ rake angle, though materials ----a::---�
require positive rake angle. To ensure proper Fig. 8.24 Taper reamer
cutting, reamers are provided with 5° to 7° pri
mary clearance angle and 10 ° to 12° secondary ished diameter at the small end of the hole. In
clearance angle. The- bevel lead angle of _a reality it is a means of heavy stock removal rather
reamer varies from 40° to 50° . than a finishing tool. Tapered reamers are used
in sets of two pieces, one of which is used for
8.18 TYPE.S OF REAMERS roughing and the other for finishing. Roughing
The various types of reamers are reamers have fewer flutes and different slots and
1. Hand reamers degree of spiral.
2. Taper reamers Machine reamers have larger cutting angles.
3. End cutting reamers The direction of the spiral is opposite to that of
4. Block reamers hand reamers. Irregular flutes help in prevent
-5. Carbide reamers ing chatter, and notches on the lands of rough
6. Expanding reamers . ing reamers help in breaking the chips. Spiral
7. Adjustable reamers flutes are preferred over straight flutes in ma
8. Shell reamers chine reamers.
9. Machine reamers End cutting reamers End cutting reamers are
10. Pera reamers used to correct a bent or misaligned hole. The
11. Floating reamers cutting action of end cutting reamers is similar
Hand reamers These reamers consist of par to that of end mill cutters. ijnd cutting reamers
allel shank and square tang, as shown in Fig. are also known as rough reamers since they pro
8.23. The square tang is used for holding the duce a comparatively rough surface.
handle. These reamers are provided with a small Block reamers These reamers consist of rect
bevel lead for entry into the component. angular blocks having cutting edges fitted in mild
steel holders. The blocks are generally made of
++t::t..:-==�,-��::::� tungsten carbides. Using inserts is advantageous
Fig. 8.23 Hand reamer since blocks can be ground to size without the
holder. The blocks are provided with centres so
Hand reaming is· performed by rotating the that they can be cylindrically ground to size. In
reamer by means of a double-ended tap wrench. adjustment type inserts, adjustment can be made
The reamer should be rotated slowly to keep it with respect to the centres of the blocks.
in -a alignment with the hole to be finished. The
operation is finished by the large and steady Cutting edge
movement of the reamer inside the drilled hole.
A hand reamer should never be rotated back
I
wards since it causes premature wear of the I
I
reamer. Hand reamers should never be used for -�---@- I
I I
machine reaming.
Taper reamers Taper reamers are used for Block holder
cutting/finishing tapered holes. The diameter of Block
a predrilled hole is slightly smaller than the fin- Fig. 8.25 Block reamer
1130-------- ----Manufacturing Processes I
-
Carbide reamers Carbide tools are used for

cutting at high speeds. Reamers are usually not
used for cutting at high speed as such these ream
ers are usedto limited extent only. Carbide ream
ers are advantageous as they have high resistance
to abrasion, resulting in longer life and good
surface finish. ·The accuracy of holes produced Fig. 8.27 Shell reamer
by carbide reamers is also high. Carbide ream
ers are used for making small holes with diam shell reamers is that shell reamers do not pos
sess a shank. For use they are mounted on an
eters up to 12.7 mm.
arbor. Thus, the same arbor can be used for dif
Expanding reamers Expanding reamers are ferent reamers, which results in considerable sav
used for producing holes of varying diameters ing over solid reamers. These reamers are
over a limited range. These reamers are less rigid generally larger diameter reamers.
then solid reamers. Expanding reamers have the Machine reamers Commonly used machine
following advantages over their conventional reamers are fluted reamers and rose reamers.
counter parts. The ends of the teeth are bevelled and the cut
1. The blade life is more since it can be ting action takes pace only at the bevelled end.
reground a number of times before replace The fluted part of these reamers has a slight
ment taper towards the shank. Since machining ac
2. Blade geometry can be changed readily tion takes place at high speeds, it is not a finish
3. Blades of different materials can be used ing tool. Finishing of holes is carried out by
in the same holder hand reamers. Machined holes after reaming are
A commonly used diehard expanding reamer generally 0.076 mm larger than the actual size.
is shown in Fig. 8.26. The cutting portion of
this reamer can be expanded by up to 5%. This
enables reaming to be carried out over a range
(a)
to close tolerances. These reamers are available
both in parallel and taper shanks. u
Fig. 8.26 Expanding reamer

(b)
Adjustable reamers These reamers consist of
a grooved body fitted with adjustable blades.
They can be projected outward or drawn inward
D
so that the same reamer can be adjusted to dif (c)
�c.>------
1 _ +I
ferent sizes with a fair degree of accuracy. The
blades can be easily sharpened and adjusted, giv
ing these reamers a long life.
Shell reamers Two common designs of such (d)
reamers are rose type and flute type. The main Fig. 8.28 Machine reamers: {a) Chucking (b) Shell
difference between conventional reamers and (c) Jobber (d) Stub screw
---------------Drilling and Reaming-------- -----1311
Pera reamers The design of these reamers is guiding part. A good practice is not to allow it
based on a newly developed technique of the -tc,_ become too dull. The reamer requires grind
Production Engineering Research Association ing before it attains excessive wear. The sharp
(UK). Pera reamers differ from conventional ening of reamers is done on tool and cutter
reamers in that they have a negative axial bevel grinders. While grinding, each tooth should be
lead and a smaller number of flutes. These ream ground to the same extent. Fast and heavy grind
ers are advantageous, since they have high ing should be avoided, as it results in grinding
penetration rate, superior tool geometry, and high cracks that are microscopic in nature.
surface accuracy.
8.20 METHOD OF REAMING
Floating reamers These reamers are used for
correcting the misalignment of previously drilled A drilled hole is seldom accurate in size, i.e. it
holes. They consist of two replaceable cutting is usually slightly oversized. Such holes are suit
edges held in slots in the reamer body. These able for bolts and rivets only. For the produc-
reamers have the following advantages: tion of accurate holes, they first need to be drilled
1. Ample clearance for chips slightly undersize and then finished by reaming.
2. Easily replaceable blades Two commonly used methods of reaming are
Floating reamers are used for finishing holes hand reaming and machine reaming. The selec-
in rotating workpieces, like lathes. The BIS has tion method of reaming depends upon the de
standardised various dimensions and materials --gree of accuracy required and the surface finish
of all types of reamers. of the component. Machine reaming is used not
Some commonly used specifications in ream- for production work but for accuracy. For accu-
ers are: rate holes, machine reaming is followed by hand
IS 5446-1978 Machine chucking reamers reaming. Depending upon the method of ream
with parallel shank ing used, the drilled hole should be lesser by
IS 5447-1978 Machine chucking reamers 0.063-0.0127 mm than the finished hole. This
with morse taper shank depends upon the type of machine, the charac
IS 5444-1978 Parallel hand reamers with teristics of the material to be drilled and the
parallel shanks degree of accuracy required.
IS 5445-1978 Long fluted machine ream-
ers with morse taper shank 8 21 PRECAUTIONS IN REAMING
IS 5443-1969 Technical supply conditions 1. Before starting any operation, ensure that
for reamers the reamer does not contain any burrs.
IS 5881-1970 Taper pin hand reamers 2. Never rotate the reamer in the backward
IS 5882-1970 Socket reamers with paral- direction.
lel shanks 3. Use suitable lubricants while reaming.
IS 5918-1978 Taper pin machine reamers 4. Always take light cuts to ensure good sur
IS 5926-1970 Shell reamers face finish and longer tool life.
IS 5907-1970 Socket reamers with morse 5. Rigidly clamp the workpiece/reamer to
taper shanks avoid chattering during reaming.
. IS 6091-1971 Machine jig reamers
IS 5919-1978 Machine bridge reamers 8.22 CUTTING SPEED CUTTING FEED AND
DEPTH OF CUT
8.19 SHARPENING OF REAMERS
The amount of material removed during a drill
Reamers wear at the junction between the taper ing operation is a function of both cutting speed
lead and the bevel lead or the taper lead and the and feed. The cutting speed (in m/min) is a mea-
jt32:>-------------Manufacturing Processes I
. sure of peripheral speed of the drill. Mathemati Depth of cut in drilling. is equal to half the
cally diameter of the drill. If d is the diameter of the
drill, then depth of cut t is equal to d/2 mm.
N
CS = trD mlmm .
1000 8.23 MACHINING TIME FOR DRILLING
where D = diameter of the drill (in mm)
N =.revolutions per minute. The machining time for a drilling operation is
The average cutting speeds of selected met given by the equation
als is shown in Table 8 .3. T = --
L mm
Nxf
Table 8.3 Cutting speed of selected metals where T = drilling time (in min) ·
L = length of the depth of hole (in mm)
.Metal Cutting speed (mlmin)
N = speed of the drill (in rpm)
Steel 30 f = feed of the drill (in mm/revolution).
Tool steel 18
Cast steel 12 Example 8.1
25
Brass - 60 Calculate the time required for drilling a hole
Aluminium 60 of 18 mm diameter through a workpiece of
60 mm thickness. Assume the cutting speed as
Drill feeds are expressed in millimetre per revo 12 m/min and feed as 0.18 mm/revolution.
lution. The feed of a drill is the distance moved Solution
by the drill into the work in one revolution.
N
Mathematically Cutting speed = trD
1000
Sm = Sr X N
where Sm = feed per minute (in mm) nxl8xN
Sr = feed per revolution (in mm) or 12 =
1000
and N = rpm of the drill
lOOOx12
Cutting speeds and feeds of a drill depend or N= = 212 rpm
upon the following factors: 18 X ff
(i) The type of the material to be cut, i.e. hard- L
ness, strength and toughness Drilling time, T=--
Nxf
(ii) The cutting tool material used
(iii) Rigidity of the machine tool = 60
(iv) Depth of hole 212 X 0.18
(v) The method of holding the work. = 1 min 35 sec
Nm:.TIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( v") for the right answer (a) sharp point

1. When the point of a twist drill is sharpened, (b) equal length of angle
the lips are also ground. It is done in order to (c) higher cutting speed
have (d) proper dead centre
Drilling and Reaming-- - -
--- - - -
----,133j
2. The point of a twist -drill must be thin. It is (c) wedges (d) flutes _
needed to 6. A standard twist drill consists of the following
(a) decrease the rake angle number of helical grooves:
(b) increase the rake angle (a) one (b) two
(c) decrease a.xial feed pressure (c) three (d) four
(d) maintain perfectly circular hole 7. Drilling is an example of
3. During a drilling operation, the cylindrical job (a) continuous cutting
is held in (b) oblique cutting
(a) chucks (b) collets (c) orthogonal cutting
(c) vice (d) V-blocks (d) intermittent cutting
4. Another name of cutting edges of a standard 8. The standard point angle of a drill is
twist drill i-s (a) 60 ° (b) 90 °
°
(a) flanks (b) lips (c) 118 (d) 136 °
(c) apex of cone (d) ribs 9. A reamer is used
5. A drill is provided with helical grooves that (a) to correct the position of the hole
extend over full length of the drill body. These (b) for accurate position and size of the hole
are also known as (c) to increase the depth of the drilled hole
(a) lips (b) fins (d) for accurate size and roundness of the hole.
,.tR.ivmw QUESTIONS
1. Outline the procedure of drilling a hole with a 9. What are the various kinds of drilling machines?
drill. Explain their utility in a workshop.
2. Outline the difference between drilling, ream 10. Describe with a neat sketch the working of a
ing and boring. radial drilling machine.
3. What are the various kinds of drills used in 11. How are drilling machines spec;ified? Explain
industry? How are drills specified? the working and utility of a multiple spindle
4. What are the principal parts of a drill? Show drilling machine.
the various parts of a drill with a neat sketch. 12. Explain the working of the following:
(i) Hand drill
5. Write short notes on:
(ii) Portable drilling machine
(i) Fractional drills (ii) Number drills (iii) Pillar drilling machine
(iii) Letter drills (iv) Drill chuck (iv) Box column drilling machine
(v) Drill sleeve (v) Gang drilling machine
(vi) Drill clearance angles (vi) Multiple spindle drilling machine
6. What are the various methods used for grind (vii) Deep hole drilling machine
ing drills? Explain them with suitable sketches. 13. What is reaming? What is the difference be
7. List the various operations performed on a drill tween drilling and reaming?
machine. Explain them briefly. 14. Sketch a reamer and explain the functions of
8. What is a drilling machine? Name the various various elements of a reamer.
parts of a drilling machine and explain their 15. What are the various kinds of reamers? Ex
functions. plain their utility and uses in industry.
9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.2 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON
BORING MACHINES
Boring is the process of enlarging and locating
previously drilled holes with a single-point cut A boring machine is used to carry out a number
ting tqol. Though drilling is the most commonly of operations, such as drilling, boring, reaming,
used process of making holes, drills tend to wan facing, turning, milling, forming, counterboring,
der or drift. Where accuracy is required, drilling countersinking and spot facing. Counterboring
is followed by boring and reaming. The funda is the process of partly enlarging the hole to
mental difference between reaming and boring form a shoulder at one end. Countersinking is
is that reaming is a finishing operation in which the process of forming a conical bore at the top
very little stock is removed, whereas the stock of a hole. Spot facing is similar to counterboring.
removal is large in the case boring. Figure 9.1 In spot facing, a small quantity of stock is re
shows a boring operation. moved to produce a plain bearing surface for
washers, nuts and bolts.
9.3 BORING MACHINES

Boring machines can be classified as
(i) Horizontal boring machine
(ii) Vertical boring machine
(iii) Precision boring machine
(iv) Jig boring machine.
In this chapter the discussion is restricted to
the first three types of boring machines. Jig bor
ing is discussed in the next chapter.
9.4 HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE

Fig. 9.1 Boring operation It is also known as a horizontal boring, milling
Boring and Boring Machines----------- -
__)135J
or drilling machine. These machines are intended

to carry out different operations on relatively
large pieces that cannot be rotated easily. The
. line diagram of a horizontal boring machine is �
(a)
shown in Fig. 9.2. A brief description of the
important elements of a horizontal boring (b)
machine follows.
� II h<l......,...,, ITTTTT1"'l."'t"rr1
(d}
tti�
'(c)
Fig. 9.2 Line diagram of a horizontal boring machine: - (f)

(e)
J. Headstock 2. Headstock elevating screw
J. Spindle 4. Bed 5. Table 6. End support col Fig. 9.3 Different operations that can be performed on
umn 7 Saddle 8. Base a horizontal boring machine: (a) boring of cy
lindrical holes, (b) drilling, (c) machining of
Headstock This is the most important unit of vertical planes with face milling cutter,
the boring machine that supports, guides and (d) machining horizontal flat and form sur
feeds the tool. The machine spindles are also faces, (e) facing with a single-point cutting tool
housed in it. Depending upon the design, the (f) cutting of internal threads with a thread
cutting tool
headstock may contain one or two spindles. In
the case of two spindles, one is heavy and slow
saddle and various feed control shafts. It also
moving, while the other is lighter and fast mov
ing. The slow moving spindle is used for heavier supports all the necessary feed mechanisms.
operations while the fast moving spindle is used Column base A column base supports the col
for lighter operations. The spindle is used for umn and houses the various gear and drive
supporting and driving the cutting tools. Spindle mechanisms.
motion is easily reversible for backing out tools
and right and left cutting action of end mill cut Table The table acts as a support for holding
ters. the workpiece. It consists of a number of
Column It consists of a heavily ribbed body T-slots for holding and clamping the workpiece.
that provides support for the tailstock and guides It is provided at the bottom with a suitable feed
it up and down. Accurate movement of tailstock mechanism for rapid traverse in various direc
is provided by means of ways. In most machines tions. Tables are used in various shapes and de-
the column is directly mounted on beds to give . signs. The rotary table of horizontal boring
them permanent horizontal and vertical align machine is shown in Fig. 9.4.
ment with the bedways.
Bed The bed of a horizontal boring and mill Saddle The movement of the table takes place
ing machine is made of ground cast iron. It also at right angles to the spindle, unless it is pro
houses the guideways. It supports the column, vided with a saddle. The saddle is used to pro
the headstock, the end supports, the table, the vide compound movement to the table.
1136�. -------- - -
-Manufacturing Processes!--- ----------
9.4.1 Table-Type Horizontal Boring

Machine
This is the most extensively used of all boring
machines. It is so called because it consists of a
table on which the job is mounted. The position
of the table can be adjusted lengthwise or cross
wise by hand or by a power mechanism.
The machine consists of a bed, headstock,
column, supporting column, table and saddle.
The spindle has a horizontal feed motion as well
as a rotary motion. The tool holder is held in
the spindle, which imparts motion to the tool to
carry out the boring operation. It is a general
purpose machine that can perform various other
Fig. 9.4 Rotary table of a horizontal boring machine
(Courtesy: HMT Ltd)
operations such as turning and milling in addi
tion to boring.
Spindle Boring spindles are supported on roller 9.4.2 Floor-Type Horizontal Boring
bearings for perfect alignment. A boring spindle
acts as a milling_ spindle and is used for mount
Machine
ing boring bars, face mills and detachable fac The basic units of this machine are headstock,
ing heads. It is clamped axially in the front to column, column base, runway, end support col
carry out various operations accurately. The umn, end support runway and floor plate. A
cross-sectional view of a boring spindle is shown table-type horizontal boring machine cannot ac
in Fig. 9.5. commodate very big or heavy workpieces. A
Horizontal boring machines can be classified floor-type machine is used for holding heavy
as workpieces. The main difference between a
(i) Table type floor-type and a table-type horizontal boring
(ii) Floor type machine is in the spindle movement. In this ma
(iii) Planer type chine, all types of movements are provided by
(iv) Multiple head type. the spindle itself and no movement is provided
Fig. 9,5 Spindle unit of a horizontal boring machine (Courtesy: HMT Ltd)
----- --------Boring and Boring Machines----- - - -----1371
Workpiece
End support
Headstock column
Fig. 9.8 Planer-type horizontal boring machine: 1. Bed

2. Table 3. Spindle 4. Headstock 5. Column
Fig. 9.6 Table-type horizontal boring machine
6. End mill
by the bed. A line diagram of a flooHype hori 9.4.4 Multiple Head-Type Boring Machine
zontal boring machine is shown in Fig. 9.7. This
type of machine is much bigger in size than a In shape this machine resembles a double hous
table-type boring machine. ing planer or a planer-type milling machine. The
basic units of this machine are headstocks, col
5 umns, bed, table and cross-rail. Unlike other bor
6 ing machines, it consists of two, three or four
headstocks and two columns. The headstocks
can be swivelled for angular cuts. The machine
consists of a long table supported on the bed. It
reciprocates on the bed with the workpiece to
carry out the boring operation. A column is at
tached to each side of the bed. An adjustable
Fig. 9.7 Floor-type horizontal boring machine: 1. Bed height cross-rail bridges the column. Depending
2. Spindle 3. Bearing 4. Headstock 5. Column upon the design, one or two cross-heads are
6. End mill mounted and adjusted across the cross-rail. This
9,4,3 Planer-Type Horizontal Boring is the only horizontal boring machine that can
do vertical as well as horizontal boring. Since it
Machine
consists of two, three or four headstocks, it can
The basic elements of this machine are head work on two, three or four surfaces at one time.
stock, column, runway, end support column, end
support runway, table and bed. In shape, it is 9.5 VERTICAL BORING MACHINE
similar to a table-type boring machine except Vertical boring machines can be further
classi
for the design of the table. The table of a planer
fied as
type boring machine rides directly on the bed
(i) Vertical boring mill
and reciprocates at right angles, while in the
case of a table-type boring machine, it moves (ii) Vertical turret lathe.
on a saddle. The table is fully supported by the 9,5.1 Vertical Boring Mill
bed in all positions. In this machine, the table
moves on the bed in the same manner as in the It is used for machining inside surfaces, outside
case of a planer. Thus, it is known as a planer surfaces and faces of big symmetrical compo
type boring machine. A line diagram of planer nents like locomotive wheels and turbine
type boring machine is shown in Fig. 9.8. runners. On a vertical boring machine, the
1138--- - -- - ----Manufacturing Processes I---------- ----
4 mounted on the cross-rails. It can be adjusted

up and down. The tool ram head can be moved
3
up and down, whereas the saddle of the tool
head may be fed crosswise. This facilitates the
movement of the workpiece to any desired position.
9,5.2 Vertical Turret Lathe
Basically this machine is similar to a vertical
Fig. 9,9 Multiple spindle horizontal boring machine: boring machine except for the size and the tur
1. Bed 2. Table 3. Headstocks 4. Columns ret mechanism used for holding the tools. It is
5. Cross-rail also similar in design to a turret lathe, with mi
nor differences. It consists of a headstock hav
workpiece rotates on a horizontal table against
ing its axis in the vertical position and a turret
a stationary .tool. This machine is also called a
head mounted on cross-rails. The turret head
vertical lathe. The chuck lies on a large face
plate and the tool is fed against the rotating job. generally holds five tools and can be moved to
The line diagram of a vertical boring mill is and-fro and up-and-down. The five tools
shown in Fig. 9.10. This design of the machine mounted on a turret head enable successive tools
has the following advantages over a lathe: to be brought in position to carry out different
operations. The tools are fed to or away from
the table by raising or lowering the turret and
its slide. The turret can be positioned accurately
by a screw and dial. In the beginning, the turret
in indexed and locked in each of its five posi
tions by hand. After adjusting the positions, they
are clamped rigidly. Figure 9 .11 shows the
diagram of vertical turret lathe. This machine is
suitable for turning and boring wheels, pistons,
piston rings and gear blanks. Its main disadvan
tage is that heavier parts are difficult to
Fig .9.10 Vertical boring machine: J. Tool head 2. Bed machine.
}. Table 4. Column 5. Cross-rails
1. Larger workpieces can be set more conve

niently and quickly on this machine than
on a lathe.
2. The table and workpiece rotate in the hori
zontal plane. The overhang is minimum and
the chances of bending of the spindle are
eliminated.
3. Multiple tools can be used which increases
the rate of production. Fig. 9.11 Vertical turret lathe: 1. Bed 2. Table
The machine consists of two vertical heads 3. Column 4. Cross-rail 5. Saddle or arm
and one or two side heads. The tool heads are 6. Turret head
- -- - - -
---- --Boring and Boring Machines--------- -
�-�1391
9.6 PRECISION BORING MACHINE 9,9 BORING TOOLS

Precision boring machines can be classified into Boring tools can _be broadly classified as solid
horizontal and vertical precision boring ma forged type cutting tools and boring bar or in
chines. These machines are rigid in construc serted tip tools. Solid forged boring tools are
tion, with an accurate alignment of parts for generally high-speed steel tools produced by
producing jobs with great accuracy. In design forging the solid bar to different shapes, as
· they are similar to other boring machines. The shown in Fig. 9.12(a). For cutting at higher
operations on this machine are carried out with speeds, either inserted or brazed carbide tip tools
a single-point cutting tool so as to machine sur are used. An inserted tooth boring tool is shown
faces accurately and rapidly. Cemented carbide in Fig. 9.12(b). Depending upon their shape,
and diamond point cutting tools are commonly boring tools can be classified into: (a) common
used tools on this machine. type boring tools, (b) heavier cut boring tools
and (c) special boring tools (to avoid the chance
9.7 SPECIFICATIONS OF A HORIZONTAL of the boring bar striking the shoulder of the
BORING MACHINE job). These tools are shown in Fig. 9.13. Ac
A horizontal boring machine is specified by the cording to the shape of the nose, cutting tools
diameter of the spindle bore, which varies from are also classified as (a) offset or bent tool,
75 to 350 mm. Other elements used for desig (b) left-hand round nose tool, and (c) offset
nating a horizontal boring machine are (a) height roughing tool.
of the columns, (b) size of the table, (c) traverses
of spindle, headstock, table cross, (d) range
of speeds, (e) feeds, (f) power of the motor,
(g) floor space required, and (h) weight of the
machine. Another important consideration while
purchasing a machine is the weight of the com Tool Holder
ponent to be machined.
9.8 SPECIFICATIONS OF A VERTICAL

BORING MACHINE
Bit (b)
A vertical boring machine is specified by the
following: Fig. 9.12 (a) Solid forged boring tool (b) Inserted bit
(i) Type of machine tool tool holder
(ii) Diameter of the spindle bore
(iii) Height of the columns
9.10 BORING TOOL MOUNTINGS
(iv) Size of the table The various types of equipment used for mount
(v) Traverse of various mechanisms like ing cutters on boring machines are
spindle, headstock, etc. (i) Boring bars
(vi) Range of speeds (ii) Cutter heads
(vii) Range of automatic feeds (iii) Facing heads
(viii) Power of the motor
(ix) Space area required by the machine tool Boring bar Boring bars are used to hold bor
(x) Maximum gap between the table and the ing cutters for boring operations. They are gen
cross-rail. erally made of mild steel. The bars are provided
1140-------------Manufacturing Processes 1---------------
Workpiece Tool Tool Tool

Tool
Holder
Tool
Holder
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9,13 (a} Column-type tool. (b} Greater cutting tool angle, (c} Special tool used for avoiding boring bar from
striking the shoulder
with slots to receive boring tools at one end. for removing a given amo.unt of stock is equally
Boring bars can be further classified as (a) in distributed at the tips, and holes can be bored
line boring bars and (b) stub boring bars. Com more quickly.
monly used boring bars are shown in Fig. 9.14. Facing heads Facing heads are used for en
In-line boring bars have a piloted or supported larging holes of large diameter and for facing
cutter end that rotates in the supporting bushes and turning external surfaces. A facing head con
and provides additional rigidity to the bar for sists of a flange provided with a diametral
cutting operations. A stub boring bar has two slideway, as shown in Fig. 9.15. The facing head
cutting lips to accommodate two cutters. The is mounted on the end of. the spindle. On the
position of the cutters is adjusted with the help other end, it supports a long boring bar for car
,=--lf=--+-
of screws. rying out different operations.
Shank Clamping screw
� / Spindle
Boring bar
Cutting tool ----
¥:"
(a)
Cutting tool/
cutter ·
Cl
Fig. 9.15 Facing head
9.11 HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE

OPERATION
Boring bar
(b) Boring is the process of enlarging holes by a
Fig. 9,14 Boring bars: (a} In-line boring bars, (b} Stub boring tool. In most cases a rotating tool is fed
boring bars against a stationary job. In some cases the job
may be rotating and a tool fed across it.
Boring heads or cutter heads Holes of large A boring operation is done by using a boring
diameter cannot be bored by boring bars. This bar fitted inside the spindle. Multiple holes are
difficulty is overcome by boring heads. A cutter bored by changing the position ·of the workpiece
head can hold a number of cutting tips. Multiple and aligning it each time. Figure 9.16 shows a
cutters have the advantage that the force required boring operation.
Boring and Boring Machines-------------1411
/
2
/ operations on a boring machine is similar to that
on a milling machine.
In addition to the operations, just mentioned,
other operations performed on boring machines
are drilling, reaming, counterboring and spot fac
ing. All these operations are similar to the bor
ing operation, discussed previously.
9.12 VERTICAL BORING MACHINE
OPERATIONS
Fig. 9.16 Boring operation: J. Spindle 2 Workpiece
Vertical boring machines are used for perform
3. Boring bar 4. End mill 5. Table
ing a number of operations, such as roughing
A milling operation on a milling machine is (by using roughing tools), internal and external
carried out by using different types of milling turning and surfacing. They are extensively used
for machining holes. Some commonly used bor
cutters. For operation, the milling cutter is fitted
ing tools for enlarging holes are shown in
inside the spindle. The various milling cutters Fig. 9.17. Figure 9.17(a) shows a boring bit held
used are facing cutters, side and face cutters in the boring bar for enlarging holes. Figure
and end mills. The various operations performed 9.17(b) shows the.process of enlarging holes by
on this machine are facing, grooving and slot end mill cutter. Figure 9.17(c) shows the pro
cutting. The process of carrying out these cess of reaming.
Boring bar
___-Reamer
Workpiece
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9.17 Boring operations with: (a) Boring tool, (b) Milling cutter, (c) Reamer
. �ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ,/) for the right answer (b) making small-size holes
l. In comparison to boring (c) drilling and reaming only
(a) holes made by drilling are more accurate (d) a number of operations like boring, fac
(b) large holes can be drilled by drilling ing, milling, forming, counterboring and
(c) reaming can be used for increasing the size countersinking
of the hole 3. Horizontal boring machines are basically de
(d) reaming is a: slower process and holes can signed to carry out different boring operations
not be enlarged (a) on large pieces that cannot be rotated eas
2. A boring machine is used for ily
(a) enlarging the holes only (b) on small pieces for small-size holes
jl4Z-- - - - - - -- - - - Manufacturin
- -- - --
g Processes! - ----- -
- -
(c) like deep cutting of wire-size holes (a) multiple cutting tool rotates and the job
(d) for finishing previously drilled holes reciprocates
4. A vertical boring machine is also known as (b) single-point tool rotates and the job remains
(a) vertical milling machine
stationary
(b) vertical boring mill
(c) vertical boring lathe (c) the workpiece rotates against the tool
(d) vertical drilling head (d) both tool and workpiece rotate against each
5. On a vertical boring machine other
t!t.Evmw QUESTIONS
I. Define the following terms: 6. Describe in brief the working principle of a
(a) Boring (b) Counterboring boring machine.
(c) Countersinking 7. What is a vertical boring mill? What are its
2. What do you understand by boring? What are various parts? What are the operations per
the various operations performed on boring ma formed on it?
chines? 8. Sketch the various types of tools used on bor
3. Differentiate between: (a) boring and counter ing machines.
boring, (b) countersinking and spot facing. 9. Describe the procedure of boring on
4. Enumerate the various elements of a horizontal (a) Horizontal boring machine
boring machine. (b) Vertical boring machine
5. Discuss in brief the methods of classification 10. What are the various kinds of operations that
of boring machines. can be performed on a boring machine?
10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.2 SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENTS
A jig boring machine is a precISion boring The principle of working of all jig boring ma
machine used for boring accurate holes at proper chines is the same but they differ in shape and
centre-to-centre distances. It is a specially size. Jig boring machines are provided with vari
designed machine tool for the precision location ous systems of measurement. The common sys
and production of holes needed in jigs, fixtures, tems of measurement provided on jig boring
dies and templates. The machining accuracy of machines are as follows.
holes produced by this machine tool lies within Precision lead-screw system This system is
a range of 0.0025 mm. provided underneath the table on a jig boring
In appearance and construction, a jig boring machine. It consists of a lead-screw, a gradu
machine resembles a vertical milling machine, ated micrometer dial at its end and a compen
but is more rigid and accurate. The spindle and sating device. A compensating device is used
other parts of this machine are very rigid, to for correcting the errors in the table movements.
resist deflection. A disadvantage of this system is that its use is
The machine consists of a heavy base and limited to small tables.
column. At the top, the column carries the End measurement system End measurements
spindle head, which can be moved up and down are carried out by accurately finished rods with
along the vertical guideways. The spindle runs a view to measuring blocks accurately. They are
on preloaded antifriction bearings. The table is used in standard lengths of millimeters and
mounted over the saddle that moves in different inches. End adjustments are made with the help
directions along the guideways provided on the of micrometers. For correction, the end mea
saddle. Longitudinal motion to the work is given sures and the micrometer are placed in a trough
by moving the table, cross movement by moving between the dial indicator on one side and an
the saddle, and vertical movement by moving adjustable stop on the other side of the table.
the spindle head up and down. The table is then moved till the dial indicator
1144·------- -----Manufacturing Processes I------ - ------
reads zero. This system is preferred to the preci

sion lead-screw system, since it 1s applicable to 5
all sizes of tables.
Scale and microscope system In this system
accurate graduated scales and a microscope are
incorporated in the machine for accurate move
ment of the table. Measurements are performed
accurately with a microscope. The system is very
accurate and carries no wearing parts.
Electromagnetic system This system consists
of two master bars carrying equispaced magneti
sed projections. A precision micrometer screw
is fitted just below the table. The screw is fitted
with a movable slide, the other end of which is
fastened to a magnetic head. This head is fas
tened to a meter for zero reading. When the
magnetic centre of a projection is just in front Fig. 10.1 Vertical milling type jig boring machine
1. Bed 2. Saddle 3. Table 4. Workpiece
of the head, the meter reads zero. This system
j Spindle head 6. Spindle housing 7. Spindle
ensures rapid traverse of the table and saddle 8. Cutter
and is quick adjusting.
made of cast iron. To provide it rigidity, it is
· 10.3 TYPES OF JIG BORING MACHINES provided with stiffening ribs. It supports the col
Commonly used jig boring machines are classi umn, saddle and the whole machine and houses
fied as all the electrical controls of the machine.
(i) Vertical milling type Column It is a hollow vertical cast iron struc
(ii) Planer type ture that supports the headstock, guideways and
vertical hand traverse of the spindle head. Coun
10.4 VERTICAL MILLING-TYPE JIG terweights of the headstock are also housed in
BORING MACHINE it, as are various devices, such as spindle, grill,
This is the most extensively use..l jig boring ma clamping devices, gear head or belts.
chine. It is used for drilling and boring holes -in Headstock This is also known as a spindle
jigs, fixtures, templates, dies, castings and other head. A headstock is mounted in front of the
components. It can also be used for carrying out column. The spindle revolves within a grill. The
light milling operations. A precision machine spindle provides rotary movement to the tool
consists of a plain rotary table and an inclined and the grill may be moved up and down to
rotary table in addition to the rectangular table. provide vertical movement to the tool. The
A simplified sketch of a vertical milling type jig spindle nose is provided with a· tapered hole for
-boring machine is shown in Fig. 10.1. A brief receiving taper shan_ks of cutters or boring bars.
description of the main parts of a jig boring Precision machines are provided with a dial at
machine follows: the front to set the length of spindle travel. The
Bed The member -that supports the machine is feed gear box is housed in it to give different
known as the bed. It is a box-shaped casting speeds to the spindle.·
JigBoring-------------- -
-1451
Table and saddle The table supports the work over the cross-rails. The table has a reciprocat
and is therefore provided with T-slots at the top ing movement. By moving the table and the
for clamping the workpiece. The saddle permits spindle head, the position of the job can be ad
the work to be moved longitudinally. Longitudi justed to any convenient position to carry out
nal and transverse motion to the table and saddle the boring operation. A planer-type boring ma
are given by separate electrical motors fitted in chine is rigid in construction and is used for
side the bed. The table and saddle also carry the boring operations on bigger components.
measuring mechanism. Verniers are used for set
ting the table by hand. 10.7 JIG BORING OPERATIONS
Pick up devices Pick up devices are used for In addition to drilling, boring and milling, many
automatically controlling various machine op other operations, such as facing, counterboring,
erations. They are mounted on the table as well countersinking and trepanning can be performed
as on the saddle. They are needed for making on jig boring machines. The procedure of carry
accurate measurements and automatic move ing out all these operations, except trepanning,
ments of mechanisms to preset dimensions. is described in the chapter of "Boring and Bor
ing Machines". The trepanning process is de
10.5 SPECIFICATIONS OF A JIG BORING scribed below.
MACHINE
Trepanning This is an operation used to pro
A boring machine is specified by the following duce very large holes in thin metals or very deep
elements: holes in solid workpieces. A trepanning opera
1. Distance of the spindle axis from the col tion is carried out with a special trepanning tool.
umn A simple tool used for sheets consists of a cut
2. Maximum distance between the spindle ting edge with a pop at its centre. As the cut
face and table top proceeds, the tool recedes into the body till the
3. Minimum distance between the spindle face operation is finished. For more details, refer to
and table top the chapter on "Lathe and Lathe Work".
4. Diameter of the spindle hole and its taper
5. Maximum diameter of the hole bored 10.8 LOCATING THE WORK
6. Maximum diameter of the drilled hole Before starting any operation of drilling or bor
7. Admitted maximum weight of the work ing, the exact location of the position in the
piece work is of utmost importance. The following
8. Working surface of the table methods are followed for locating positions in
9. Maximum traverse of the table the workpiece:
10. Horse power of the main motor
11. Horse power of the table feed motor Layout In this method, lines are scribed at the
12. Minimum dial reading desired position with the help of precision in
13. Minimum vernier reading struments. At the centre of each line, punch
14. Speeds of the spindle. marks are pricked. The tool is adjusted at the
proper position and the operation is carried out.
10.6 PLANER-TYPE JIG BORING MACHINE
Buttoning This is the process of locating po
It is so called because it resembles a planer in sitions by using tool marker's buttons. It is used
design. It consists of two vertical columns sup for locating a position with great efficiency. Tool
ported at the two sides of the bed. The columns marker's buttons are available in standard sizes
support the cross-rails. The spindle head moves of 1 cm, 1.5 cm, 2.0 cm etc. The height of the
1146------�------Manufacturing Processes 1---------------
buttons is nearly 1.5 cm. A complete set con

sists of flat washers and screws along with the
buttons.
The process of locating positions with but
tons is shown in Fig. 10.2. First, the centres are
located with the help of a height gauge to an
accuracy of 0.01 mm. A scale and scriber can
also be used for locating positions. Holes are
then drilled and tapped to receive the scn,ws.
The buttons are then fastened at the proper po Fig. 10.2 Method of using buttons for locatingpositions
sition with the help of a screw and washers.
Distances are finally checked and the button is Transfer This is the method of using a master
fitted tightly in the proper position. The plate for locating positions. The master plate
workpiece is then tightened at a place and the consists of a number of holes at suitably located
axis of one button at a time is made concentric positions. This is a very quick process when a
with the tool. Accuracy is· checked by a dial fixed quantity of holes are to be bored in many
indicator. The button and screw is removed and components.
the boring operation carried out. The same pro Coordinate location This is the process of lo
cedure is repeated for the subsequent operations, cating holes by various measuring devices, par
till all the holes have been bored. ticularly a height gauge.
�ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ,/) for the right answer (a) precision lead-screw system
L A jig boring is a precision boring machine used (b) end measurement system
for (c) scale and microscope system
(a) making holes of very big size (d) sine bar and screw gauge system
(b) making holes in jigs and fixtures 4. The following is not a type of boring machine:
(c) boring accurate holes at proper centre-to (a) horizontal milling type
centre distances (b) vertical milling type
(d) enlarging holes only (c) planer type
2. In appearance and construction, a jig boring (d) none of the above
machine resembles a 5. Buttons are used for locating positions. A set
(a) shaping machine . of buttons consists of
(b) drilling machine (a) buttons of various sizes only
{c) horizontal milling machine (b) buttons and washers of various sizes
(d) vertical milling machine (c) buttons and screws of various sizes
3. The following system of measurement is not (d) buttons, washers and screws of various
provided on a jig boring machine: sizes
I
Jig Boring----- -
-------- -,1471
-
1. Enumerate the utility of a jig boring machine 5. How is a jig boring machine specified?
in the tool room. 6. Explain the various methods used for locating
2. What are the various measurement S)'Stems used positions in workpieces for accurate jig boring
in jig boring? Explain these systems in brief. work.
3. What are the various types of jig boring ma 7. What are the various types of operations that
chines? can be performed on a jig boring machine?
4. Explain the various elements of a jig boring
machine.
Bro�hin�- a�d
• Bro�liing. Machi.hes
11.1 INTRODUCTION 2. The process is suitable for machining in

ternal as well as external surfaces.
Broaching is a machining process in which metal
3. Due to fast cutting action, the rate of pro-
removal takes place with the help of a number
duction is high.
of successive teeth incorporated on the broach.
4. Many forms can be produced by giving
Cutting takes place by a transverse cutting ac
different shapes to the tools.
tion, by pushing or pulling the broach through
the hole or surface. Broaching is an efficient 5. Jobs of accurate dimensions can be pro
duced.
and rapid process, because roughing and finish
6. A good surface finish is produced.
ing operations can be done in a single pass.
Broaching, however, also possesses the fol
lowing disadvantages:
1. The cost of tools is high.
2. The process is not economical for short
run jobs.
Roughing Semifinishing Finishing 3. It requires rigid machines.
teeth teeth teeth Pilot 4. It is not suitable for large stock removal.
Fig. 11.1 Parts of a round pull broach
11.2 BROACHING METHOD
Broaching is used extensively in metal cut A broach is a tapered multiple cutting edge tool
ting, due to the following advantages: having contours of different shapes. It consists
1. Both roughing and finishing cuts are per of three cutting zones-roughing, sernifinishing,
formed in a single pass. and finishing.
Land
C1 !""":::-----t- Clearance
angle
Depth of Radius
teeth
Fig. 11.2 DeWls of broach teeth
- - -- - - ----Broaching andBroaching Machines- - ----- - - -
1491
A broach is tapered from the first roughing shell-type (also called built-up) broaches are pre
tooth to the first finishing tooth. The size of ferred. These broaches have replaceable sections
each roughing tooth is larger than the preceding and teeth, and are generally used for machining
tooth. All the finishing teeth are of the same external surfaces. A broach having the same
size. height between the teeth but different widths is
Internal broaches consist of a starting hole known as a progressive cut broach. A burnish
through which the broach is pulled or pushed. ing broach is used for finishing surfaces. The
This allows the front pilot section of the broach removal of stock by this broach is very little,
to enter the hole freely. As the broach advances, i.e. not more than 0.020 mm.
the cutting commences. Since the size of each
tooth is greater than its predecessor, small 11.4 BROACH TOOL MATERIAL
amount of material is removed. High-speed steel is the most commonly used
11.3 TYPES OF BROACHES material for making broaches. Commonly used
high-speed steel contains 18% tungsten, 4%
Broaches used in industry can be classified in chromium and 1% vanadium. These tools are
various ways: used in heat-treated and ground conditions. High
1. According to their operation, i.e. push, pull speed steel broaches produce a good surface fin
or stationary broaches ish and are used for broaching mild steel and
2. Accm.:ding to the kind of operation, i.e. in cast iron components. Inserted tooth carbide
ternal and external broaches broaches are used for broaching cast iron in the
3. According to their shape, i.e. solid, inserted automative industry. These tools produce a good
tooth, built-up or replaceable surface finish and are capable of working at
4. According to their function, i.e. roughing, thrice the speed of high-speed steels. A prereq
finishing, keyway, burnishing, sizing and uisite for working with carbide tip tools is the
serrating.
rigidity of the machine tools.
Two broad classifications of broaches are
(a) internal broaches and (b) external broaches. 11.5 BROACHING TOOL ELEMENTS
A broach used for making internal surfaces is
called an internal broach, while the one used for The various parts of a broaching tool consist of
broaching external surfaces is called an external the following elements.
broach. Internal broaches are used to enlarge Pull end The end that permits engagement of
and finish already made contours, such as drills the broaching tool with the broaching machine.
and punches.
Front pilot The portion that enters the broach
Broaches are also classified as (a) push
in the hole before the teeth start the cutting ac
broaches and (b) pull broaches. The former are
tion.
shorter in length than the latter, and are thus
more rigid. Push broaches are used for broach Roughing and semifinishing teeth These
ing comparatively shorter lengths. Pull broaches teeth are used for the removal of stock.
and preferred for removing metal over greater Finishing teeth These teeth are used for
lengths. finishing the component.
A single-piece broach is also known as a solid
broach. Internal broaches are generally single Rear pilot The portion that supports the broach
piece broaches. Where the chances of wear and after the last tooth leaves the hole.
tear are more and the degree of accuracy is high, Ltmd The upper portion of the tooth.
1150-- - - --- ----Manufacturing Processes I
Clearance angle The angle corresponding to The hardness of the material has a marked
the relief angle of a single point tool. effect on the surface finish of the workpiece.
Rack angle Also known as face angle or hook The best results are obtained on materials hav
angle. It corresponds to the rake angle of a lathe ing a hardness of 12 to 25 Rockwell C. Broach
tool and varies from 12 ° to 15° . ing can be applied on materials. up to 35
Rockwell C. Below 12 Rockwell C, the mate
Pitch The linear distance from the cutting edge rial tends to tear off and the surface finish is
of one tooth to the corresponding point on a poor.
consecutive tooth.
11.7 CLASSIFICATION OF BROACHING
11.6 BROACHING TOOL DESIGN MACHINES
The process of making a broach is quite cum According to the method of drive, broaching
bersome, mainly because of its complicated machines are classified as
shape, and because of the different dimensions (i) Mechanical or screw and nut drive
of each tooth. It involves several grinding op (ii) Hydraulic drive
erations, after proper heat treatment. An impor (iii) Electromechanical drive.
tant factor is the various angles involved in the According to the direction of broach move
production of broaches for cutting different ma ment, broaching machines are classified as
terials. Approximate values of face angles for (i) Horizontal broaching machines
different materials are given below. (ii) Vertical broaching machines
S. No Material Angle (in degrees) (iii) Special design machines.
According to the surface to be machined,
1. Cast iron 5-8 broaching machines are classified as
2. Mild steel 15-20
(i) Internal broaching machines
3. Medium carbon steel 10-15
4. Hard steel 8-12 (ii) External broaching machines.
5. Copper and its alloys
6. Aluminimn
11.8 BROACHING MACHINES
In the past, many simple machines, such as punch
The pitch between two consecutive teeth de presses, power screw presses, arbor presses and
termines the length of cut and the chip thick planers were used for broaching. All of these
ness that a broaching tool can produce. The were ill-suited to the requirements of rapid and
following equations are used to determine the accurate broaching processes. Modern broach
length of cut and the chip thickness produced ing machines are. simple in construction com
by a broaching tool. In internal plain broaches, pared to other machine tools and carry out fast
and accurate broaching operations.
pitch= (1.25 to 1.50) .jlenght of cut (in mm) Broaching machines are broadly classified as
In rotary cut broaches, horizontal or vertical broaching machines. They
are driven either hydraulically or mechanically.
pitch = (1.40 to 1.8) .jlenght of cut (in mm)
While working with a broach, at least two 11.8.1 Horizontal Broaching Machines
teeth must always be in contact with the work Horizontal broaching machines are also known
piece. This helps in proper alignment and elimi as universal broaching machines because they
nates chattering. are capable of performing a wide range of
- ----- --- -Broaching and Broaching Machines----
- ------ -
15If
operations. These· machines are broadly used for tiple operation surface work is usually done on
internal broaching of holes, keyways splines, these machines, which are equipped with a tur
etc., although they can also be used for carrying ret mechanism.
out various surface broaching operations. In a production shop, the rapid loading and
Horizontal broaching machines can be fur unloading of workpieces can enhance produc
ther classified into two categories. One consists tion considerably. The use of suitable tables and
of a bed resembling a lathe on which the broach combinations of tools is very useful for incre
moves like a tailstock on ways. It is mainly used asing productivity. Vertical broaching machines
for internal broaching machines. The second cat can be of the (a) pull up, (b) pull down, and
egory consists of a broach and sliding surfaces (c) push down types, with the pull-type being
mounted in a vertical plane over the machine. commonly used.
This is generally used for broaching external Vertical broaching machines may consist of
surfaces, like connecting rods. one, two, four or eight rams. Four broaches may
The broaching operation consists of putting a be mounted on a ram. Unlike a single-ram
power-driven broaching bar through the work broaching machines, a dual-ram machine can be
piece. Pull-type broaches are preferred over used for broaching two similar pieces. The
push-type broaches because they are longer and mechanism of dual-ram broaching machines is
capable of completing the operation in one pass. such that the two rams move in opposite direc
Pull broaches are mainly used in workshops, es tions, i.e. while one ram performs a cutting ac
pecially those requiring high production rates. tion, the other is on an idle stroke. Since these
machines consist of a horizontal table, a variety
of fixtures can be set up upon them to increase
rate of production.
Slide
Table for holding

fixtures
Fig. 11.3 Simplified sketch of a horizontal hydraulic
broaching machine
11.8.2 Vertical Broaching Machines

T-slots
These are high production machine tools in
which many broaches can be operated simulta
neously. Many machine tools are equipped with Control
automatic broach handling mechanisms even for
internal work, which is an added advantage, es Fig. 11.4 Simplified sketch of a vertical broaching
pecially when using large and heavy tools. Mul- machine
1152-------- ----Manufacturing Processes!-- - -----------
11.8.3 Surface Broaching Machines of modem industry. This is mainly due to the
following reasons:
In a production workshop, vertical ram type ma 1. The stroke length of these machines is lim
chines are used for broaching surfaces.
ited to 2.6 m.
The ram is held rigidly to the machine. It
2. The maximum broaching speed of these
supports the broach holder, which carries the
machines is 10 m/min.
broachip.g tools. The tools are held in position
by suitable clamping blocks or screws. The 3. The maximum thrust that can be applied
workpieces are held rigidly on the table by means on these machines is 50000 kgf. This is
of fixtures. The cutting action takes place on mainly due to the limited size of the cylin
the downward stroke. These machines occupy der and the quantity of fluid that can be
minimal floor space, possess ample working ca pumped into it.
pacity and are capable of performing a variety Electromechanical broaching machines are ca
of operations. pable of producing components at rapid speeds.
Fig. 11,5 Simplified sketch of an electrochemical horizontal broaching machine
11.8.4 Special Surface Broaching Machines The broaching capacity of these machines is
These are specially designed rapid production much more than that of conventionally used
surface broaching machines. They are similar in machines and they can machine materials pos
construction to surface broaching machines, ex- sessing a much higher degree of hardness.
cept for some special f�atures, such as an auto The drive to electromechanical machines is
matic shutter table and loading-unloading effected by a rack and pinion. The electrical
devices. These machines are economical for pro system used is similar to that used on planing
duction of large ·number of parts with a high machines. The broach assembly is carried on a
degree of accuracy and finish. External slots, moving slide and the work is clamped to a fix
faces, forms and contours can be finished rap ture carried on the housing at the centre of the
idly in a single sweep. machine. Conventional surface broaching ma
11.8.5 Electromechanical Broaching chines are capable of working at 100 m per
Machin,e minute. Modem machines are provided with trips
Traditionally used horizontal and vertical broach and switches and can be operated at two or more
ing machines are inadequate for the requirements speeds during the same cutting stroke.
-
- ---- ----- Br Broaching Machines----
- oaching and ---- - -
-1531
11.8.6 Special Continuous Broaching (i) Power of the motors and its speed
Machines (ii) Length of the bed
(iii) Length of slide stroke:
These are specially designed machines used for
(a) Maximum
mass production. Some machines are equipped (b) Minimum
with a continuous chain conveyor that carries (iv) Rated pulling force
the workpiece through several broaching stations. (v) Cutting stroke speed:
Other automatic production type special continu (a) Maximum
ous broaching machines consist of a specially (b) Minimum
designed receding table. This advances to a fixed (vi) Number of speeds
position, stops and gets clamped automatically (vii) Return stroke speed
to allow the ram to descend to complete the (viii) Type of drive, i.e. electrical or hydraulic
cutting operation. These machines are used for (ix) Maximum size of cut
the mass production of a single item by auto (x) Weight of the machine
matically clamping and ejecting the workpieces. (xi) Size of base and floor area required for
11.8. 7 Rotary Broaching Machines its operation.
These machines consist of a rotary table and a 11.10 APPLICATIONS OF BROACHING

central column on which broaches are mounted. Broaching machines are designed for machin
They are continuous machines that perform a ing accurate internal and external surfaces and a
single operation at each station. Many fixtures large variety of shapes. A few applications of
with automatic clamps are used for quick load broaching are shown in Fig. 11.6.
ing and unloading of components.
These machines broach radial surfaces and
perform a cutting cycle in one revolution. They
may be driven mechanically or hydraulically.
11.8.8 Selecting a Broaching Machine
When selecting a broaching machine, the fol
lowing factors need consideration:
1. Stroke length of the machine
2. Power capacity of the machine
3. Type of operations to be performed
4. Characteristics of the materials to be cut
5. Rate of machining and type of tool mate
rial
6. Rigidity of the machine-surface broach
ing requires machines with more rigidity.
Fig. 11.6 Typical internal shapes that can be cut on
11.9 SPECIFICATIONS OF A BROACHING broaching machines
MACHINE
11.11 METHODS OF HOLDING BROACHES
A horizontal broaching machine can be classi
fied as follows: Broaches are provided with special pull ends for
[154•-------------Manufacturing Processes!----- --------
holding them in broaching machines. The de The various types of commonly used puller
sign and shape of the pull end depends on the heads are
type of broach and construction of the puller (i) for wedge locked broaches
head, which holds it. Pull heads can be classi (ii) internal keyway puller heads
fied as (a) cylindrical pull heads and square pull (iii) small lot production puller heads (this type
heads. These are shown in Fig. 11. 7. The puller
of puller heads are used for holding a num
head keyway broach, as shown in Fig. 11.8, is
ber of broaches with pull heads of differ
used for holding a large diameter keyway broach.
It consists of a body jaw and plates. The plates ent sizes)
hold the jaws. The jaws are urged towards each (iv) hand-operated quick change puller heads
other by means of suitable springs and pusher (v) automatic puller heads
rods. When the pull end of a broach is inserted (vi) universal puller heads for holding broaches
into the puller head, the jaws enter the recesses of 18-32 mm size.
on the pull end and lock it.
11.12 BROACH CUTTING ACTION, FEED
AND CHIP DISPOSAL
A broach consists of a number of teeth increas
ing in size from the first roughing tooth to the
first finishing tooth. However, the progressive
increase in size is not uniform. It is more for the
roughing teeth than for the intermediate teeth.
All finishing teeth are of the same size.
In a broaching operation, the chip thickness
[6!111
is equal to the step per tooth. Mathematically, it
is equal to half the -difference in the size of the
(b) adjacent teeth.
Chip disposal in a broaching machine is dif
ferent from other machining operations. In a
Fig. 11.7 (a) Cylindrical pull end broaches, {b) Square
{flat) pull end broaches milling machine, the disposal of chips takes place
immediately. In broaching, the chips are carried
in the space between the tooth which produces
the chip and the preceding tooth for the full
length of the cut. Due to this reason, sufficient
chip space is provided in broaching. Chip break
ers or notches in the cutting teeth prevent the
formation of continuous chip rings.
11.13 BROACHING SPEEDS

The speed of broaching mainly depends upon
the
(i) material to be machined and its machina
bility
Fig. 11.8 Puller head for quick damping keyway broach
ing
(ii) material of the tool
--------------Broaching and Broach ing Machines------------->1551
(iii) rate of production speed, which is 10 m/min for most steels, cast
(iv) degree of accuracy and finish required. irons, brass and aluminium alloys. Small parts
Optimum production is accomplished by run may be broached at 14 m/min.
ning the broach at the maximum permissible
fi.1:ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ..f) for the right answer (c) Broaching is suitable for producing simple
1. The commonly used material of broaching tools shapes
is (d) The return stroke is always idle
(a) high-carbon steel 5. A broaching operation possesses the following
(b) high-speed steel containing cobalt advantage:
(c) tungsten carbide (a) Both finishing and roughing cuts are per-
(d) ceramic formed in a single pass
2. During a broaching operation, at least the fol (b) The cost of tools is high
lowing number of teeth should be in contact (c) The process is unsuitable for short run jobs
with the workpiece. (d) Large stock removal is not possible
(a) ope (b) two 6. The following type of puller head is not used
(c) three (d) four for broaching:
3. The front teeth of a broach (a) cylindrical puller heads
(a) only guide the broach (b) internal key way puller head
(b) remove minimum metal (c) hand-operated quick change puller head
(c) remove maximum metal (d) universal puller heads
(d) perform superfinishing operation 7. Broaching operation is extensively used in the
4. A broaching process is having the following automobile industry, because
disadvantage: (a) it is a semi-automatic machine
(a) The process is suitable for high-volume (b) it is an automatic operation
production (c) semi-skilled labour is required
(b) The process is rapid (d) the tools are cheap
tlt.:Evmw QUESTIONS
�--��-�-�.....-----��-��-�----·-···--·--··--···�--=-�-��=·��,
1. What is the principle of a broaching process? 8. Describe a broaching process on a horizontal

2. How are broaches classified? broaching machine.
3. Draw a neat sketch of an internal broaching 9. How is broaching done on a vertical broaching
machine?
tool and describe its various elements. 10. Describe in brief:
4. Define the various elements of a broaching tool. (a) Surface broaching machine
5. Enumerate the principle operating features of (b) Special surface broaching machine
broaching machines. (c) Special continuous broaching machine
6. Differentiate between internal broaching and (d) Rotary broaching machine
surface broaching. 11. Enumerate the various factors that need to be
considered while selecting the cutting speed of
7. How are broaching machines classified?
a broaching tool.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Grinding is a metal removing process performed
with the help of grinding wheel. It is employed
for finishing various parts, such as engine crank
shafts, splined shafts, lathe guideways, long
Workpiece
pipes, worms, toothed gears, pinions, racks, and
surfaces. The various operations performed on
grinding machines are
1. Grinding flat surfaces
2. Cutting off blanks
3. External and internal cylindrical grinding
4. Tapered and complexed surface grinding
5. Gear tooth grinding
6. Screw thread grinding
Fig. 12.1 Schematic diagram ofmain kinds ofgrinding
7. Cutting tools grinding operations
Grinding means abrasion by friction. In grind
ing, the material is removed by means of a ro 2. To obtain a better surface finish
tating wheel. This process is similar to a milling 3. To machine hard surfaces that cannot be
cutter, except the geometry of the cutting pro machined by high-speed steels
cess. Grinding wheels consist of a large number 4. Sharpening of cutting tools
of abrasives that act as cutters for metal remov 5. Grinding of threads
ing. 6. Sometimes it is used for removing bigger
Grinding was primarily used for removing stocks of metals.
small stock from workpieces. These days grind Abrasives used for making grinding wheels
ing is used mainly for the following purposes: are very hard, have poor heat sensitivity and
1. To remove a small amount of metal from can thus be used at high speeds. The biggest
workpieces and finish them to close toler advantage of grinding wheels is their self-sharp
ances. ening property.
- --- - -- -- Gr Grinding Machines-- - - - - - ----1571
- inding and
12.2 ABRASIVES grinding very hard materials like carbide tools.

In the market, it is sold under various trade
An abrasive is a hard material used for making
names, e.g. Carborundum, Crystolon and Elec
grinding wheels. Abr�sives are small particles
tron.
bonded together in different shapes. Abrasives
used for making grinding wheels can be classi Aluminium oxide The chemical formula of
fied as aluminium oxide is Al20 3. It is brilliant white
(i) Natural abrasives in colour. In the market, it is sold as aloxite,
(ii) Artificial abrasives alundum or borolon. Aluminium oxide is fairly
tough and is used for grinding materials such as
12.2.1 Natural Abrasives tool steel and high-speed steel.
The commonly found natural abrasives are:
(i) Sandstone or quartz
12.3 MANUFACTURE OF GRINDING
(ii) Emery WHEELS
(iii) Corundum The manufacture of grinding wheels involves
(iv) Garnet the following steps:
(v) Diamond 1. Ascertain the purity of the abrasive.
2. Crush the abrasive into small particles.
3. Again remove the impurity, if any. Mag
0 netic impurities are removed by magnetic
a..
separators. Dust and soluble impurities are
removed by passing a stream or water over
the particles.
4. Sieve the particles to the required size.
5. Mix the abrasive particles with a calcu
(a) (b) (c) lated amount of bonding material.
6. Pour the materials in moulds, press and
Fig. 12.2 Structures ofvarious kinds ofgrinding wheels
dry.
Formerly, grinding wheels were used to be 7. After drying, bake the moulds by heating
made from natural abrasives. These days, all to a suitable temperature.
grinding wheels are made of artificial abrasives 8. Cut the mould to the required shape and
due to their many advantages as discussed below. size.
9. Inspect the component and test for proper
12.2.2 Artificial Abrasives working.
The abrasives used these days for making grind
ing wheels are products of electric furnaces.
12.4 BONDS AND BONDING PROCESSES
Their quality and composition can be easily con A bond is an adhesive material employed for
trolled. They possess better cutting properties holding abrasive grains together, and giving the
and higher efficiency than natural abrasives. desired shape to grinding wheels. The bonds
Commonly used artificial abrasives are the fol commonly used for the manufacture of grinding
lowings: wheels are
Silicon carbide The chemical formula of sili 1. Vitrified bond used for making vitrified
con carbide is SiC. It is used in a variety of grinding wheels (denoted by V)
colours. Bluish green is the most suitable for 2. Silicate bond (denoted by S) ·
1158.·-- - ---------Manufacturing P�ocesses 1------ ---- - - -
-
3. Shellac bond (denoted by E) The disadvantages are as follows:

4. Rubber bond (R) (i) Wear of the wheels is high.
5. Bakelite or resinoid bond (B) (ii) They cannot be used for common grinding
6. Oxychloride bond processes.
For all practical purposes, vitrified, silicate,
12.4.3 Shellac Bond
rubber and bakelite bonds are denoted by the
process. Shellac and oxychloride bonds are de Abrasive grain particles and shellac are mixed
noted by the property of the grinding wheel. thoroughly to give a uniform mixture. The mix
ture is then rolled and pressed to desired shapes.
12.4.1 Vitrified Bond
Since this mixture is very sticky, it cannot be
Most commercially used grinding wheels are pro moulded. The baking of wheels is carried out at
duced by this process. Abrasive grains and clay a temperature of 290-300 ° C for a few hours.
are thoroughly mixed together by using suffi Grinding wheels produced by this process have
cient water. The fluid mixture is then poured in good elasticity and good cutting capacity. The
moulds and dried. The mould is heated from production of wheels by this process is difficult.
710 to 730° C for 12-14 days. The grinding Shellac bonded wheels are used for finish grind-
wheels produced by this process have (a) good · ing of cam shafts, bearing rollers and for cut
strength, (b) good porosity, and (c) resistance to ting wheels.
acids, alkalies and chemicals. They also have
12.4.4 Rubber Bond
the following disadvantages:
(i) More chances of thermal distortion in Rubber bonded grinding wheels are manufac
wheels. tured by mixing abrasive grains with rubber with
(ii) These wheels cannot be used under severe a calculated amount of sulphur also added. Sul
working conditions. phur acts as a vulcanising agent. The mixture is
(iii) The process of production of wheels is time spread between rubber sheets, rolled to the de
consuming. sired thickness and then vulcanised. Rubber
(iv) These wheels cannot be used at speeds bonded grinding wheels are very hard, tough
above 2000 m/min. and possess good strength but are not very heat
resistant. They are mainly used where surface
12.4.2 Silicate Bond
· finish is of primary importance.
Grinding wheels are produced by this process
12.4.5 Bakelite or Resinoid Bonded
by mixing abrasive grains with sodium silicate.
The mixture is moulded in the moulds and al
Grinding Wheels
lowed to dry for several hours. Finally, baking Resinoids are synthetic resins. Resinoid bonded
is carried out at a temperature of 260-280° C for wheels are produced by mixing abrasive grains
25-80 hours. These wheels have the following with bakelite or resins. The mixture is moulded
advantages: to the desired shape and baked at 200-250° C
(i) Wheels possess free cutting action. for ·a few hours. Resinoid bonded wheels are
(ii) Production process is compara ti vely very hard, strong and capable of working at high
quicker. speeds. They are used for removing stock readily
(iii) Wheels of comparatively bigger size can and are used for rough grinding (snagging
be produced. wheels). Bakelite or resinoid bonded grinding
(iv) Efficiency of the wheels is high. wheels are denoted by the letter B.
--- - - ----- Gr Grinding Machines------
- inding and -- - -
-1591
12.4.6 Oxychloride Bonding Rough grinding Grinding operation used

mainly for removing the stock.
Abrasive wheels are produced by this process
by using abrasive grains with magnesium oxide Snagging or fettling Grinding of jobs, risers,
and magnesium chloride. The process of mixing fins, etc. of-castings.
is similar to that· for vitrified bondings. Such Surface grinding Grinding of a plane surface.
wheels are used for disc grinding. Swing frame grinder A suspended grinding
12.5 TERMINOLOGY USED IN GRINDING machine, suspended from the centre . It can be
turned or swung in any direction.
Abrasive Any substance used for abrading,
Universal grinding machine A specially de
grinding, polishing and lapping of materials.
signed grinding machine on which cylindrical,
Bond The material used for holding the abra
sive· grains together. internal surface, and tool and cutter grinding can
be done.
Centreless grinding Grinding the diameter of
the workpiece without mounting on centres. 12.6 SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS
Cutting rate The rate of metal removal dur The proper selection of a grinding wheel is im
ing grinding in unit time. portant to ensure rapid work, good surface fin
Cylindrical grinding Grinding the outer di ish and increased wheel life. To get optimum
ameter of the workpiece. results, the various elements that influence the
External grinding Grinding the outside sur process need consideration. The factors that in
face of any shape. fluence the selection of a grinding wheel can be
classified as (a) constant factors and (b) vari
Floorstand grinder An offhand grinder hav able factors. Constant factors depend upon the
ing a hori.zontal spindle with its base attached to material of the workpiece, the amount of mate
the floor. rial to be removed, the area of contact, and the
Grit or grain size The size of the cutting par finish and accuracy required. Variable factors
ticles of a grinding wheel. depend upon the speed of the grinding wheel,
Grade or hardness It is the strength by which the speed of the workpiec;.e and th_e skill of the
the grains are held together, arbitrarily desig operator.
nated as A to Z, A being the softest and Z the The various factors that need consideration
hardest. for selection of a grinding wheel are abrasives,
grain size and shape, type of bond, bond strength
Internal grinding Grinding the inside surface
and hardness. A brief description of these ele
of the workpiece.
ments follows.
Loading The process of filling the chips in
the pores of the grinding wheel during a grind
Abrasive The selection of an abrasive depends
upon the material to be ground. Silicon carbide
ing operation.
(SiC) and aluminium oxide (Al20 3) are abra
Planer type grinder Surface grinder resem sives commonly used for grinding wheels. Sili
bling an open side planer in shape. con carbide is used for hard materials while
Precision grinding Grinding within exceed aluminium oxide is used for soft materials.
ingly fine limits. Grain size The conventional practice followed
Roll grinding machine A machine used for in grinding is to use coarse-grained wheels for
grinding cylindrical rolls. soft materials and fine-grained wheels for hard
1160�- -------- -
-Man ufact uring Processes 1 - - -- - -------
materials. Medium sizes are used for operations removal is low. For such purposes, wheels of
requiring stock removal and finish. For fine fin lesser porosity are used. Wheels of greater po
ish, soft wheels are preferred. rosity are used for removal at a higher rate. The
Grain size is determined by the mesh number structure is denoted by the numbers 1-15.
and can be broadly divided into very coarse, Area of contact The area of contact between
coarse, medium, fine and very fine. The mesh the grinding wheel and the workpiece largely
number denotes the number of meshes per lin affects the grain size and grade. The area of
ear inch (25.4 mm) of the screen, through which contact is large in internal grinding and surface
the grains pass when graded after crushing. Table grinding. When the area of contact is large, the
12.1 shows the mesh number of various grains total effect of the forces is distributed over a
used in grinding. large area, resulting in lesser pressure. Thus,
softer grinding wheels are used for internal grind
Table 12.1 ing, while harder wheels are used for external
grinding.
Grain Mesh number
Wheel speed The speed of a grinding wheel
Very coarse 6-14 is influenced by the grade and the bond. The
· Coarse 16-30 higher the speed of a grinding wheel, the softer
Medium 36-60
Fine 80-120 it is. However, the speed of grinding wheels
Very fine 150-240 cannot be increased beyond permissible limits.
Recommended wheel speeds for different types
Grade The grade refers to the hardness of a of grinding wheels are shown in Table 12.3.
wheel. A hard material resists wear and tear and
increases wheel life. Grains are held together by Table 12.3
binding materials. The binding materials must Type of wheel Wheel speed (mlmin)
hold the abrasive until it is completely used. On
Vitrified wheels 1200-2000
the basis of hardness, grinding wheels can be
Resinoid bonded wheels 2000-3000
classified as very hard, hard, medium, soft and Hand grinding of tools 1200-1500
very soft. The hardness of grinding wheels is Hand grinding of carbide tools 1000-1500
denoted by letters A to z. Automatic grinding of HSS tools 1080-1500
Table 12.2 Classification of grinding wheels on the Work speed The speed at which the workpiece
basis of hardness traverses across the wheel face is known as the
work speed. The higher the speed of work, the
Very soft A toG greater is the wear and tear of the wheel. If the
Soft H toK
Medium L to 0 work speed is low, the wheel wear is also low.
Hard P to S However, low speed results in local overheat
. Very bard T to Z ing, produces deformation and lowers the hard
ness of workpieces by producing tempering
Structure The structure of a grinding wheel treatment. Most grinding machines are provided
represents the voids between the abrasives. The with variable speed mechanisms. As the diam
material of the grinding wheel has a marked eter of the wheel decreases, the speed needs to
effect on the structure. The chips of a harder be increased accordingly to provide optimum
material are smaller in size and the rate of metal working conditions.
--
- -Grinding and Grinding Machines:------- - -- 1611
---------- - -
Condition of grinding The various compo High-speed snagging 16-24 Q-T Resinoid
nents of cutting in external cylindrical grinding Swing frame and billet 12-16 R-T Resinoid
are (a) peripheral speed of the grinding wheel, Cutting off 36-60 P-T Resinoid
(b) the depth of cut, {c) the longitudinal speed,
and (d) the speed of rotation of the workpiece. The number of factors which influence the _se
lection of grinding wheel characteristics may
The peripheral speed of grinding wheels is
measured in mis and can be calculated by the appear to be somewhat confusing, but when
formula properly considered in the general order in which
they are mentioned in this standard, practical
trDn application is found to be simple and effective.
v= -- -- (1)
60 X 1000 The first consideration in selection of grinding
where D is the diameter of the grinding wheel wheel is (i) either from the formerly used or
in mm and n is number of revolutions per minute (ii) from the recommendations given in the stan
(rpm). dard tables. If the grinding wheel user is not
The peripheral speed of the workpiece can be getting satisfactory results with a wheel, a con
calculated in a manner similar to formula (1) sideration of the relevant factors will usually
just discussed. It is also measured in mis. reveal the cause of the trouble and enable him
The advancement of a grinding wheel in a to change the wheel characteristics, or to rem
direction perpendicular to the surface of the edy the condition, as the case may be. It is de
workpiece is known as the depth of cut. In rough sirable to consider each of the influential factors
cylindrical grinding, the depth of cut varies from separately, changing but one wheel characteris
0.01 to 0.025 mm, whereas in finish cylindrical tic at a time until a solution is reached.
grinding, it varies from 0.005 to 0.015 mm.
12.7 MARKING SYSTEM FOR GRINDING
The longitudinal feed in cylindrical grinding
is the path travelled by the workpiece in the
WHEELS
direction parallel to the axis of rotation. IS: 551-1966 lays down the rules for the mark
The commonly used grit sizes, grades and ing system of grinding wheels. The marking sys
bonds for various operations, as recommended tem comprises seven standards. These are:
by IS: 1249-1972 are shown in Table 12.4. 0 Manufacturer's symbol (optional)
1 Type of abrasive
Table 12.4 2 Grain size of abrasive
3 Grade of abrasive
Type of grinding Grit Grade Bond 4 Structure (optional)
· operation
5 Type of bond
Surface (segments 6 Identification mark (optional).
and cups) 24-26 F-1 Vitrified The type of abrasive used has also been
, Surface (straight marked in this standard.
. wheels) · 46-60 H-K Vitrified
J-L
A denotes aluminium oxide
46-80 Vitn.fied
120-320 J-N Vitrified C denotes silicon carbide
Internal 46-120 K-N Vitrified The grain size of a grinding wheel varies from
46-80 K-N Vitrified 8 to 600. 8 denotes the coarsest grain, while
46-70 N-P Vitrified 600 denotes the finest.
36-80 N-Q Vitrified The type of bond is designated by the follow
Low-speed snagging 16-30 Q-R Vitrified ing letters
1162_-
- -
----------Manufacturing Processes 1----------- - - -
-
V-Vitrified IS: 2324-1971 Dimensions for grinding

S-Silicate wheels (other than internal
R-Rubber grinding wheels)
RF-Rubber reinforced IS: 1249-1972 Recommendations for selec
B-Resinoid (synthetic resin) tion of grinding wheels
BF-Resinoid reinforced IS: 1991-1973 Safety codes for the use, care
E-Shellac and protection of grinding
Mg-Magnesia wheels
IS: 9291-1979 Dimensions of internal grind
12.8 WHEEL SHAPES AND SIZES ing wheels.
Depending upon the type of grinding machine 12.9 ·DRESSING AND TRUING OF GRIND-
and the class of work, grinding wheels are made ING WHEELS
in different shapes and sizes. Grinding wheel
shapes can be broadly classified as On repeated use, wear arid tear of grinding wheel
(i) Straight side grinding wheels takes place, their surface geometry is distorted,
(ii) Cylindrical wheels the abrasive grains lose their roughness and their
(iii) Cup wheels tips get blunt. If the bond is weak the abrasive
grains get parted from the grinding wheels and
(iv) Dish wheels
are self-sharpened. In a very hard bond, thfa is
The various shapes of grinding wheels are
not the case.
shown in Fig. 12.3. The BIS has standardised
different shapes and sizes of grinding wheels. Grinding wheel W
'> heel Grinding
Some commonly used BIS standards of grind . f dresser wheel
J
ing wheels are given in Table 12.5.
v>;�1 I 1i::<·;·1 c>:..j v·.,<0 1,::;,,;·::tf'.t>'('I �moodloo:

Tooi
---=i,--,r-'-'-' holder
(a) (c) Grinding whee 7r
.drool ___.___.,_/_ Table
rh
/
�-
(d) (e) (f) Fig. 12.4 Dressing of grinding wheels
The process of restoring the cutting ability

and geometric shape of grinding wheel is known
(g) (h)
as dressing and truing. In many cases, after con
Fig. 12,3 Types of grinding wheels: (a) Straight,
tinuous working, the metallic chips may stick to
{b) Tapered (c) One side recessed (d) Two the grain surface and the wheel pores may get
side recessed (e) Straight cup, (!} Conical or loaded wfrh fine particles. This type of deterio
flared cup. (g) Dish. (h) Thread ration of grinding wheels is known as loading.
Loading causes a sharp rise in temperature in
IS: 3264-1965 Dimensions for diamond the grinding zone. It reduces efficiency and
grinding wheels wheel life and produces vibrations in the
Table 12.5 Chart illustrating the standard marking system for grinding wheels
le 3,, 1•t 4, s ,f: ,:,,

6
I\'
<;:;rade ,stricture ,nJ ,,,; 1)pe"i�'. Ma.nufact11rer's
boni) references
L" V .. V 2],
'.5 :'•·+ �1· lt� ·ij;t ,·
.
tJi� ..r:l
•
$
J
Manufacturer's Aluminium Coarse Medium Fine Very A Spacing from V-Vitrified Manufacturer's
symbol indicating the Abrasive-A fine B the closest to S-Silicate own identifi-
exact nature of the Silicon IO 30 80 22·0 C the most open R-Rubber cation mark for
abrasive (optional) Carbide--C 12 36 100 240 D 0 8 RF-Rubber the wheel
14 46 120 280 E 1 9 reinforced (optional)
16 F 2 IO B-Resinoid
20 54 150 320 G 3 11 (Synthetic resin)
G)
24 60 180 400 H 4 12 BF-Resinoid ::t
500 I 5 13 reinforced
600 J 6 14 E-Shellac (lq
K 7 etc. Mg-Magnesia
0..
L (hard)
Medium ...s·
G)
M sr
(lq
0
t:i'
Q
R
s
T ¢:
u 0 ....
V � .gt;j
w
Cl)
:> ,.Q
�
y
z Medium (Optional)
1$.
j164.-------------Manufacturing Processes 1- ---- --------
machine. Since the wheel pores are filled with to be dressed is pressed against the carbide discs
metallic chips, it reduces the abrasive action of to provide it the required shape.
the wheel. Loading is caused by soft materials
or by using a wheel of excessively hard bond at 12.10 BALANCING OF GRINDING WHEELS
slow speeds. If the centre of gravity of a grinding wheel and
Glazing of a grinding wheel is the condition its axis of rotation coincide, the grinding wheel
when it gives a glass like appearance. During is said to be balanced. A balanced grinding wheel
glazing, the cutting points of the abrasive be operates reliably at high peripheral speeds. An
come dull and stick to the bond. Glazing in unbalanced grinding wheel produces chatter and
creases the smoothness of the wheel face and leaves undue strains on the machine. The prob
decreases the cutting efficiency. It occurs when lem becomes serious in wheels of large diam
a wheel revolves at more than recommended eter and needs attention. The unbalancing of
speeds. Due to the twin defects of loading and grinding wheels occurs due to:
glazing, a grinding wheel often requires dress (i) non-uniform density of the wheel material
ing and truing. The tirrie between two consecu (ii) incorrect shape of the wheel
tive truings of a grinding wheel is known as the (iii) eccentricity in the wheel hole with refer
durability time. The dressing of a grinding wheel ence to the wheel surface
is the process of removing the load and break (iv) incorrect mounting of the grinding wheel.
ing away the glazed surface, so that the abrasive
Counterweight
particles are restored to their original form.
Grinding wheels often lose their original shape
and form due to the breaking away of the abra
sive and the bond. Truing of wheels is thus nec
essary. Truing is the process of restoring the
original shape of the grinding wheel. It is done �Test mandrel
to make the wheel concentric with the bore. Fig. 12.5 Balancing ofgrinding wheels
The truing and dressing of grinding wheels is
done by using diamond dressers, industrial dia The commonly used procedure for the bal
monds and diamond tools (rolls, chasers and ancing of grinding wheels is to use a balancing
bars). Diamonds brazed on holders are used for bench. The following steps are involved in this
this purpose. The diamond tool is set on the process: J
1. Thoroughly clean and inspect the wheel
table of the grinding machine and passed across
for cracks.
the revolving grinding wheel. This removes the
2. Place the balancing stand on a flat surface
blunt layer and- resharpens the grinding wheel. and align it horizontally with an accurate
Diamond dressing and truing is advantageous, level.
since it requires little dressing force because of 3. Place the grinding wheel on the balancing
the small area of contact between the wheel and rods of the balancing stand.
the diamond. Dressing ensures accurate wheel 4. Set the wheel in an arbitrary position
shape and surface finish. Cemented carbide discs balanced wheel sets in any position. If the
are also used for the dressing of grinding wheels, wheel is not properly balanced, the heavier
in a process known as crush dressing. They are position will move downward.
used for dressing wide grinding wheels to accu 5. If any portion is not balanced, reset the
rate shapes. While dressing, the wheel is rotated wheel with balancing weights and check
by the machine's headstock. The rotating wheel again.
-- -
Grinding and Grinding Machines------- - ---1651
Grinding wheels are balanced on machines in 10. Use proper lubricants in grinding opera-
a similar way. tions.
12.11 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN Grading Problems Relating to Truing, Dress
BEFORE MOUNTING A GRINDING ing and Balancing Grinding operation is af
WHEEL fected by one or more variables like grinding
wheel, machine and operation. The common tru
For satisfactory performance, the following pre ing, dressing and balancing problems with prob
cautions should ·be taken before mounting a . able causes and corrective action are shown in
grinding wheel: Table 12.6.
1. Examine the grinding wheel carefully for
any flaws or cracks. A sound test may be 12.12 MOUNTING THE GRINDING WHEEL
done to test for cracks.
2. Before mounting the wheel, ensure that it Grinding wheels should be mounted on spindles
is balanced. with great care. Improperly dressed and trued
3. Check the sides of the wheels for flatness. wheels can cause accidents. Commonly used
4. The wheel should fit easily without appli wheel mounting devices are flanges, screws and
cation of much force. adaptor flanges. Wheels of upto 100 mm diam
5. Key the flanges rigidly. eter can be set freely on spindles by tightening
6. Tighten the nut by a force just enough to with nuts.
hold the wheel. Wheels above 100 mm in diameter are fas
7. After fitting, allow the wheel to run idle tened on adaptor flanges. The clearance between
for sometime. the wheel and the flange neck varies from 0.1 to
8. Always use safety guards. 0.25 mm. The two flanges are secured together
9. Choose proper wheel speeds. by screws, as shown in Fig. 12.6.
Table 12.6 Truing. dressing and balancing problems with probable causes and corrective actions
Problems Probable causes Corrective action

1. Chatter mark (i) Unbalanced wheel (i) Rebalance after truing operation
(ii) Balance carefully on own mountings
(ii) Wheel is not round (i) True before and after balancing
(iii) Action too hard (i) Use faster speed and traverse
2. Scratching of the work (i) Foreign particles in wheel (i) Dress the wheel
(ii) Coarse grading (i) Dress the wheel
3. Choking or burning of (i) Wheel too hard (i) Use a faster dress rate to open the
the work
. -
4. Diamond lines in work (i) Dressing too fast
-� wheel face
(i) Slowly dress the wheel face
5. Inaccuracies (i) Improper dressing (i) Check alignment of dressing process
6. Rate of cut too slow (i) Dressing too slow (i) Dress at a rapid rate to open wheel
face
7. Wheel acting too soft (i) Improper dressing (i) Slow down the traverse rate
(not holding size)
(ii) Use lighter dressing feed
8. Wheel loading (i) Infrequent dressing (i) Dress the wheel more often
Manufacturing Processes 1----------------
�;--·-----
•
According to the surface finish, grinding ma
chines are classified as
(i) Rough grinders
(ii) Fine or precision grinders
Rough grinders These machines are gener
ally used for the removal of stock rather than
for accuracy. Rough grinders most commonly
used are (a) bench grinders, (b) flexible shaft
grinders, (c) swing frame grinders, and (d) abra
sive belt grinders.
Precision grinders Precision grinders are sur
face finish grinders, such as (a) surface grind
ers, (b) internal and external cylindrical grinders,
(c) tool and cutter grinders, (d) centreless grind
ers, and (e) thread grinders.
Fig. 12.6 Mounting ofgrinding wheels .4.c::cording to the type of surface generated or
work done, grinders can be classified as:
12.13 MOUNTED WHEELS 1. Cylindrical grinders
2. Internal grinders
Mounted wheels are also known as mounted 3. Surface grinders
points. They are small-diameter wheels mounted 4. Tool and cutter grinders
permanently on mandrels or spindles, by cement 5. Thread grinders
ing or other bonding processes. Mounted wheels 6. Crankshaft grinders
of different shapes are shown in Fig. 12.7. 7. Roll grinders
8. Cam grinders
t 'T
9. Tool post grinders
10. Way grinders.
Grinders 1-3 above can be said as general
Sp;od�TI purpose grinders whereas 4-10 are special grind
Fig. 12.7 Mounted wheels ers.
These wheels must be mounted carefully and 12.14.1 Floor Grinder

worked with great care. The pressure during A floor grinder consists of an electric motor
working must be slight, to avoid springing ac mounted on a suitable base. The motor consists
tion. Heavier pressure will permanently distort of a .rotor shaft extending from each side, with a
the eccentricity between the wheel and the grinding wheel mounted on each end, is shown
spindle and render the former useless. in Fig. 12.8. Floor grinders used for heavy duty
work consist of a wheel shaft mounted on heavy
12.14 GRINDING MACHINES duty bearings. They are used for sharpening
Metal working machines in which the cutting of tools, tool bits, boring tools, drills, etc.
metal is performed by abrasive action are known One side wheel of a floor grinder consists of
as grinding machines. Grinding machines can coarse grains while the other consists of fine
be classified in different ways. grains. A coarse grained wheel is used for rough
- - -
- -- - - Grinding Machines-------
-Grinding and - - -
-1671
tric motor is connected to a flexible shaft. The

other end of the flexible shaft is connected to a
grinding wheel. The flexible shaft and thus the
grinding wheel can be easily moved about to
different positions to remove stock of the mate
rial by grinding.
12.14.4 Swing Frame Grinder
This is a long, horizontal frame, freely suspended
grinder, with its upper. position attached to a
Fig. 12.8 Floor grinder spring loaded string. The other end of the string
is attached to the top of the roof (or frame) and
grinding, snagging or-heavy work. A fine grained the grinder swings over the string. The frame
wheel is used for grinding cutting tools. carries a grinding wheel at one end and a motor
A bench grinder is simi1ar to a floor grinder at the other. Rotary motio·n is supplied to the
except for the size. In size a bench grinder is grinding wheel from the motor by means of a
much smaller than a floor grinder, and can be belt. In operation, the frame is swung by the
fitted on a bench. The applications and uses of operator and the grindini wheel removes the
a bench grinder are similar to those of a floor stock. This type of grinder is used for rough
grinder. work and heavy stock removal, particularly in
12.14.2 Portable Grinder foundries.
A portable grinder; as shown in Fig. 12.9, re
sembles a portable drill in shape. It consists of a
small electric motor fitted inside the casing at
one end. The grinding wheel is mounted at the
'
other end. It is used for the rough grinding of
surfaces.
Counterweight
Fig. 12.10 Swing frame grinder
12.14.5 ABRASIVE BELT GRINDER

This consists of a strip of abrasive cloth of ex
act length and width in the form of an endless
belt. The abrasive cloth revolves over two drums,
one of which is driven at high speeds. The
smooth rear side of the belt slides over the drums
Fig. 12.9 Portable grinder while the abrasive side always forms the outer
surface. The stock to be removed is fed over the
12.14.3 Flexible Shaft Grinder belt by hand. The advantage of this process is
It consists of an electric motor that is kept prac that different curves can be given to the platen
tically stationary at a place. One end of the elec- to produce different curvatures on the workpiece.
1168----- ----�--Manufacturing Processes I
Abrasive end provided with automatic cross-feeds. Automatic
eh
Workpiece
cross-feeds are advantageous since they not only
ensure accuracy in mass production but also pre
vent accidents. Cylindrical grinders can be di
vided into plain and universal types.
Plain cylindrical grinders On plain cylindri
Fig. 12.11 Principle of an abrasive belt grinder cal grinding machines, the workpiece is held
between two centres, i.e. the headstock centre
Abrasive belt grinders are gaining in popu and tailstock centre. The rotating work is fed
larity and are mainly used for heavy stock re across the rotating grinding wheel. In each sub
moval. sequent cut, the wheel is fed by an amount equal
12.14.6 Cylindrical Grinders to the amount of stock to be removed. These are
production machines consisting of (a) base,
Cylindrical grinders are used to produce precise (b) table, (c) headstock, (d) tailstock, (e) wheel
geometrical surfaces on round workpieces. The head, and (f) cross-feed mechanism. The base is
surfaces may be cylindrical, tapered, grooved or the main casting and supports the complete as
shouldered. sembly. The table generally consists of two parts.
The working principle of a cylindrical grind The upper table supports the headstock, the
ing m·achine is based on holding the workpiece tailstock and the workpiece. The lower table is
rigidly between the centres, rotating it about its mounted on guideways and provides longitudi
axis and feeding a fast revolving grinding wheel nal traverse to the upper table. The movement
against the job. The workpiece can be held rig can be provided by hand or automatic mecha
idly on centres or suitably designed fixtures. nisms within the desired limits. The wheel head
Different movements to the workpiece and the carries the grinding wheel and is usually mounted
grinding wheel may be provided hydraulically on the horizontal crossways. The tailstock can
or mechanically. be moved longitudinally and clamped in various
The simplest of all cylindrical grinders is the positions to hold workpieces of different lengths.
tool post grinder. Grinding with tool post grind Universal cylindrical grinders Universal cy
ers is done on lathes. A lathe is generally used lindrical grinders are similar in design to plain
for grinding whep. a conventional grinding ma grinders except for some special features, such
chine is not available, or the quantity of work is as
not large enough. It is also used for carrying out (i) live or dead headstock spindle, to hold the
finishing operations after a turning operation on job in chucks or centres;
a lathe in one setting of a job. For operation the (ii) a headstock swivel mechanism, to swivel
grinder is mounted on a lathe carriage and lathe the headstock in a horizontal plane;
feeding movements are utilised for traversing (iii) a wheelstock swivel mechanism to swivel
the grinding wheel in a manner similar to turn the wheel to ±90° for grinding tapers.
ing. (iv) the upper table can be swivelled with re
All cylindrical grinders are equipped with spect to a vertical axis for small angles in
mechanisms such as (a) work head, (b) work order to grind long tapers.
head spindle with suitable wheel turning mecha These factors provide great versatility to
nism, (c) wheel turning and feeding mechanism these grinders. Such grinders are used for
and (d) work holding devices. Most grinders are toolroom work.
Grinding and Grinding Machines -
- - ----- -
�·1691
Fig. 12.12 Schematic diagram ofa cylindrical grinder
12.14.7 Centreless Grinding Machines mounted on a swivel plate. The machine is used
for providing taper during infeed grinding.
Centreless grinding machines eliminate the op
eration of holding the workpiece between cen
tres or fixtures. In these machines, the work is
supported by the workrest and is backed by a
regulating wheel. The regulating wheel controls
the speed and the rate of feeding of the work
piece. The grinding wheel performs the grind
ing operation. The working principle of internal
and external centreless grinders is the same.
Many components, such as pistons, bushes,
. valves, tubes, rollers, etc. that clo not possess Fig. 12.13 Working principle of centreless grinder
centres and are hollow can be ground by The two common methods used for feeding
centreless grinclers, the work (a) through feed, arid (b) infeed.
A centreless grinding machine consists of a
bed, a wheel head, a wheel housing, a wheel Through feed grinding Through feed grind
rest blade, a regulating wheel and two slides. ing is used for straight cylindrical work. In this
The bed acts as a support for the wheel head. method the work enters from one side of the
The upper slide consists of a wheel drive and. machine and comes out from the other side. The
wheel truing unit. The lower slide holds the workrest consists of adjustable guides on each
workrest and the upper slide. The slides are end to steer the work between the grinding
------ - ---Manufacturin g Processes! ----------
- --
wheels. The height of the guide blade can be (ii) Chattering of the work is small.
suitably adjusted to suit the diameter of the wor (iii) Components obtained are of very accurate
kpiece. size.
lnfeed grinding Due to the obstruction of the (iv) The process is continuous and very suit
shoulder, some parts can only enter the machine able for production work.
and not come out from the other side. Such parts (v) The size of the work is easily controlled.
have to be withdrawn after the operation. Infeed (vi) No centre holes or chucking of the work-
grinders consist of specially designed workrests piece is required.
which consist of an adjustable stop at the far
end. The lever ejects the component by a plunger 12.14.9 Internal Grinding Machines
mechanism after the completion of the grinding These are specially designed machines for grind
operation. ing internal holes, tapers and cylindrical sur
In centreless grinding, the amount of mate faces. Internal grinders are commonly used for
rial to be ground depends upon the number of the production of interchangeable parts with ac
operations to be performed on the components. curate dimensions and a good surface finish.
In general, the average reduction in diameter in
one pass is 0.2 mm. However, the reduction in
diameter in a finishing operation must not ex
ceed 0.075 mm.
Centreless grinders are specially designed
machines used for the rapid production of inter
nal and external cylindrical surfaces. They can Fig. 12.14 Working principle of internal cylindrical
also be used for external taper and profile works. grinder
These machines eliminate the centering and set
ting time of workpieces. The distortion of Depending upon the method of holding the
workpieces is also eliminated since spring ac workpiece and technique of operation, internal
tion does not occur during the production of grinding machines can be divided into (a) plain
components. internal grinders (b) universal internal grinders
In a centreles-s grinder, the axial movement and (c) chucking internal grinders. Internal grind
of the workpiece past the grinding wheel is ob ers can also oe classified as (a) horizontal spindle
tained by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight internal g1inders and (b) vertical spindle inter
angle from the horizontal. The angular adjust
nal grinders. Horizontal grinders are commonly
ment varies from 6-10° and is provided on the
used, whereas vertical spindle grinders are used
machine for this purpose. The actual feed (s) is
given by the formula sparingly for specific purposes.
s = Jrdn sin e _A plain cylindrical grinder consi_sts of a work
where d = diameter of the regulating wheel head and a wheelhead. The workhead houses
(in mm), the variable speed mechanism and the spindle.
n = number of revolutions per minute, It either carries the chuck or the face plate, to
B = angle of inclination of the wheel. bold the workpiece. It can be swivelled to grind
tapers. The wheelhead carries the grinding wheel
12.14.8 Advantages of Centreless Grinding to perform internal grinding.
(i) Less metal needs to be removed from the A universal internal grinder carries some fea
workpiece to get accurate jobs of good sur tures not found in plain internal grinders. Its
face finish. workhead is mounted on the cross-slide-and pro-
----- -------Grinding and Grinding Machines- ------- -
-
vides a cross-feed to the workpiece. The cording to the position of the spindle, surface
workhead of these grinders can be swivelled to grinder can also be classified as (a) horizontal
90° . spindle and (b) vertical spindle.
Chucking type internal grinders consist of a Planer-type Surface Grinder This is also
reciprocating table with the workhead mounted known as a reciprocating table-type surface
on it. The wheelhead is mounted on the cross grinding machine. These grinders are used for
slide. The other features of these grinders are grinding flat surfaces. This type of surface
identical to those of plain grinders. grinder may have a horizontal or a vertical
The followin_g ,points need to be considered spindle. The working principle of vertical grinder
while working on internal grinders. is shown in Fig. 12.15. The horizontal spindle
1. Grinding wheels used on internal grinders carries the straight wheel while the vertical
are generally softer then those employed spindle carries the cup-shaped wheel. Cutting in
on other grinders. This is due to the fact horizontal spindle grinders is done on the pe
that contact between the wheel and work riphery of the straight wheel, while in vertical
is more in internal grinders. spindle grinding, it is done by the edge of the
2. Wheels used on internal grinders should revolving cup wheel: The workpiece is held on
be as large as possible. a magnetic chuck and is passed against the re
3. The dimensions of internal grinding wheels volving wheel to produce flat surfaces. Surface
depend upon the diameter and the nature grinders are designated by the size of the table
of operation. and its movement across the wheels.
4. The internal diameter of the bushes must
Wheel Wheel spindle
be ground first. After internal grinding, slip /
the bush on an arbor and then grind the
external diameter. The procedure produces
accurate and concentric holes.
5. The allowances for internal grinding de
pends upon the size of the hole.
6. In a toolroom, internal grinding is gener
ally done dry. However, in production
work, a coolant is required.
Fig. 12.15 Working principle of vertical surface grinder
7. Internal grinding can be done on a lathe
by mounting the portable grinder upon the Rotary-type Surface Grinders According to
carriage. the position of the spindle, rotary-type surface
12.14.10 Surface Grinding Machine grinders are also classified a:s (a) horizontal type
and (b) vertical type. Like planer-type surface
Surface grinding is the process of producing flat grinders, horizontal spindle surface grinders
surfaces by means of a revolving abrasive wheel. carry a straight wheel for the grinding opera
According to the shape of the table and its move tion. A cup wheel is used in vertical spindle
ment, surface grinding machines can be divided rotary surface grinders.
into two categories-planer type and rotary type. Fundamentally, all surface grinders consist of
In planer-type surface grinders, the table is rect a spindle, a grinding wheel and a table fitted
angular in shape and traverses under the wheel. with a magnetic chuck. The magnetic chuck
In rotary-type surface grinders, the table is cir holds the components. Each machine has its own
cular in shape and rotates under the wheel. Ac- particular adv::iatages and disadvantages. The
jt72�- - - - - - ----Manufacturing Processes I - -- - - ----- -
discussion here concentrates on toolroom work. Cutter grinding can be done on a universal
For toolrooms, the planer-type horizontal sur grinder or on lathes by using suitable attach
face grinder is most suitable. ments, but it is preferable to use specially de
Wheels of various shapes are used in planer signed machines called tool and cutter grinders.
type reciprocating surface grinders. The more These machines are used for sharpening plain
common are disk, dish, cup and straight wheels. cylindrical cutters, angular cutters, endmills,
Most surface grinders employ a magnetic chuck sidemills, formed cutters, reamers, circular form
for holding the work. The work is also held on ing tools, saws and a variety of other tools.
a magnetic chuck in conjunction with V-blocks, Tool and cutter grinders are available in a
angle plates or special fixtures. The magnetic variety of designs and shapes, but they all serve
poles of the chuck are placed together, which
the same purpose. General purpose tool and cut
enables easy holding on the job. It may be re
ter grinders used with various attachments, are
membered that only magnetic materials can be
the most popular and versatile.
held on a magnetic chuck. While grinding non
magnetic materials, such as brass, bronze, stain The main elements of a tool and cutter grinder
less steels, etc., the job can be held in vices, are
jigs, fixtures or by bars of steel. 1. Workhead
The accuracy of the work depends greatly on 2. Tailstock
the accuracy of the holding face of the magnetic 3. Cylindrical grinding attachment
chuck. For this reason, the holding face should 4. Internal grinding attachment
be kept smooth and flat. As soon as dents are 5. Swivelling vice for surface grinding
noted, it should be reground accurately. 6. Centre attachment for grinding long
reamers
12.14.11· Tool and Cutter Grinder 7. End relieved disc cutter attachment
Milling cutters, reamers and drills should be 8. Gear milling cutter grinding attachment
sharpened whenever there is any indication of 9. Reamer relief grinding attachment
dullness. Reconditioning of extremely dull cut 10. Radius truing attachment
ters not only requires the removal of.much ma 11. Magnetic chuck
terial, but also reduces the life of the cutter. 12. Radius grinding attachment
Wheel head
Elevating
column
=
=
=
= 0
'o"
= Base
Fig. 12.16 Line diagram ofa tool and cutter grinder

Grinding and Grinding Machines- --- - -- --1731
13. Collet chucking attachment vided with taper grinding attachments. Some
14. Wheel shoulder dressing attachment grinders carry a setover type tailstock, similar to
15. Angle truing device the one used on lathes. They are used for the
16. Inserted tooth cutter and face mill grind- grinding of hydraulic rams, turbine shafts, and
ing rolls used in paper mills, steel mills and textile
17. Right-hand tailstock mills.
18. Wheel dressing attachment Roll grinding machines can be classified as
19. Twist drills grinding attachment. (a) travelling table, stationary grinding wheel,
head roll grinders and (b) moving carriage wheel,
12.14.12 Thread Grinder
head mounted, roll grinder. The former is used
Refer to the chapter titled "Threads and Thread for grinding large diameter long rolls. Basically
. Cutting". all roll grinders are provided with a cambering
mechanism to produce convex or concave roll
12.14.13 Crankshaft Grinders
surfaces of desired curvature.
A crankshaft grinder is basically a cylindrical
12.14.15 Cam Grinders
grinder using the principle of plunge grinding.
In plunge grinding the work rotates in a fixed These machines are basically cylindrical grind
position and the wheel is fed to produce cylin ing machines with additional feeding and with
ders. The principle of crankshaft grinding is drawal mechanisms for the workpiece for
shown in Fig. 12.17. It is mainly used for the controlled changes in distance between the axis
production of crankshafts of automobile engines, of the wheel and the workpiece. It consists of a
aircraft engines and compressors. A crankshaft separate base that carries the headstock and the
grinder can also be used for grinding cylindrical tailstock. The complete unit can oscillate about
and tapered surfaces. a centre below the workpiece. Before carrying
out the operation, a small template (fascimile of
12.14.14 Roll Grinders
the camshaft) is mounted on the headstock.
A roll grinder is a specially designed heavy duty A hardened steel roller in conjunction with a
cylindrical grinder used for rough grinding and template actuates the movement of the whole
finish grinding of large cylindrical workpieces, unit to produce the desired shape. Modem cam
such as shafts and spindles, to a high degree of shaft grinders are provided with automatic feed
accuracy. Normally, roll grinders are not pro- mechanisms for rapid production. This helps in
•
Fig. 2.17 Dne diagram of a crankshaft grinder
-�-------Manufacturing Processes!------ -
1174--- - -
the automatic control of dimensions within

closed limits. 01
12.14.16 Way Grinders

This is a large size, single-purpose heavy duty Grinding \..
machine used for grinding the headways of ma wheel \..":t... V
chine tools. It consists of a vertical spindle with
,-
a cup, ring or segmented wheel mounted on it. ---�-
Radial
"'-. /
___;:j..
,
The spindle can be tilted at different angles to feed ( f)
grind inclined surfaces. The job is mounted on
the table, which reciprocates against the revolv
ing wheel and grinds the surfaces. Fig. 12:18 Enlarged portion of a grinding wheel
12.15 THEORY OF GRINDING

grain depth. The depth of cut CD can also be
The theory of grinding is helpful in establishing varied by varying the work speed or/and radial
the relationship between the radial feed, force feed. S�ce the length of arc AC is very small, it
on individual grits of grinding wheel, velocity can be considered as a straight line.
of work and their diameters. Figure 12.18 shows Therefore, CD= AC sin (a+ P) - v x T sin
a magnified portion of the grinding wheel and (a + /J), where a and J3 are the angles sub
the workpiece in its contact. When an abrasive tended by the arc of contact at the centre of
grain starts to enter or penetrate the material wheel and workpiece. _ During a grinding pro
such as at A, the depth of the cut is zero. It cess, a single grip does not perform the cutting
increases gradually as the wheel and the work action. Let N = number of grits per unit length
piece revolve, and becomes minimum some of the wheel circumference. N can be measured
. where along the arc of contact of the wheel and by rolling the wheel on smoked glass and count
the work. Since the wheel usually rotates much ing the marh left with the help of microscope.
faster than the work, the point of maximum depth Thus, the maximum chip thickness per grit or
of cut is at the point where the wheel leaves the . grain depth of cut is given by
work. The maximum depth of cut is shown as
the grain depth of the cut. It is represented by t= CD = vx-T sin( a+ /3)
-----
the letter t. · N(arcAB) N(VxT)
Let d and D be the diameters of the workpiece
1 v .
and grinding wheel, respectively. Let v and Vbe = -x- sm ( a+ /J) (12.1)
their surface velocities, respectively. Let T be N V
the time taken by a grain on grinding wheel to From Eq. (12.1), it is clear that grain depth
move from A to B. Thus, arc AB = V x T. Dur of cut varies directly as work speed, sin (a + /J)
ing this time, a point on wheel at A will onyl and indirectly as wheel speed.
move upto C as shown in Fig. 12.18. Now arc From- the above -discussion, it is clear that
AC= v x T. Obviously ACB (shown shaded) wheel action during cutting play the main role
becomes the chip with its maximum thickness of cutting. It is based on the assumption that
equal to CD. By regulating the grain depth of there is only one variable action and other fac
the cut, grinding wheels can be made to act softer tors remain constant. The effect on grain by
or harder, either by increasing or decreasing the depth of cut is shown in Table 12.7.
....
- ------- -
---Grinding and Grinding Machines
Table 12.7
Variable Effect on grain.. by depth of cut Wheels appear as
1. Increase work speed Increases Softer

.,-2. Decrease work speed. · Decr:eases Harder
3. Increase wheel speed Harder
4.. peciease wheel speed Softer
5. Reduce wheel diameter Increases Softer
Increase wheel diameter Decreases Rarder
7. Reduce work diameter Increases Softer
'.8. · Irrq-ease work diameter Decreases Harder
It is clear from � 0 1 OzA

0 1 0f = 01A 2 + 02A2 - 2 x 0 1A x 02A =
X cos 01A02
or
[�+f-! r (�Y +(ff D+d 1}2 - 2.2 f D +d 1)2 1
I1 -[l + {2 _"r (
( Dd
=
= Dd/
V J
-2
(D') (d\j cos {180 - (a+ /J)}
2 2
°
I /D+d
= �4f ( Dd) =2�Dd-f
D+d
or
D
Because [ 2 f ( ;;/ ) J can be omitted in com-
=
(D) 2 (d)2 D d
{- cos (a+ /3)}
parison to
4f
[D+d
Dd]
2 +
2 - 2-
-·-
As the radial feed (f) is very small as com Therefore, from Eq. (12.1), t = sin
pared to D and d, thus J2 can be neglected
V
VN
(a+ /3)
D·d Dd
-- - DJ- df= - cos (a+ /J)
D d
Thus, we get 1_.!:'._ � + · f (12.2)
VN Dd
2 2
=
(D+d
t
or cos (a+ /3) = l - 2f. l-- Dd )

The force on individual grits of grinding
wheel is proportional to the area of chip formed,
which is proportional to the square of grain depth
sin (a+ /3) = )1-cos 2 (a+ /3) of cut.
1176-·------ -----Manufacturing Processes! -
- - - -- - - - -
-
12.15.2 Allowances and Tolerances for

2v D+d
or Foct2 oc · f Grinding
VN �
Grinding is a surface finishing operation in
2 which very little material is removed to close
since = constant
N tolerances. The amount of metal removed dur
v D+d
2 ing a grinding operation depends mainly on the
Foe-·-- ·f (12.3) type of component (forging or casting), the char
y 2 Dd
acter of work and type of machine used. In cy
Obviously, the grits will get parted off the lindrical grinding, the allowance provided on the
wheel if the force exceeds the bond strength. It job varies from 0.15 to 0.5 mm as the diameter
is clear from Eq. (12.3) that increasing the work increases from 15 to 300 mm. In internal grind
speed is more effective in breaking the grits than ers, it varies from 0.1 to 0.6 mm for holes of
increasing the radial feed. 3-200 mm. For components finished on surface
For soft wheel, V should be high, and for grinders the allowances are provided upto
hard wheels N should be high. Also, if D and d 0.25 mm and 0.05 mm for rough and finish
are nearly equal, as in internal grinding, the grinding, respectively.
D+d Fine finish to tolerances less than 0.05 mm
[ ] is also small. Therefore, soft wheels can be easily produced on grinding machines.
D·d
The surface finish to close tolerances on a
are required. In external grinding, where grinder is much better than other non-abrasive
D+d machining methods. Tolerances upto 0.0025 mm
[-- ] is very large, F will be more. In such can be easily obtained on grinding machines.
D·d Precision grinders can produce components
cases, hard wheels are required to counteract within the tolerance of 0.001 mm.
high force per grit. Thus, Eqs. (12.1) to (12.3)
12.15.3 Sizes and Capacities of Gril_!ders
are very helpful for important conclusions in
the case of grinding wheels. The various types of grinding machines are
specified in different ways. The commonly used
12.15.1 Wet and Dry Grinding
method of specifying a grinding machine is ac
During a grinding operation, temperatures of the cording to the largest size of the workpiece that
range of 2000° C are generated on the surface of can be finished/mounted on the machine. A brief
the workpiece. Wet grinding uses a coolant box, specification of commonly used grinders is given
which spreads a large amount of coolant over below:
the workpiece and wheel face. This dissipates (i) Floor stand grinders and bench grinders
the heat generated during grinding. It promotes are specified by the maximum size of the grind
long wheel life and high-quality surface finish. ing wheel that can be mounted on the grinder.
Dry grinding produces decolouration and burr
Portable grinders and flexible shaft grinders
ing effect on the workpiece. Decolouration is an
are also specified in the similar method.
indication of skin hardening and stresses in the
workpiece. It also affects machinability. Burr (ii) Cylindrical grinders are specified by the
ing cannot be eliminated completely by dry maximum dimensions of the workpiece accom
grinding. Wheels of finer grit produce lighter modated, i.e. diameter and length, height from
burr, but they have a higher rate of wheel wear. table top to centres, grinding wheel dimensions,
--------- - --Grinding and Grinding Machines:----- - -----1771
wheel head traverse, angles of table swivel, larly on surface grinders, (b) steady rests for
power of grinding wheel drive motor and ma cylindrical grinders and (c) chucks and fixtures
chining accuracy. for other grinders.
(iii) Centreless grinders are specified by the Magnetic chucks used on surface grinders are
diameter of the workpiece that can be ground suitable for grinding ferrous materials. The mag
(maximum and minimum), grinding wheel di netic chucks are built into or attached to the
ameter, grinding wheel width, regulating wheel machine table. The two types of magnetic chucks
speed, regulating wheel diameter, grinding wheel used are (a) permanent magnet and (b) chucks
drive motor power and accuracy of finish. magnetised by the use of direct current. The di
(iv) Surface grinders are specified by size of rect current chucks are rectangular or circular in
the rectangular table, maximum distance from shape and have a pulling power. The magnetic
grinding wheel spindle to table surface, grind chuck holds the magnetic material like iron or
ing wheel diameter, grinding wheel speed, auto steel by means of magnetic force. Non-magnetic
matic cross-feed rate, automatic vertical feed materials are held in magnetic chucks by clamp
(infeed) rate, longitudinal feed of table, grind ing them in suitable fixtures.
ing wheel drive motor power and overall di Steady rests, chucks and fixtures have been
mensions of the machine. discussed earlier in chapters of lathe, shaper and
(v) Tool and cutter grinders are specified by milling machines.
size of table, power of drive motor and maxi Contour Grinding Equipment The com
mum size of the tool that can be ground/sharp monly used equipments for contour grinding are
ened. wheel dressers and attachments using master
12.15.4 Work Holding Devices and Attach- cams and templates for generating different
ments shapes.
A large number of work holding devices and Attdcbments to Improve Grinding Results
attachments are used for grinding of components. The commonly used attachments to improve
The commonly used devices and attachments are grinding results are wheel reciprocating attach
classified as follows: ments for better finish, ultrasonic wheel clean
(i) Work holding and supporting devices ing devices and electrolytic attachments.
(ii) Contour grinding equipments Medsuring and Sizing Devices Many mea
(iii) Attachments to improve grinding results suring devices ranging from simple measuring
(iv) Measuring and sizing devices. devices to continuous reading gauges for con
Work Holding dnd Supporting Devices The trolling the movements of the grinding machine
commonly used work holding and supporting and accuracy of the job are provided on the ma
devices are (a) magnetic chucks used particu- chines.
11\fULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ,/') for the right answer (a) Al203 (b) SiC
1. Grinding of hard ferrous metals like steel and (c) Boron carbide (d) Garnet
cast iron is done by using the following abra 2. For grinding harder materials
sive: (a) fine grain size is used
r�7Sl�--- - - - - - -- -
Marrufacturing Processes!-- --- - -- - -
- ----
(b) medium grain size is used (c) hardness of abrasive

(c) coarse grain size is used (d) strength of bond of the wheel
(d) selection depends upon mechanical prop 8. The following type of bond is med in cut off
erties of metals wheels:
3. The following type of abrasive is used for grind (a) rubber (b) shellac
ing tools made of high-speed steel: (c) vitrified (d) resinoid
(a) A1203 (b) SiC 9. Grinding wheel is flooded with coolant, in or
(c) Boron carbide (d) diamond grit der to
4. The following type of abrasive is used for grind (a) clean the wheel (bf clean the job
ing softer materials: · (c) remove the chips
(af fine grain size abrasive (d) remove of heat
(b) medium grain size abrasive 10. - The process of improving the cutting action of
(c) coarse grain size abrasive grinding wheel is known as
(d) selection depends upon binding material (a) dressing of wheels
used for abrasives (b) truing the wheels
5. After using for sometime, the grinding wheel (c) balancing of wheels
gets glazed. It occurs due to (d) facing operation
(a) wear of abrasive particles 11. The following type of bond is used, when a
(b) wear of bond grinding wheel is required to run safely at very
(c) breaking up of abrasive grains high speed:
(d) embedding of metal particles on wheel (a) shellac (b) vitrified
6. The following type of abrasive is used for grind (c) resinoid and rubber (d) silicate
ing tungsten carbide inserts: 12. A dense structure in grinding wheel is used for
(a) Al203 (b) SiC (-a) heavy cuts (b) _ fini�h cut
(c) Boron carbide (d) Diamond (c) hard material (d) tough material
7. In grinding practice, the term hardness grade 13. The standard marking system for grinding
of wheel refers to wheels has the following number of systems:
(a) hardness of workpiece (a) 3 (b) 4
(b) hardness of bond (c) 5 {d) 7
1. \\'hat is grinding? What are the uses of grind- 7. Write notes on

ing? (a) Abrasives (b) Grain s�e
2. List the various operations performed on grind- (c) Grade of wheel (d) Structure
ing machines. (e) Area of contact (f) Wheel speed
3. What is meant by the term abrasive? Name one (g) Condition of grinding.
natural and one artificial abrasive. 8. Explain the BIS marking system of grinding
wheels.
4. Describ� in brief the process of production of
9. What are the commonly used shapes and sizes
grinding wheels. of grinding wheels?
5. What is meant by the.term -'bond'? Name the 10. Describe the terms dres_sing and truing of grind-
bonds commonly used for the pr!)duction of ing wheels.
grinding wheels. _ 11. Why is it necesSlll'Y to balance a grinding
6. Enumerate the m�in factors to be considered in wheel? How is the balancing of grinding wheels
the- selection of a grinding wheel. done?
---------- - ---Grinding and Grinding Machines---- - -
- --- --179j
12. What safety precautions must be followed 20. Write notes on

before mounting a grinding wheel? (a) Floor grinders
13. What are the different types of bonds used for (b) Portable grinders
the manufacture of grinding wheels? (c) Flexible shaft grinders
14. Outline with a neat sketch the procedure of (d) Swing frame grinders
mounting the grinding wheels. (e) Abrasive belt grinders.
15. What do you understand by the terms grain, 21. Differentiate between a plain and a universal
grit, structure and grade of a grinding wheel? cylindrical grinder.
Explain. 22. What are surface grinders? What are their uses?
16. What essential factors must be taken into con 23. What are the functions of the following grind
sideration before choosing a grinding wheel? ers:
17. Enumerate the common methods of grinding. (a) Crankshaft grinder
18. What are the various types of grinding ma (b) Toolpost grinder (c) Roll grinder
chines? How are they classified? (d) Cam grinder (e) Way grinders
19. Write short notes on: Explain briefly their working.
(a) Rough grinding 24. Describe the principle of working of a tool and
(b) Precision grinding. cutter grinder. What are its uses_?
List the various machines used for these grind 25. What are the advantages of centreless grinding
ing operations. over other cylindrical grinding operations?
,.- - -��-----
13.1 INTRODUCTION microfinishing operation is very difficult since

it involves many variables, the most common
Surface treatment processes, are mass produc
being the geometry of the workpiece.
tion processes mainly used for removing burrs,
scale, flash and oxides. They improve the sur 13.2 LAPPING
face finish to some extent, but are not suitable
for components whose surface accuracy is more. It is a surface finishing process used for produc
They are only suitable for a large quantity of ing geometrically accurate flat, cylindrical and
small-sized parts. This chapter deals mainly with spherical surfaces. The removal of metal takes
processes used for producing smooth surfaces place by abrading action. Lapping is used for
to great accuracy. (i) removing small amounts of material from
Modem industry requires components of great the surfaces of tools,
accuracy and high speeds. Even grinding cannot (ii) removing small defects and surface cracks
meet the accuracy of a good surface finish. Mea left during previous operations,
suring instruments are designed to still higher (iii) eliminating small distortions.
accuracy. These components require micro-fin Lapping is performed manually or by machine.
ishing operations for production to close toler The abrasive carries out the cutting operation. It
ances. Commonly used rnicrofinishing operations is sprayed over the workpiece and the lapping
are lapping, honing, superfinishing and buffing. operation is carried out by applying light pres
sure on the lapping tool. The material of the
!hese operations are performed on parts requir
mg lapping tool is softer than the workpiece.
(i) accuracy up to third and fourth place of a 13.2.1 Hand Lapping
millimetre,
(ii) low range of tolerances, Hand lapping operations can be divided into:
(iii) accurate geometrical shapes and mating (i) lapping flat surface,
parts. (ii) lapping external cylindrical surfaces,
Surface finishing processes are mainly fini (iii) lapping internal cylindrical surfaces.
shing operations in which very little removal Lapping of flat surfaces can be divided into
of material takes place. The selection of a (a) lapping for rough work and (b) lapping for
------ - -- - -
- Surface Finishing Processes------- - - ---1811
fine work. Rough work lapping is done by us

ing a cast iron serrated tool. Cast iron blocks
are also used for lapping surfaces produced by a
surface grinder. Fine lapping is done by apply
ing mild pressure on lapping tools. The abrad
ing action takes place by using a very fine
abrasive powder mixed with a vehicle. To rotating
The simplest method used for lapping exter abrasive
laps
nal surfaces is ring lapping. A ring lap is a lap
ping tool made of cast iron. The workpiece to
be lapped is held in the lathe chuck and rotated.
The split ring lap is held over the cylindrical
surface and the reciprocal operation is performed Fig. 13.1 Vertical lapping machine with bonded abra
by hand. This process is used for producing very sive lap
accurate round surfaces, like plug gauges and
The three types of lapping machines com
machine spindles. External threads are also
monly used are as follows:
lapped by this method.
1. Bonded abrasive circular plate lapping
Lapping of internal surfaces is done by rotat
machines. These machines are used for lap
ing the lapping tool on honing machines, pol
ping flat and circular workpieces.
ishing heads or lathes and reciprocating the
2. Bonded abrasive or cast iron wheel mach
workpiece over the tool. The two types of com
ines. It works on the principle of centre
monly used lapping tools are (a) solid and
less lapping and is used for lapping circular
(b) adjustable laps. Adjustable laps are preferred
surfaces.
over solid laps, since they are suitable for lap
3. Internal cylindrical lapping machines.
ping all classes of holes. Lapping of fuel injec
These machines are similar to honing ma
tion plungers is done by internal lapping.
chines.
13.2.2 Machine Lapping An advantage of the lapping operation is that
the components produced are extremely accu
Hand lapping is useful for lapping a few com
rate both in tolerance and geometry. Thus it is
ponents only. For batch production lapping work,
used for producing gauge blocks with accur'�cies
lapping machines are used. In a machine lap
of ±0.0001 mm and parallelism of ±0.00008 mm.
ping operation, the two surfaces are rubbed un
The heat generated is minimal. The disadvan
der a load. A fine abrasive suspended in an oil
is fed in between the surfaces while the opera tages are that it is comparatively a slow process,
tion is in progress. During the operation, the the components require good finish prior to this
direction of rubbing is changed constantly. Three operation.
types of lapping media are used on lapping ma 13.3 HONING
chines. These are (a) metal laps and abrasive
powders, (b) bonded abrasive and (c) abr sive . It is a microfinishing process of removing very
paper or cloth. Metal laps are used on compo� little material. The material is removed by means
nents requiring extreme accuracy. of abrasive stones. The primary purpose of hon
Bonded abrasives are used for comniercial ing is to remove scratches that are left after
production. grinding.
_'\
1182.-------�-----Manufacturing Processes I
(a)
-fE-:-----:- :� - )
(C)
Fig. 13.2 (a) Principle ofhoning (b) Vertical honing machine (c) Manual stroke honing tool
Generally, all honing operations are done with Honing machines can be classified as (a) hori
fine artificial abrasive stones. Honing stones dif zontal honing machines and (b) vertical honing
fer from grinding stones since they contain abra machines. According to the number of spindles
sives like sulphur, resin or wax. These abrasives used, honing machines are classified as (a) single
modify the cutting action. spindle and (b) multiple spindle. Modern ma
Honing operations can be classified into chines are equipped with special sensitive mea
(a) manual honing and (b) machine honing. Hon suring devices to control sizes accurately. Cutting
ing operations may be performed on flat and fluids are used in all honing operations. Ma
cylindrical surfaces, but generally honing op chine honing is a fairly rapid process, usually
erations are performed on internal cylindrical taking less than a minute.
surfaces, such as automobile cylinder walls.
Small pieces are usually honed by holding the 13.4 SUPERFINISHING
workpieces by hand and reciprocating over a Superfinishing can be said to be a fine honing
rotating hone. process used for obtaining higher surface finish
During a honing operation, the honing stone on components. It is an abrasive process using
is held in a honing head against the workpiece. abrasive stones and cup wheels. Abrasive stones
Rotary and reciprocating motions are used si are used for cylindrical surfaces while cup
multaneously and the pressure applied against wheels are used for flat surfaces. Superfinishing
the work is very light. Depending upon the de is mainly used for removing chattering marks,
sign of the machine and the requirements of the feed spirals and other imperfections left by grind
components, varying oscillatory motions are ing.
used. Motion is so adjusted that the stone ex In superfinishing, the pressure exerted is very
tends beyond the work surface at the end of low and stock removal is up to 0.025 mm. The
each stroke. The -amount of material removed contact area of the stone and the workpiece is
during honing is less than 0.1 mm and is used large. The stone is given oscillating motion while
for size control within 0.005 mm. the workpiece is given a rotary motion.
Surface Finishing Processes ------------ -
183)
13.6 SURFACE FINISH

The necessity of accurate surface finish was felt
due to close tolerances in modern devices, equip-
Jl!ent and machinery. Surfaces having good fin
ish have a good bearing capacity. Thus, a thorou
gh understanding of surface finish is important
Fig. 13,3 Principle ofsuperfinishing to an engineer for designing components of grea
ter accuracy, within close tolerances.
Commonly used superfinishing machines are
(a) special superfinishng machine and (b) sup Surface Texture and Irregularities
erfinishing machine with standard attachments.
A workpiece after machining does not possess a
Through feed machines are used for superfin
perfectly finished surface. The surface shows
ishing centreless ground parts.
goemetrical irregularities. Geometrical irregulari
Superfinishing is mainly used for finishing
ties are classified into the following four cate
bearing surfaces. The surface finish of com
gories:
ponents after superfinishing is excellent. The
process is also suitable for mass production. A First order Irregularities produced due to de
coolant is used during surface finish to keep fective machine tools, i.e. guideways and slide
(a) the workpiece cool and (b) the stone clean ways.
and sharp. Second order Irregularities arising due to vi
brations, i.e. chatter marks.
13.5 BUFFING
Third order Irregularities due to the charac
Buffing is also known as contact wheel finish teristics of the process.
ing. The process is used to produce a bright
surface appearance with a minimum of abrading
Fourth order Irreguiarities due to rupture of
the material.
action.
A buffing operation can be divided into 13.7 TERMINOLOGY
(a) cutting down and (b) colouring operations.
Cutting down is done to change a rough surface Surface The boundary that separates an ob
into a smoother one. The colouring operation is ject from another object.
used to provide high lustre. Nominal surface A theoretically accurate sur
The operation is carried out by high-velocity face.
rotating buffing wheels. Muslin, flannel, canvas Real surface The surface limiting the body
and sisal are the most commonly used buffing and separating it from the surrounding space.
wheel materials. Non-woven nylon web is a re
Effective surface A close representation of a
cently developed fine buffing material. These
real surface obtained by instrumental means.
wheels are available in different sizes commer
cially. Colour buffing is carried out by loose Geometrical surface The surface prescribed
buffing wheels, which are stitched only at the by the design of manufacturing process, neglect
hub. The abrasives used consist of extremely ing errors of form and roughness.
fine powders of aluminium oxide, crushed flint, Surface 'irregularity Deviation from the nomi
quartz and silicon carbide.- nal surface. It includes roughness and waviness.
jI84�-- --- -- - ---c.Manufacturing Processes! -
- -----------
Surface roughness All irregularities, the (i) Visual inspection

height, width and direction of which establishes (ii) Microscopic inspection
the predominant surface pattern irregularities. (iii) Surface photographs
These irregularities are of small spacings and do (iv) Micro-interferometer
not include form and waviness. (v) Wallace surface dynamometer
Profile The cont<,mr of a section perpendicu Comparison methods are not reliable since
lar to the surface. they often give misleading results, because of
the surface texture being assessed by an obser
Waviness Irregularities of the nominal surface.
vation of the surface. The process involves com
Sampling length The length of the profile nec parison with standard specimen.
essary for the evaluation of irregularities, measur
ed in a direction parallel to the general direction 13.8 DIRECT MEASUREMENTS
of the profile.
Stylus probe instruments This instrument
Mean line of profile The line having the form consists of a skid, stylus, amplifying device and
of a geometrical profile which provides the effec recording device. A datum is chosen from which
tive profile, like square root, sum of the squares measurement is to be taken. The skid and stylus
of distances. are moved over the surface. The stylus records
Centreline of profile The line parallel to the the microgeometrical form of' the surface. The
general direction of the profile, such that the amplifying device magnifies the movement of
sum of areas embraced above and below this the stylus while the recording device shows the
line are equal. record of the surface profile.
Measurement of surface finish Various Interference microscope This is a popular in
methods are used for checking surface irregulriti strument for measuring surface roughness. A line
es. Some methods are intended primarily for res diagram of the commonly used 45 ° interference
earch laboratories, while others are for inspection microscope is shown in Fig. 13.5. A thin beam
departments or shop floors. Commonly used surf of light is allowed to fall on the surface to be
ace inspection methods can ·be classified into inspected. On striking the craters and valleys of
(i) · Comparison methods the surface, the beam of light is reflected back.
(ii) Direct measurements Measurements of roughness and waviness are
Comparison methods The commonly used taken by a microscope fitted with a crosswire.
comparison methods for measuring surface This is a relatively quick and accurate method
roughness are for inspecting the surface finish.
/
Mean line Texture
Roughness
Maximum height of
width
irregularities
Fig. 13.4 Representation ofsurface profile
------- - - ---- Surface
- Finishing Processes----- -- - ---1851
��-8
l)'�(J
� .
, 7
3 !)'� , � ,;;s
llllJJJJJJJ:/t;;;JJJJJJJJ/T) JJJJJ JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
Fig. 13.5 Surface measurement by interference microscope: I. Source of light 2. Lens 3. and 4. Slits
5Surface 6. Objective 7. Eyepiece 8. Eye
tMULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ,/) for the right answer (a) 0.001-0.005 µm CLA value
1. The material of a lapping tool (b) 0.005-0.01 µm CLA value
(a) is softer than the workpiece (c) 0.01-0.1 µm CLA value
(b) is the same as that of workpiece (d) 0.2-0.4 µm CLA value
(c) is slightly harder than the workpiece 5. The following material is used for diamond lap
(d) is much harder than the workpiece ping:
2. Lapping and honing are the following type of (a) aluminium (b) copper
machining processes: (c) high-speed steel (d) stellite
(a) metal cutting process 6. Buffing process is used
(b) low-speed abrasive
(a) to obtain very smooth refractive surfaces
(c) medium-speed abrasive
(b) to improve surface finish
(d) high-speed abrasive
(c) to remove material by diamond abrasive
3. The common practice used is to leave the fol
lowing amount of stock for lapping operation: (d) to get perfectly flat surfaces
(a) 0.001-0.01 mm (b) 0.01-0.1 mm 7. Pressure applied on workpiece in case of lap
(c) 0.1-0.5 mm (d) 0.5-0.8 mm ping operation is
4. The quality of surface finish produced by hon (a) 0.01 N/cm2 (b) 1 N/cm2
ing operation is of the order of (c) 5 N/cm 2
(d) 10 N/cm2
tltivmw QUESTIONS
"--·--·--·-·-··-·-···-..·-·-·-·-·-·--·--·---�----·-"--·--�--�-��-
1. Enumerate the importance of surface finishing (a) Lapping (b) Honing

processes. (c) Superfinishing (d) Buffing
2. What is lapping? Why and how it is done? 6. Explain briefly the process of superfinishing.
3. Explain with neat sketches the process of ma 7. What do you understand by surface finish?
chine lapping. Define the terms: surface texture, nominal sur
4. Describe briefly the utility and process of hon face and effective surface.
ing. 8. Explain the various methods used for the mea
5. Write short notes on: surement of surface finish.
14.1 INTRODUCTION relative cutting motion between the tool and the
workpiece.
Metal cutting operations form the basis of manu
facturing processes. Final products are often 14.2 MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING
made by machining primary shapes to size. The
study of metal cutting is of vital importance and In any machining operation, the unit product of
forms the basis of the scientific approach to solv the metal removed is called a chip. The thick
ing problems of machining. Principles of metal ness of a chip is always more than the layer of
cutting are very helpful in increasing the rate of the metal removed. This is due to plastic defor
production in all workshops, i.e. turning, mili mation of the metal during the cutting process.
ing, shaping, planing, broaching, jig boring, etc. The separation of the chip from the parent metal
In all these operations, the components are pro takes place by shearing. Frictional forces devel
duced by removing material in the form of chips oped at the cutting edge result in heat and tool
with the help of a cutting tool. In most opera wear. The cutting action of the tool can be
tions, a wedge-shaped tool is constrained to move analysed from Fig. 14.l(a). The process of cut
against the workpiece. In orthogonal cutting, the ting, in which the cutting edge is perpendicular
tool moves at right angles to the direction of to the cut is known as orthogonal cutting. The
Cutting tool
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.1 (a) Orthogon al cutting, {b) Oblique cutting
------ -------Mechanics of Metal Cutting-------- ---�187)
three-dimensional cutting shown in Fig. 14.l(b) (a) The chip flows on the tool face.
is known as oblique cutting, since the cutting (b) The tool may or may not generate a sur
edge is inclined (obliquely) to the direction of face parallel to the surface of the workface.
cutting. (c) Chip thickness may or may not be maxi
mum at the middle.
Orthogonal Cutting In orthogonal cutting, the
(d) More than one cutting edge is in action,
cutting edge of the tool is at right angles to the i.e. more than two cutting edges of the tool
direction of relative motion between the tool and cut the material at a time.
the workpiece. Since orthogonal cutting is two
dimensional, it is widely used in both theoreti Chip Formation The portion of the material
cal and experimental work. removed from the workpiece by the cutting tool
In orthogonal cutting, material of constant is known as chip. The removal of the metal by
shearing action and deformation of the chip con
thickness t is removed from the workpiece. The
sume nearly 95% of the power expended in a
thickness of the chip is not t but t1 , as shown in cutting operation. The remaining 5% of the
Fig. 14.l(a). power is expended in the form of stored elastic
The ratio oft to t 1 is known as the chip thick energy or residual stresses.
ness ratio (r). The materials that pile up in front When a cutting tool advances in the work
of the tool are considered as less machinable piece, the material ahead of the cutting tool defo
than those materials which have more chip thick rms by shearing action. In the beginning, this
ness. In terms of chip thickness, machinability results in the formation of a continuous chip
can be expressed by the chip thickness ratio. If without built-up edges, as shown in Fig. 14.2.
the shear angle is ¢, then Continued application of the forces causes the
rcos a material to rupture or plastic flow. As the tool
tan¢= --- advances, segments that are part of the material
1- rsin a become part of the chip. The shape and size of
where r = chip thickness ratio the chip produced during a machining process
and a= rake angle of the tool. indicates the type and quality of the process.
Optimum results are obtained when the shear The four basic shapes of chips produced are:
angle approaches a 1: 1 ratio or 45° . (a) segmental or discontinuous chip
(b) continuous chip
Oblique Cutting Oblique cutting is also
(c) continuous chip with built-up edge
knowp as three-dimensional cutting, as shown
(d) inhomogeneous chip.
in Fig. 14.1(b). The basic principles applied in
orthogonal cutting are equally applicable in ob
lique cutting in research, theoretical or practical
field of engineering.
A cutting too.I mainly consists of wedge
shaped cutting surfaces by the cutting edge. The
surface along which the chip flows is known as
the rake face. The surface relieved to clear the
newly machined surface is called the flank. Ba
sically, all machining operations, except grind
ing, have the same features. A multi-point cutting (c) (d)
tool can be regarded as a combination of several Fig. 14.2 Types of chips produced during machining:
single-point cutting tools. The salient features of (a) Shaping. (b) Turning. (c) Planing. (d) Mill
oblique cutting are: ing
11ss:--- - - - - ----Manufacturing Processes!----
- - - --------
-
Segmental chips Segmental chips are pro

duced by the actual fracture of the metal ahead
of the cutting edge. These chips consist of sepa
rate, physically deformed segments and are pro
duced from brittle materials. They are associated (a) (b)
with fair surface finish, low power consumption
and good tool life. Segmental chips are produced
during the shaping of a cast iron block, as shown
in Fig. 14.3(a).
Continuous chips Continuous chips are pro (c) (d)
duced by the continuous deformation of the ma
Fig. 14.3 Types of chips: (a) segmental (b) Continu
terial ahead of the cutting tool, as shown in Fig. ous, (c) Continuous with built up edge
14.3(b). They are produced by the machining of (d) Inhomogeneous
ductile materials. Some cracking may occur in
the chip but it usually does not extend far enough decrease in yield strength with an increase in
to cause fracture. This type of chip is associated temperature. Some titanium steels machined at
with high cutting speed and low friction between low cutting speeds show this phenomenon.
the chip and the tool face. Sometimes chip break Shear Plane The fundamental mechanism of
ers are needed for the handling and disposal of chip removal during a cutting process is defor
chips of ductile materials. Machining of mild mation of the material by shearing action. Shear
steel by a turning tool produces continuous chips. ing action takes place in a narrow zone extending
Continuous chip with - built-up edge This from the cutting edge to the work surface. For
type of chip is similar to a continuous chip, with analytical calculations, this zone can be treated
the existence of a localised deformed zone or as a single plane, also known as the shear plane.
welded zone on the tool face, as shown in Fig. Cutting Ratio The thickness of a chip is al
14.3(c). The built-up edge is formed owing to ways greater than the undeformed chip thick
the action of welding of the chip on the tool ness. The ratio of the thickness of a chip before
face. The weld material further increases fric removal to its thickness after removal is known
tion. This phenomenon generally occurs while as the cutting ratio. The inverse of the cutting
cutting ductile materials with high-speed steel ratio is known as the chip compression factor.
cutting tools at low cutting speeqs. This type of Generally, the corss-section of the chip is nei
chip is undesirable since it consumes more ther rectangular nor of uniform thickness. It tends
power, shows higher tool wear and poorer sur to be thicker at the centre and taper outwards.
face finish.
Inhomogeneous chips Inhomogeneous chips
are also known as non-homogeneous chips. This
type of chip is produced due to non-uniform
strain in the material during chip formation and
is characterised by notches on the free side on
the chip, as shown in Fig. 14.3(d). It mainly
occurs due to thermal variations and the devel
opment of new shearing planes. Non-homoge
neous chips are typical of materials showing a Fig. 14.4 Shearing angle and cutting ratio
/
-- - -- --------'---- -
-Mechanics of
Metal Cutting-- --- -----�1891
However, for purposes of calculation, the thick t2 cos(¢-y)

ness may be taken as uniform. Then, Cutting =
ratio Ve
Undeformed chip thickness (t1 ) cos¢ cosy+ sin¢ siny
=_ _ _ _ __:___.:_
Mean chip thickness (t2 ) sin¢
Practically it is quite difficult to measure av or

1
= cot ¢ cos y + sin y
erage chip thickness. It can be calculated by the re
formula:
1
t?= --
w re
--smy
I-re siny
- wlp or cot¢=---- =
cosy re cosy
where W = weight of chip of length l
p = density of the material re cosy
w = width of chip. or tan¢=----
1-re sin y
Shear Angle The angle made by the shear
plane with the direction of tool travel is known In terms of coefficient of friction, this relation
as the shear angle. In Fig. 14.4, the angle made ship can be expressed as
by the plane AB with the direction of the cut cosy
tan ¢ = - ----
- (; - )-
ting tool is the shear angle. Its value depends or
upon many factors, such as cutting conditions, µ r sin y
tool geometry, tool material and material of the
workpiece. The smaller the shearing angle, the
larger the shearing plane, and vice versa. Chip Velocity and Velocity of Shear The
Different methods are used for measuring velocity with which the chip moves over the
shear angle. Direct measurement from the pho rake face is known as the velocity of chip. The
tomicrograph of the partially formed chip is an velocity with which shearing of metal along the
accurate method. The tool is withdrawn suddenly shear plane takes place is known as shear
during the course of cutting action with a quick velocity.
stop mechanism. The section of metal in the
vicinity of the partially deformed chip is ground, 14.3 TOOL GEOMETRY
polished, etched and subjected to micrographic The basic principle of a cutting tool is to pro
examination. This method is quite lengthy and vide a sharp cutting for easy machining. For
inconvenient. The method commonly used for optimum results, a cutting tool is provided with
the determination of shear angle involves the appropriate angles and dimensions. The devel
application of the cutting ratio, which can be
opment of the basic tool geometry is shown in
calculated by the following formula.
Fig. 14.5.
re cosy
tan¢= --- Relief angles This term refers to both side
1-re siny and end relief angles. The relief angle is pro
This relationship can be derived as follows. Con vided to protect the tool from rubbing on the cut
sider Fig. 14.4 surface. The value of the relief angle should be
t1 = AB sin¢ minimised to provide good support to the
t2 = AB cos ( ¢ - y) cutting edge.
1190�------------Manufacturing Processes! - -----------
End cutting
edge angle Positive back rake
LI
Nose radius
i
n==J:;: :::e
Side cutting
Lip angle I
edge angle
-'---�L..._-___J
Fiank
Face
End relief
angle Side relief
Fig. 14,5 The development of basic tool geometry
Side cutting edge angle On a cutting tool, a surface rubbing against the tool flank and
side cutting edge angle is provided for (a) pro (b) formation of crater or depressions on the
tecting the point from initial shocks and (b) thin surface as a result of flow of chip over the tool
ning out the chip by distributing the cut over a rake face.
greater surface. Flank Wear The extent of flank wear may be
Rake angles The angle ground on the face of considered a dependable criteria for judging the
the tool is known as rake angle. Rake angles life of a cutting edge;· The flank wear can be
may be positive, neutral or negative. Negative easily observed and measured, and it is easy to
rake angle is the development due to brittleness predict when a given amount of wear will be
of carbide tools. These tools show adhesion and reached once the wear rate has been established.
built-up edges when working with positive rake.' Flank wear initially takes place at a high rate
Negative rake angles prevent adhesion and in followed by a more or less linear increase. The
crease cutting speeds. Positive rake angles re wear rate increases rapidly when the amount of
quire less cutting force and direct the chip away wear crosses the critical limit. Figure 14.6 shows
from the material. A negative rake angle pro flank wear development. The graph can be di
vides greater strength to the cutting edge. vided into three regions OA, AB and BC. Wear
Nose radius The rounded end that blends the takes place rapidly in region: OA, is slow in
side cutting edge angle with the end cutting edge region AB and very rapid in region BC. Practi
angle is known as the nose radius. It is provided cal results have established that the most eco
on cutting tools to control surface finish. A tool nomical wear land at which to remove the tool
with large nose radius produces a smooth sur and resharpen it, is just before the start of rapid
face. The nose radius should not be too large, wear (before BC). It the case of carbide tools,
since this produces chatter due to excessive con
tact area. Small diameter components require
small nose radius. t
'O 0.8 mm
D
14.4 TOOL FAILURE
-
Cutting tools lose their usefulness due to wear, :: F
breakage, chipping and deformation. Wear is the
.Ji!.
H1
0 A
biggest cause of tool failure. The progressive u:: BC
Cutting time (T)
wear of a cutting tool takes place due to (a) wear
on the tool flank as a result of the newly cut Fig. 14.6 Development ofDank wear
------------ - Mechanics
- ofMetal Cutting---------- --1911
the region FE is inclined a little, while in high Plastic deformation in tools occurs due to high
speed steels, it is almost horizontal and parallel compressive stresses acting on the tool rake face.
to AB. Generally, the wear land on the flank This type of deformation takes place in the nose
along with the entire cutting edge length is not area of the insert. It is a deformation process,
uniform and depends upon cutting conditions. not a wear process, but accelerates other pro
In addition to flank wear, the various other cesses.
kinds of wear and defects in a cutting tool are: Thermal cracking occurs due to cyclic thermal
(i) Attrition wear stresses. It results in small cracks on tool sur
(ii) Diffusion wear faces. These cracks are also called comb cracks.
(iii) Abrasive wear
(iv) Electrochemical wear 14.5 TOOL LIFE
(v) Chemical wear Tool life can be defined as the period of time
(vi) Plastic deformation for which a cutting tool performs efficiently. In
(vii) Thermal cracking. other words, it may be said to be the cutting
At low cutting speeds, the flow of material time between resharpenings. After continuous
across the cutting edge is irregular. Sometimes working, the tool wear reaches a certain value
the tool loses contact with the workpiece due to and is then not capable of further cutting, unless
the formation of built-up edges. Fragments of · resharpened. The tool life of cutting tool de
the tool are torn interrnjttently from the tool sur pends upon many factors, like the microstruc
face. This phenomenon is known as attrition. It ture of the material being cut, metal removal
is slow in case of continuous cutting, but is seri rate, the rigidity of the setup and effects of cut
ous with interrupted cutting or where vibrations ting fluids.
are severe. The tool life is a vital criterion for assessing
During the cutting operation, diffusion of the the life of a cutting tool and flank wear is con
metal and carbon atoms from the tool material sidered the decisive factor in assessing tool life.
into the workpiece and chips takes place. The Tool wear also takes place due to cratering at
rate of diffusion is high at higher temperatures higher rates of metal removal. Figure 14.7 shows
and pressures. It also depends upon the metal four different curves showing wear versus time
lurgical relationship between the cutting tool and at different cutting speeds. Each curve consists
the workpiece. Carbide tools show this type of of three regions showing (a) rapid initial wear,
wear.
Abrasive wear takes place due to hard particl
es being swept over the tool surface. This type v,
of wear takes place when the workpiece contains I
abrasive particles such as sand in castings.

Electrochemical wear takes place due to flow
of ions between the tool and workpiece. It causes
oxidation of the tool surface and consequent
breakdown of the tool at the point of contact.
Chemical wear occurs due to interaction be T1 T2 T3 T4
tween the tool material and the work materials. Cutting time, T (min)
This type of wear has been noticed while ma
chining plastics with carbides. It may be accel Fig. 14.7 Wear versus time curve ofa cutting tool and
erated in certain fluid environments. different cutting speeds
1192-------------Manufacturing Processes!------- -
------
(b) slow gradual wear and (c) final period of 6000 Ceramics
rapid wear. Failure on high-speed steels is con 4000
sidered when the land has worn 1.58 mm. On 2000
carbide tools this value is 0.76 mm. Since tool c
.E 1000
life decreases as the cutting speed is increased,
some .compromise is needed between the two.
g
"C
Q)
500
Fred W. Taylor developed the following rela Q)
tionship between tool life and cutting speed: Cl 200

VTn= C
100
where V = cutting speed (in m/min) (..)
T = tool life (in min) 70

50
n = exponent depending upon cutting 30
conditions 5 10 20 100 200 400
C = constant Tool life minutes in log scale
Fig. 14.8 Tool life plotted on log-log scale for various
Table 14.1 Approximate Values of n, to be used in tool materials
Taylor's Equation
3. The power consumed
Types of cutting tool n
4. Shape of the chip
High-speed steel 0.08-0.12 A cutting tool fails mainly due to the follow
Carbide tools 0.13-0.25 ing reasons:
Ceramics 0.40-0.55 1. Plastic deformation of the cutting edge due
to high temperature
When the cutting speed is plotted as a func
2. Rupture or cracking of the tool due to
tion of tool life on the log scale, it shows a
stresses
straight line. From this curve, the value of n can
3. Gradual wear of (a) flank and (b) crater.
be determined by using Taylor's formula. Tool
The following criteria are used for specifying
life also depends upon:
(i) Geometry of the cutting tool. Tool angles tool life:
must be according to prescribed standards. 1. Time required between two resharpenings
(ii) Loss of tool hardness during working. 2. Chattering of the tool
(iii) Breaking or spalling of the tool edge. 3. Poor surface finish
(iv) Fracture of tools by heavy cuts. 4. Dimensional variations of the tool.
The three commonly used methods of speci A two-dimensional view of a cutting tool
fying tool life are: while performing a continuous chipping operat
(i) Actual time for which the tool is in con ion is shown in Fig. 14.3(b). Wear by cratering
tact with the workpiece. This is also known takes place at the tool-chip interface (where the
as the actual cutting time. chip rubs against the face of the cutting tool).
(ii) Volume of the material removed. Heat is produced due to friction between the tool
(iii) Taylor speed or equivalent cutting speed. and the chip. The amount of heat produced depe
The following characteristics need due con ends upon many factors, such as the machina
sideration in estimating tool life: bility of the workpiece, the roughness of the tool,
1. The time of tool and workpiece combina the degree of lubrication and the total contact
tion area. The hot flowing chip may create a groove in
2. The surface finish produced the tool face and the back of the cutting edge.
f --------------Mechanics of Metal Cutting-------------193J
This phenomenon occurs while machining duc microscope, mainly due to the following two
tile ferrous materials and is known as cratering. factors:
It occurs by welding and galling action between 1. exact measurement of wear land is diffi
the work material and the cutting tool, which cult due to variations at different portions
tends to wash out small particles of the tool across the tool;
material. It is a progressive process, until the 2. causes inherent in the wear land technique,
point of the tool breaks off. as shown in Fig. 14.9.
A built-up edge is formed while cutting with
high-speed steels at low cutting speeds. The cra
�.
ter starts next to the built-up edge. Some au
thorities claim that the built-up edge has a
beneficial effect, since it tends to protect the
tool point against the high temperature of the
b=
wear zone. It results in shifting the maximum
temperature from the cutting edge. Others claim
that it may remove parts of the cutting edge
with it, causing a minute chip. Repeated chipping
may cause excessive wear and thus the built-up
Fig. 14.9 Wear ofa tool
edge is detrimental at low cutting speeds.
Flank wear of a tool takes place -due to abra The commonly used test for measuring tool
sion. The amount of flank wear is determined wear can be classified as:
by determining the width of the wear land. In (i) Long-time tests
general, 0.8 mm of flank wear is considered to (ii) Short-time tests.
be the maximum allowable wear land. A wear
land in excess of 0.8 mm increases tool pressure Long-Time Tests These are the basic tests
and tool wear, and will result in complete tool used for determining the machinability of tool
materials. These tests are based on cutting
failure by breakage. The number of possible
speeds. The tests consist of determining the
regrinds is also optimum at this wear land.
relationship between the tool life and the cutting
Cratering and flank wear are the two general
characteristics used for describing tool wear. speed for the test material and the reference
material under identical conditions. The tool
Mechanical wear due to breaking out of small
geometry of a long-term test performed on a
chips from the cutting edge is another factor
lathe is given in Fig. 14.10. The recommended
contributing to tool life. This type of wear is
generally due to mechanical or thermal shock
caused by vibration and the impact of the ma
chine and by alternate heating and cooling. Mill
ing cutters are prone to this type of wear.
14.6 MEASUREMENT OF TOOL LIFE

The period during which a cutting tool performs
A
T
the machining operation satisfactorily is called
tool life. From the above discussion it is clear
that the measurement of wear land is not an easy
task even when measured under a high-power Fig. 14.10 Recommended tool geometry for turning
-------Manufacturing Processes I
t194�- - - - -
combinations of depth of cut, feed and nose ra made in an indenting fixture, as shown in Fig.
dius for a turning operation are shown in Table 14.11. A small amount of cut is taken to cause
14.2. the land to wear and a reading is taken along
the major diagonal of the impression. The wear
Table 14.2 Table showing recommended depth of cut, is then precisely determined and tool life is asce
feed and nose radius of long-terms test in rtained. During the test, the tool should not be
turning removed from the machine after an impression
· Cutting Condition. Feed Depth of Nose radius is made on it.
(mm/rev) cut (m) (mm)
A 0.1 1.0 0.4

B 0.25 2.5 0.8
C 0.4 2.5 0.8
D 0.63 2.5 1.2 Artificial
wear land
Clearance face
A minimum of four values should be chosen
I +J
for establishing the tool life-cutting speed rela Diamond impression
.)
tionship. The conventional practice adopted is
that the cutting speed should be so chosen that
the tool life at the maximum speed is not less
than 5 minutes. While carrying out the test, the Fig. 14.11 Diamond indentor technique for measur
ing tool wear
standard tool material and tool geometry is of
utmost importance. Care should be taken while Short-Term Tests The consumption of mater
resharpening the tools, to maintain identical test erial and time is more in long-term tests. This
conditions.
has led to the development of short-term tests.
A graph showing the wear relationship with
Although these tests are not as reliable as long
time at various cutting speeds is shown in Fig. term tests, they are advantageously employed
14.7. The values of the tool life for different for studying the machinability behaviour of dif
cutting speeds are read from the graphs and stan ferent materials. The commonly used short-term
dard values of cutting speed for a standard value tests are as follows.
of tool life (1) of the reference material are es
Tests at elevating cutting speeds The test in
tablished. Mathematically,
volves subjecting the material at elevated cut
Machinability rating for test material =
ting speeds. It results in rapid tool wear under
Cutting speed for tool life (T) for test conditions. The results obtained under these
test material
------------x 100 conditions are therefore distorted and do not ex
Cutting speed for tool life (T) for hibit a true picture of the behaviour of the mate
reference material rial. However, this test can be used for rapid
where 100 is the machinability rating of the ref comparison of different materials for their ma
erence material. chinability rating under similar test conditions.
Diamond indentor technique In this techniq Radioactive technique This test is also used
ue a freshly sharpended test of 0.25 mm wear for the rapid comparison of materials to ascertain
land is first ground carefully on the clearance their machinability. It is based on the fact that
: .'.tee. Then an impression on the wear land is 90% of the radioactive tool material borne away
--------- --- Mechanics
- of
Metal Cutting-------------1951
remains attached to the chips. Samples of mate over the face of the tool. N is known as the
rials to be compared are machined by radioac normal reaction. The ratio of F to N is known
tive tools. The chips produced during a machini as the coefficient of friction between the tool
ng operation carry some amount of radioactivity and the chip and is represented by µ.
from the tool. The amount of radioactivity carried The components of forces acting on the shear
out is proportional to the wear developed on the plane are Fi and F2 . Fi represents the shearing
tool. The machinability of the tool is ascertained force and is the force required to shear the metal
by measuring the radioactivity of a known on the plane of shear. F2 acts normal to the
quantity of chips. shearing plane. It results in compressive stresses
being applied to the plane of shear. The mean
14. 7 FORCES ON CUTTING TOOLS shearing stress acting on the shear plane is equal
For understanding the forces acting on a tool, to the mean shearing strength of the metal sub
take the case of orthogonal cutting, as shown in jected to cutting action. Mathematically, the
Fig. 14.12. Here the forces are all on one plane shearing strength can be obtained by dividing
and their components can be added geometri Fi by the area of the shear plane. Correspond
cally, as in elementary mechanics. ingly, the compressive strength is equal to Fn
divided by the area of the shear plane. The rela
tionships between various force components are
indicated in the following manner:
Fi = Fe cos </J- Ft sin </J
¢ R = Fe sin </J + Ft cos ¢
F= Fe sin a+ Ft cos a
t1
N = Fe cos a - Ft sin a.
I
I 14.8 FORCES OF FRICTION
I
I The frictional forces act between the chip and
\
\ the tool when the chip slides over the tool. The
coefficient of friction between the chip and the
tool is equal to the tangent of angle (), as shown
Fig. 14.12 Forces acting in orthogonal cutting with a
continuous chip
in Fig. 14.13. Mathematically, the coefficient of
friction is
The two basic components of the resultant R
are Fe and Ft · Fe is the force acting in the
direction of tool travel. It shows the amount of
work required to move the cutting tool through
a given distance. Force Ft does no work, but
both components produce deflection in the cut
ting tool when it is in operation. The whole sys
tem is based on the assumption that chip is a
body in stable equilibrium under the action of
forces.
The components of forces acting at the tool
face are F and N. F represents the frictional
resistance encountered by the chip as it slides Fig. 14.13 Reference axis for cutting forces
j196,_, ------------Manufacturing Processes I
The frictional force is the actual force resist (vi) The width of the tool is greater than that
ing the sliding of the chip over the tool face. of the workpiece.
Mathematically, the force of friction (vii) The work moves relative to the tool with
F := Ft cos a+ Fe sin a uniform velocity.
The total work done for cutting a material is (viii) A continuous chip is produced with no
equal to the sum of the work done in shearing built-up edge.
the metal . plus work done in overcoming fric (ix) Plane strain conditions exist, i.e. the width
tion. Iri general, the tool designer is seldom con of the chip remains equal to the width of
cerned with orthogonal and oblique cutting. He the workpiece.
is more interested in results of metal cutting as (x) The chip is assumed to shear continuously
supplied to a particular situation. across a: plane AB, on which the shear
Most metal cutting operations in industry are stress reaches the value of the shear flow
oblique cutting operations, i.e. they are three stress.
dimensional in nature. The resultant force act For studying the forces acting on a chip, let us
ing on the tool has three basic components. This isolate it as a free body as shown in Fig. 14.14.
situation exists in all cases, except that of ortho
gonal cutting. A simple line diagram showing the
three basic components of the resultant force is
shown in Fig. 14.13. The three components of
the forces are (a) tangential force Ft (b) the longi
tudinal force F1 and (c) the radial force Fr. Chip
14.9 RELATION BETWEEN

ORTHOGONAL CUTTING
FORCES (MERCHANT THEORY)
In orthogonal cutting forces, the tool approaches
the workpiece with its cutting edge parallel to
the uncut surface and at right angles to the di '-p- a
rection of cutting. Thus, tool approach angle and
cutting edge inclination are zero. Fig. 14.14
The relationship among the various forces had
From this figure. it is clear that only two
been established by Merchant with the follow
forces are acting on it. The force between the
ing assumptions:
tool face and chip (R), and the force between
(i) The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no
the workpiece and the chip along the shear plane
contact along the clearance face.
(R') must be equal for equilibrium
(ii) The shear surface is a plane extending up
ward from the cutting edge. i.e. R = R'
(iii) The cutting edge is a straight line, extend The forces R and K can be resolved into three
ing perpendicular to the direction of motion sets of components along the directions of our
and generates a plane surface as the work interest, as shown in the figure. The directions
moves pass it. along which these forces are resolved are:
(iv) The chip does not flow to either side. (i) along the horizontal and vertical direction
(v) The depth of cut is constant. FH and Fy .
Mechanics of Metal Cutting-----------__;,1971
( ii) along and perpendicular to the shear plane, Fs =FH cos¢-F v sin¢
Fs and Ns - · Ns =FH sin¢+ Fv cos¢
( iii) along and perpendicular to the tool face, F =Fs tan(¢- /3- a)
and N. R =FH sec (-/3- a)
where F is the actual force of friction which and Fs = R cos(¢- /3- a)
resists sliding of the chip over the face of the =FH sec (/3 - a) · cos( ¢- J3 - a)
tool. and N s = R sin(¢- /3- a)
If the forces R and R' ( being equal) are plot =FH sec (/3- a)· sin(¢- /3- a)
ted at the tool point instead of their actual points Similarly from Fig. 14.16( b).
of application along the shear plane and tool F =FH sin a+ F v cos a
face, we obtain a convenient and compact diagr and N = F H cos a- F v sin a
am as shown in Fig. 14.15. Also FH = R cos (/3- a)
Fs = R cos(¢+ J3 - a)
cos (/3 -a )
a Ftt = Fs ·-----
cos(<jJ+/3- a )
Coefficient of friction (µ), can be calculated as
follows
F (FH sina+Fv cosa )
- -
µ-
N
- (F sina -F sina )
H v
= FH tana+Fv
FH -Fv tana
µ can also be related to the cutting ratio r, by
Fig. 14.15 the equation
Analytical relationships between the shear and µ=tan = tan(�)
friction components, in terms of the horizontal /3
(FH) and vertical(Fv) components which is nor -K -x
mally determined experimentally by means of a 2
dynamometer, can be obtained as follows with Merchant developed the relationship between
the help of Fig. 14.16. the shear angle (¢), friction angle (/3) and cut
ting rake angle ( a) as follows:
20+ /3- a= constant(c)
where C is known as machining constant for the
work material dependent on the area of change
', of shear strength of the.metal with applied com
1
I pressive stress, besides taking the internal coef
Fr ¢/ ficient of friction into account.
Forces in Orthogonal Cutting The cutting
force F in orthogonal cutting can be expressed
Fig. 14.16 (a) Shear plane forces. (b) Tool plane forces by the formula:
1198- -----------Manufacturing Processes!---- ----- ---
F=c·f-b goes on increasing with time as the wear land

where t:::: uncut chip thickness (in mm/rev) on the tool develops and goes on increasing.
b :::: width of cut (in mm) Each of these three zones contribute to increa
x :::: constant for material machined. For se of temperature at the tool-chip interface and it
all types of steels, the value is taken is found that the maximum temperature occurs
as 0.85 slightly away from the cutting edge, and not at
and c = constant for material at a given cut- the cutting edge. This temperature plays a major
ting speed and rake angle. role in the formation of crater on the tool face
The value of constant (c) varies from 98 for and leads to failure of tool by softening and the
free machining carbon steel with hardness of rmal stresses.
120-224 HB with positive rake angle. For nega The heat generated in metal cutting is given by
tive rakes at high cutting speeds, the value of c
tangential cutting force (kg)
is nearly 10% higher.
x cutting speed (m/min)
Q= ----------kcal/illln
14.10 THERMAL ASPECTS OF METAL 427
MACHINING and heat dissipated per minute by the chip
During a machining operation, considerable weightof chipsxsp.heat of work
amount of heat is generated (a) at the cutting materialxincreasein temperature
edge of the tool due to friction between tool and QC = ------- - -- - kcal/min
1000
work, and (b) the plastic shearing of metal in
the form of chips. The evolution of heat takes The ratio of Q/Q indicates the percentage of
place at three zones A, B and C, as shown in heat that can be dissipated by the chips. This
Fig. 14.17. In shear zone (zone A), maximum ratio mainly depends on the cutting except at
very slow speeds and is usually approximately
80%.
The temperature of the chips is generally
found to remain constant with cutting speed at
about 400° C. But the temperature of the tool
rake face or tool-chip interface increases with
increase in cutting speed and is about twice the
Workpiece temperature of the chips.
Figure 14.18 shows the distribution of heat
Fig. 14.17 in chips, tool and work versus cutting speed. It
t
heat is generated because of the plastic deformat 100
ion of metal. Practically, whole of this heat is 80
carried away by the chip as machining is a rapid
and continuous process. A small portion of this al 60
heat (5-10%) is conducted to the workpiece. In ro 40

the friction zone (Zone B), the heat is generated 20
mainly due to friction between moving chip and �
0
tool face and partiy due to the secondary defor 20 40 60 80 100

mation of the built-up· edge. In the work-tool Cutting speed
contact zone (zone C), the heat is generated due (m/min) -
to burnishing friction, and the heat in this zone Fig. 14.18
Mechanics of Metal Cutting---------- - -
-199j
is found that distribution of heat in chips, 14.11 FEEDS OF MACHINE TOOLS

workpiece and tool is in the ratio of 80: 10: 10
The rate by which a cutting tool advances rela
when cutting with carbide cutters at speeds above
tive to the cutting speed is known as feed. The
30m/min.
choice of correct feed depends upon many vari
Maximum tool temperature depends upon
ables, such as (a) depth of cut, (b) the rigidity
various factors like cutting speed, feed, propert
of the machine tools, (c) the surface finish re
ies of material, etc. These machining variables
have marked effect on the size of shear zone quired, (d) the characteristics of the cutting tool
and chip-tool contact length, and thereby, the used and (e) the cutting tool material. In gen
area over which heat is distributed. Shorter leng eral, it is easier to feed the cutter when it is
th of contact of chip with tool results in severe moving at the fastest possible speed. In such
rise in temperature. cases, the cutter tooth remains in contact with
Cutting temperature depends upon several fac the material for a shorter period of time. How
tors like workpiece and tool material, cutting ever, finer feeds give better surface finish. The
conditions, cutting fluid and tool geometry. If a general rule followed is that more feed is needed
material has high tensile strength and hardness, for rough cuts than for finishing cuts.
more energy is required for chip formation and The feeds of a lathe is the distance the tool is
more heat is generated. If thermal conductivity is fed for each revolution of the work. Lathe feeds
high, then temperature developed will be lower. generally vary from 0.075 to 0.20 mm depend
ing upon the size of the lathe, the machinability
Factors Affecting Temperature of the material and the surface finish required.
The various factors that affect the temperature The feed of a drill is the amount by which a
are: drill advances per revolution into the workpiece.
The feed of a drill is governed by factors like
(a) Workpiece and tool material Tensile the size of a drill and the type of the material
strength and hardness of workpiece material have being drilled. Smaller drills require less feed than
considerable effect on cutting temperature. Tool larger drills.
materials with higher thermal conductivity pro The feed of shapers and planers is the dis
duce lower temperatures than materials with tance by which the tool advances at the end of
lower thermal conductivity. each cutting stroke. Feeds for planers are con
(b) Cutting conditions The cutting speed has siderably heavier than for shapers.
marked effect on the cutting temperature, It is very difficult to establish a relationship
whereas feed has little effect, and depth of cut between the feed and speed of a milling cutter
has the least effect on cutting temperature. as both are independent of each other. The feed
(c) Cutting fluid At high speed, like cutting of a milling cutter is expressed in cm/min of the
with carbide tools, cutting fluid has negligible table movement. Since milling cutters are avail
effect on tool-chip interface temperature. The able in various types, the feed rate is usually
fluid is carried away by the outward flowing chip determined by the amount of allowable chip load
more rapidly than it could be forced between the per cutting tool.
tool and the chip.
14.12 METAL CUTTING TOOLS
(d) Tool geometry The rake angle has only a
slight effect on the temperature, whereas increase In the preceding sections, the discussion was
in approach angle increases the temperature con restricted to general aspects and considerations of
siderably. the metal cutting process. Single-point cutting
iioo---------· Manufacturing -Processes I
I.::.:..:.
tools served to illustrate metal cutting principles. varies with the workpiece setup, the depth of
The following sections are concerned with spe cut and rigidity of the machine tool. All the
cific metal cutting tools. variables cannot be judged in standardised forms.
The tools used for performing various opera A general understanding of the behaviour of the
tions in a production shop can be classified as cutting tool helps a designer to design the tool
(a) cutting tools and (b) forming tools. Cutting from his experience for optimum results.
tools remove metal in the form of chips, whereas The side cutting edge angle or lead angle of
forming tools either deform metal due to plastic a tool varies from O to 90° . A lead angle is
flow or shear them to new shapes. Cutting tools capable of withstanding strong initial shocks.
are the subject of this chapter. An increase in the side cutting-edge angle de
According to machining operations performed creases the chip thickness.
in a workshop, cutting tools can be classified into The end relief angle and the side relief angle
five groups-turning, milling, shaping or plan prevent rubbing from the cutting edge. Relief
ing, drilling and grinding. Chips are produced in angles vary from 7 to 14° for general turning
all these operations, but the methods of holding operaations.
the jobs are different. Each operation presents Rake angles provided on the cutting tool tend
its own problems with a variety of solutions. to determine the direction of chip flow across
the tool face. Cutting efficiency is more with
14.13 SINGLE-POINT CUTTING TOOL positive rake angles, since the tool possesses
better shearing capabilities. Positive rake angles
Single-point cutting tools are used for turning, produce more fragile cutting edge. Negative rake
boring, shaping and planing operations. Gener angles are effective when used with tool mate
ally, the tools used are made of high-speed steel riais capable of machining at high speeds. A neg
shaped from a solid bar. The introduction of ative rake angle is a necessity when taking
expensive cutting materials has made it impera interrupted cuts.
tive that the body of a tool be made from a The nose radius is important while cutting
cheaper material. These tools consist of a mild with a single-point cutting tool. It strengthens the
steel body with a tip of cutting material attached tool point by thinning the chip and �lso improves
to the cutting edge. The tip or cutting insert is surface finish. The true rake angle is the. first
heid in position by brazing. The tool bit may be functional angle of importance. The second imp
a sharpened or unsharpened block and .can be ortant angle is the angle of inclination. Common
sharpened after mounting on the shank. ly used single-point cutting tools are the solid,
BIS has standardised a large number of tools the brazed tip, the long indexable insert, and the
and their cutting angles. The tool angles are throwaway indexable insert type. The solid type
taken with reference to the cutting edge. Tool tool is made entirely of the same m.aterial. In the
angles are of piuticular importance to the tool insert type, an insert is brazed or-held mechani
designer. A convenient wa)' of specifying t.liem cally to the shank of another material. Long inde
is by using a standardised abbreviated system xable insert tools are also known as on-end or
(also called tool signature or tool character). Tool slug-type tools. They consist of a mechanical
signature also specifies the method of position toolholder and an indexable .insert with tops and
ing the cutting tool relative to the work. Tool bottoms thai can be .reground to the correct geo
signature is always placed in a definite order. metry. The throwaway or disposable insert is
The basic angles of a single-point cutting tool one of the latest developments in single-point
varies with the material of the tool and the char cutting fools.. Here, the term throwaway refers to
acteristics of the material to be machined. It also holding the tool mechanically in the tool holder.
echani<:s of Metal Cutting----- - -
---- -�il
�Top
--i----I
1 1 Side rake
1
I : angle 20°
I
Front
angle 10 °
(a) (b)
Froged boring cutter Preformed boring
Fig. 14.19 (a) Forged boring tool. (b) Preformed boring tool
14.14 BORING TOOLS of components require heavy bars suitable for

maximum feeds and speeds. The bar may be sep
Tools used for the internal machining of a pre
cially designed to produce similar workpieces.
viously drilled holes to accurate size are known
as boring tools. In general, boring tools are sin Stub boring bars are supported at one end
gle-point cutting tools, though this is not alwa while the .other end performs the operation. Dur
ys true. Boring operations generally require a ing operations these bars act as a cantilever
longer tool with a higher length to diameter ratio beam. Due to cantilever action, the stub bars used
in order to reach into the bore. This reduces the are generally short in length. Stub bars for larger
stability of the tool, leading to chattering. Such holes utilise a -tool bit held into the bar by a
a conditioon calls for additional supports or spe square slot.
cial techniques. These days commercial preformed bars are
Types of Boring Tools The selection of a
preferred in production due to the obvious draw
boring tool depends mainly upon the type and backs of stub bars. They are specially designed
characteristics of the workpiece. A workshop to produce a constant clearance angle on both
producing a variety of small jobs would prefer a the front and side cutting edges. Resharpening
bar that can be used for a large number of dif is accomplished by simply grindin,g the top face.
ferent workpieces. In this case, rapidity of ad Repeated resharpening does not affect the clear
justment and interchangeability of different tools ance angle. The basic tool geometry of a pre
is important. Production shops producing a lot formed boring bar is shown in-Fig. 14.19 (b).
·Size rake
Back rake
I
/ Shank
Fig. '14.20 General nomendatIJre of a single-point cutting tool

j202- -- - - -------Manufacturing Processes!-------- - ----
Line boring bars are also known as pilot bor IS: 6308-1971 Dimensions for side and
ing bars. These bars extend through the work face milling cutters
piece and are supported in more than one place. IS: 6353-1971 Dimensions for end mills
A general purpose line boring bar is characteris and parallel shanks
ed by a large length to diameter ratio with provsi IS: 6354-1971 Dimensions for end mills
ons for standard tool bits, block tools and boring with morse taper shanks
heads. Line boring bars are used on lathes and IS: 6256-1971 Dimensions for 50° shell
horizontal boring machines. end single-angle milling
A large number of boring bar and cutter de cutters
signs have been developed over the years. The IS: 6324-1971 Dimensions for single-an
main objective of all these designs is to secure gle milling cutters
rigidity and accuracy of cutter setting in a simple IS: 6325-1971 Dimensions for double
st possible manner. Such cutters are used on angle milling cutters
turrets, jig boring machines and milling ma IS: 6322-1971 Dimensions for concave
chines. milling cutters
Boring tools are designed to cut on the centre IS: 6323-1971 Dimensions for convex
line of the workpiece, especially when used on milling cutters
an engine lathe and other general purpose ma IS: 6255-1971 Dimensions for dove-tail
chine tools. In exceptional cases, a boring bar milling cutters with paral-
may be used above the centre line, thus increas lel shanks
ing the front relief and clearance angles. IS: 5031-1978 Dimensions for metal slit-
ting saws.
14.15 MILLING CUTTERS
Milling cutter A rotary cutting tool produced
Tool designers these days are concerned not with with one or more cutting elements called teeth.
the design of milling cutters but with the selec The teeth intermittently engage the workpiece
tion of the best cutter for a particular job. A good to remove the material.
cutter possesses specific sharpened angles for Angle milling cutter Milling cutter having
the particular job to be machined. Milling cutters cutting edges on a conical surface.
are available in the market in the form of standa
rd cutters. BIS has standardised technical supply Concave milling cutter Formed cutter shaped
to mill the convex surface of a circular contour
conditions of various milling cutters for optimum
equal to half a circle or less.
results. Some specifications of milling cutters are
as follows: Convex milling cutter Formed cutter shaped
IS: 1830-1971 Technical supply conditi to mill the concave surface of a circular contour.
ons for milling cutters Corner rounding cutter Formed cutter used
IS: 6285-1971 Dimensions for interchan for milling circular corners on a workpiece.
geability of milling cutte
Cylindrical cutters Cutter of cylindrical shape
rs and arbors with key
having teeth on its circumference.
drive
IS: 6310-1971 Dimensions for interchan End mill Cutter with teeth on periphery. and
geability of milling cutte end integral with the shank.
rs and milling arbors with Form cutter Cutter designed to give a specific
tenon drive shape to the workpiece.
-------- - - -- -
- Mechan ics oMetal
f Cutting------ - -----2031
Thread milling cutter Formed cutter shaped provided the cutter carries equal loads on each
to mill screw threads. side of its own centre line.
When a special milling cutter is required, it No specific method exists for classifying mill
is suggested that major milling cutter manufac ing cutters. However, they are classified in the
turers be consulted. They are capable of provid following ways:
ing special cutters to suit specific applications. 1. According to type of construction
The process of removing material by a mill (i) Inserted tooth cutter
ing cutter is more complex than by a single (ii) Solid cutters
point cutting tool. Cutting forces, angles of entry (iii) Carbide tip cutters
and effective tool geometry may change during
2. According to method of mounting
a milling operation, as the cutter tooth is con
stantly changing positions relative to the (i) Arbor-type cutters
workpiece. The milling process can be divided (ii) Shank-type cutters
into (a) peripheral milling and (b) face milling. (iii) Spindle mounted milling cutters
In peripheral milling, metal removal is accompli 3. According to application
shed by rotating the cutter against the direction (i) T-slot cutters
of workpiece travel, also known as up milling or (ii) Woodruff cutters
conventional milling. In down milling, the chip (iii) T-slot and woodruff cutters
thickness is minimum in the beginning and max 4. According to relief
imum at the end of cut. Face milling can be cla (i) Form cutters
ssified both as climb and conventional milling, (ii) Profile relief cutters
14.16 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING AND OBLIQUE CUTTING
The difference between orthogonal cutting and details on milling cutters, refer to chapter, "Mill
oblique cutting is shown in Table 14.3. For more ing and Milling Machines".
Table 14.3
SI. No. Onhogonal cutting Oblique cutting

1. The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an angle
the direction of tool travel. (known as inclination angle) with the normal to the
direction of tool travel.
2. The cutting edge �lears the width of the workpiece The cutting edge may or may not clear the width of
on either ends. . - - =· )he workpiece. ·-
3. Maximum chip thickness occurs at its middle. The maximum chip thickness may not occur at the
middle.
4. The chip flows over the tool face and the direca The chip flows on the tool face, · making an angle
tion ·of. the chip flow is normal to the cutting with the normal on the cutting edge. The chip flows,
edge. The chip coils in a tight, flat spiral. sideways in a long curl.
5. For the same feed and depth of cut, the force it acts on larger area and-therefore 'tool life is more..
which acts or shears the metal, acts on a smaller
area and, therefore, the heat developed per unit
area due to friction along the tool-work interface
is less and therefore the tool life is less.
6. Only two components of the cutting force is Three components of the forces (mutually perpen- · ·
'acting on the tool. These two components are per dicular) act at each o.utting edge.
pendicular to each other and can be represented
on a plane.
t204'---�------- -
- Manufacturing Processes!---- - -
- -------
14.17 TOOL SIGNATURE angles is known as tool signature. Tool geom

etry of machining a mild steel component with
Tool signature is also known as tool geometry.
a high-speed steel cutting tool is given below:
The systematic naming of different cutting tool
10 6 5 ;JS
B C D E F
Front or Side Front (end) Side End Side Nose
back rake clearance clearance cutting cutting radius
rake angle (or relief) (or relief) edge edge in mm (G)
angle (A) (B) angle (C) angle (D) angle (E) angle (F) (2.5 mm)
End cutting edge angle
\
Side cutting
edge angle
Shank
I I
Width
Side rake
angle
t
Flank
� 'Heel Base
Side relief
angle End relief Clearance
angle angle
Fig. 14.21 Different tool angles
Example 14.1 The three views of the said cutting tool are
Sketch a three-view diagram of a 25 mm square shown in Fig. 14.22.
tool- bit having tool signature of
15, 15, 10, 10, 15, 10, (3). Example 14.2
Solution The various angles of the cutting tool The useful tool life of a 18.4.1 -H.S.S. lathe cut
in order are ting tool while cutting at a speed of 18 m/min is
(i) back rake angle (15 ° ) 3 hour. Calculate-the tool life when the cutting
(ii) side rake angle (15° ) speed is 24 m/min. Taken= 0.125.
(iii) end relief angle (10° ) Solution According to Taylor's equation,
(iv) side relief angle (10°) VTn= c.
(v) e_nd cutting edge angle (15 ° ) Case (i)
(vi) side cutting edge angle (10° ) V = 18 m/min
(vii) nose radius (3 mm) T = 3 X 60 = 180 min
- - - -
- - -
- ---- ---Mechanics of Metal Cutting- --
------ - -
End cutting edge angle (10°)
Side cutting edge

Shank
angle (10°)
Nose radius (3 mm)

Top view
Side rake ,__.__,,,___ Back rake

angle (15°) angle (15°)
Shank
Side relief _.Y I

angle (10°)
End view Side view
Fig. 14.22 Tool angles
n = 0.125 (a) Shear force F5, at the shear plane is given

C =18 X (180)°-125 by
=34.44 F5 = Fe cos ¢ - F1 sin ¢, where ¢ is
Case (ii) the shear angle
Now V= 24 m/min rcosa
VTn =C tan t/>=---
= 5)
(3;�
110.12s
1- rsina
0 25
T and - · = 0.521
r- ..!_ -
tc 0.48
= 18 min. Ans.
0.521 X 0.985
tan ¢= =0.564
Example 14.3 1- 0.521 X 0.1736
During an orthogonal turning operation of c-20 ¢=32°41'
mild steel, the following data were recorded. Fs =1200 X 0.8710 - 300 X 0.4912
Chip thickness =0.48 mm =1045.2 - 119.26 =925.94 N.
Width of cut =2.0 mm
Feed =0.25 mm/rev F� tana+F1
Tangential cutting force =1200 N (b) µ=- - - -
Fe -Ft ·tana
Feed thrust force = 300 N
Cutting speed = 2.5 mis
Rake angle = 10° = 1200 X 0.1763+ 300
1200 - 300 X 0.1763
Find out
(a) the value of shear force at the shear plane, =0.446 Ans.
(b) the kinetic co-efficient of friction at the
chip-tool interface. 14.18 DRILLS AND DRILLING
Solution Given tc = 0.48 mm, b = 2.0 mm, The shape and structure of a standard twist drill
a=10 ° , t=0.25 mm Fe= 1200 N, F1 = 300 N, has not changed for the last 60 years. It consists
V = 2.5 mis.
j206-------------Manufacturing Processes I
of a shank, helical flutes that form rake angles a precision hole producing device, its accuracy
and permit escape of chips, and two cutting can be increased so much that the reaming op
edges. The major improvements in drills are the eration is eliminated.
accuracy of manufacture and drill point geom The formation of a chip by a drilling process
etry. A little change in design has increased the is quite complex, because the chip is formed by
stiffness and performance of drills. Drills are the two different tool geometries of the outer
made of high-speed steel. cutting lips and the edge. The cutting process
Drills are generally considered precision hole along the lips is like a single-point cutting tool,
producing tools. It is generally accepted that a but the cutting process at the chisel edge is quite
drill removes more metal per unit cost than any different. At the chisel edge, the metal tends to
other rotating cutting tool. With this in mind, be squeezed or extruded outward. This produces
the tool engineer should also consider the im high axial thrust, particularly in large drills. The
provement in performance through recent inno chisel edge is also responsible for high locational
vations of drill design. Though drilling is never inaccuracies.
tM::ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ,/) for the right answer (c) continuous with built-up edge
1. The type of chip produced when cutting cast (d) powered chip
llOn lS 6. Positive rake angle is provided on cutters, be
(a) continuous cause they possess the following advantage:
(b) discontinuous (a) power consumption is less
(c) continuous with built-up edge (b) cutting pressure is less
(d) depends on chemical composition. (c) heat generation is less
2. Chips with built-up edge are produced when
(d) all of the above
machining
(a) cast iron 7. Friction between chip and tool can be reduced
(b) ductile material by
(c) tough material (a) increasing shear angle
(d) hard material (b) increasing rake angle
3. During a machining operation, chips break due (c) increasing depth of cut
to (d) increasing sliding velocity
..f,l) work hardening 8. Increase in back rake angle produces the fol
(b) hardness lowing effect on surface finish
(c) toughness (a) surface finish improves
(d) plasticity (b) surface finish deteriorates
4. The type of chip produced when machining cast (c) surface finish improves/deteriorates depen
iron is
ding upon material
(a) continuous
(b) discontinuous (d) there is no such correlation
(c) continuous chip with built-up edge 9. Which one of the following is a chip removal
(d) powdered chip process
5. The type of chip produced when machining (a) rolling
ductile material is (b) forging
(a) continuous (c) broaching
(b) discontinuous (d) extrusion
- - -- - -- - ----Mechanics of Metal Cutting-- - --- -- ----�2071
10. The angle between the face of the tool and the (a) increase slightly
plane parallel to the base of the cutting tool is (b) decrease slightly
known as (c) increase rapidly
(a) rake angle (d) decrease rapidly
(b) clearance angle 13. Rake angle is provided on a cutting tool to
(c) cutting angle (a) prevent rubbing
(d) lip angle
(b) control cutting action
11. Tool signature is
v (a) a numerical method of identification of tool (c) control chip formation
(b) the plan of tool (d) control cutting forces
(c) the procedure adopted for describing vari- 14. In orthogonal, cutting, the cutting edge is
ous angles (a) perpendicular to direction of tool travel
(d) used to describe the material of tool (b) perpendicular to shear plane
12. If the nose radius of a single-point cutting tool (c) perpendicular to direction of cut
is increased, the cutting force will (d) in line with direction of cut
t.ltivmw QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term, "mechan 10. What do you understand by the feed of a ma
ics of metal cutting"? What are the various pro chine tool? What is its necessity in engineer
cesses of metal cutting? ing?
2. What is oblique cutting? How does it differ 11. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Single-point cutting tool
from orthogonal cutting? (ii) Boring tool
3. What is a chip? What are the different types of (iii) Reamers
chips? How are they formed? 12. Explain with a neat sketch the tool geometry of
4. Enumerate the process of chip formation. a milling cutter.
5. What is meant by tool geometry? What is its 13. Describe briefly the tool geometry of a drill.
importance? 14. Explain the various processes used for measur
6. List the various causes of tool failure? What ing tool life.
15. Discuss briefly the merits and demerits of long
are their remedies?
term and short-term methods of determining tool
7. What is meant by tool life? On what factors life.
does it depend? 16. Describe briefly the radioactive. technique of
8. Write the expression used for cutting tool forces. measuring tool life.
9. What is the effect of friction on tool life? 17. What do you understand by tool signature.
15.1 INTRODUCTION rate, east of chip disposal and temperature of
cutting tool. However, for practical consider
The two main aims of an engineer are to
ations, the measures most adopted are restricted
minimise the cost and maximise the rate of pro
to tool life or tool wear rate, cutting force and
duction. These two criteria are closely interre-
surface finish.
_ lated with cutting conditions like speed, . feed A material having a good machinability rat
and depth of cut. Optimisation of these condi ing, based on one consideration may have alto
tions depends much upon the cutting character gether a different rating when viewed from other
istics of materials. It is advantageous to know considerations. For example, a steel having good
the machinability characteristics of materials _to cutting speed or higher tool life may not produce
be processed, in addition to their chemical com good surface finish and a tool producing good
position and mechanical properties, for optimum surface finish for a set of conditions may produce
production. unmanageable chip. The actual value of tool life
Machinability of a material can be defined as depends upon the cutting force and finish
the property of the material which governs the obtained. It varies with machining conditions.
ease or difficulty with which it can be machined Thus, a tool showing good results under one set
under a given set of conditions. of conditions may show poor results under diff
erent conditions. This makes it almost impossible
15.2 CRITERIA FOR MACHINABILITY
to prescribe any single test or a combination of
Machinability criteria depends upon many fac tests that will give an unequivocal rating of mac
tors, such as the machine tool employed, cutting hinability. However, ratings based on actual cut
tool characteristics, work material and cutting ting tests are of definite value, as they serve as
conditions. It also depends upon the experience a first approximation of the actual behaviour of
and preference of the user for a particular op the materials during machining. A brief discus
eration. The general criteria adopted for evalu sion of various criteria for machinability is given
ating machinability are: tool life/tool wear rate below.
the cutting force or surface finish generated. Tool life is the most important parameter used
Other parameters that need consideration are for assessing machinability. It is generally ex
torque and thrust during machining, penetration pressed in terms of cutting speed (as all other
- ----- - - --- - -
-Machinability-- - - - -- - -----2091
variables are constant) of which it is a function. The tangential cutting force is directly related
Tool life varies inversely with cutting speed. The to the rake angle. Radial and axial forces are
predetermined tool life is ascertained on the ba altered by the nose radius. The surface finish of
sis of comparison of the machinability of mate the workpiece is greatly improved by providing
rials. The cutting speed is a direct indication of proper angles to the cutting tool. When making
the cost of production. Thus, cutting speed or interrupted cuts on a milling machine, rake
tool life provides a firm basis for the compari angles need special consideration and must be
son of various materials. Machinability ratings capable of withstanding shock loading. This can
based on cutting speed of commonly used stan be achieved by adopting a negative rake angle.
dard annealed steels vary from 30 to 220. Stain Tools like end mills cannot be supported rigidly.
less steels are designated by the letters A, B, C Light cuts are suggested in such cases to reduce
and D for machinability ratings, implying excel cutting forces and cutter deflection.
lent, good, fair and poor machinability, respec The relative machinability of some commonly
tively. The machinability rating for brass varies used materials is given in Table 15.1.
form 20 to 100, where 100 is the machinability
rating of free cutting brass. Table 15.1 Relative machinability of some commonly
used materials
The cutting force criterion is important, where
it is necessary to limit the value of cutting force 1. Magnesium and its alloys
in view of the rigidity of the machine tool and 2. Aluminium and its alloys
to avoid vibrations during machining. A higher 3. Zinc and its alloys
4. Copper Excellent
cutting speed requires a more rigid and bigger
machine tool. It increases the cost of the ma 5. a-brass, cartridge brass
6. Free cutting sheet brass
chine and thus the parts produced. The higher
7. Gun metal
the cutting speed under a set of cutting condi 8. Bearing bronze
tions, the lower is the machinability index. 9. Guilding metal, red brass
The surface finish of the component is an 10. Gun metal
important criterion. A given material may allow 11. Silicon bronze, manganese
higher cutting speeds, or induce low cutting bronze, lead phosphor bronze
forces, but may produce poor surface finish. Poor 12. Grey cast iron Good
13. Spheroidal graphite iron
surface finish not only increases rejection, it also
14. Malleable cast iron
has an important bearing on the cost of the com- 15 Muntz metal
. ponent. The better the machinability of a com 16. Sulphur steel/free cutting steel
ponent, the better is the surface finish produced 17. Wrought iron
on it. 18. Copper-aluminium alloys
lJ
Tool material is also an important criterion 19. Low-carbon steel
for machinability. Any cutting operation can be 20. Annealed chromium steel
21. Low-alloy annealed steel
performed efficiently only after a selection of Fair
22. Stainless steel
the proper tool material and tool geometry. Tool 23. Nickel steel
life and specific cutting speed are dependent 24. High-speed steel
l
upon tool material. The selection of a particular Poor
25. Hot die steel
tool material is characterised by the work mate 26. Stellite
rial, machine tool used, wear resistance and cost 27. White cast iron
28. Carbides Unmachinable
of tool material. Tool geometry has a marked
29. Carborundum
effect on tool life.
1210-------------Manufacturing Processes I
15.3 EVALUATION OF METALLIC 15.4 TOOL LIFE

MATERIALS FOR MACHINABILITY A cutting tool gets blunt after operation for a
In any machining operation, the tool first pen certain period of time and cannot perform the
etrates the surface of the workpiece and then desired cutting function. It is said that the tool
the process of chip formation starts. During the has finished its life. After resharpening, it can
machining operation, the chip formed should be used again. Thus, tool life is defined as the
break readily. This can be done by providing a time between resharpenings or tool replacements.
built-in breaker in the from of a weak and brittle
constituent. Machinability does not merely 15.5 TOOL MATERIALS
depend upon the softness of a material but also A breakthrough in the machining of metals was
on the geometry of the cutting tools. made by the discovery of heat treatment process
Practical results have shown that a correla of high-speed steel cutting tools by Taylor. The
tion exists between the cutting speed and strength use of these cutting tools facilitates higher metal
of a material as shown in Fig. 15.1. Under con removal rates, mainly due to improved tool wear
trolled conditions, there is very little difference behaviour. Since Taylor's discovery, there has
in the machinability of cast and rolled steels, been intensive research work in the field of met
carbon steel, acidic and basic steels, provided the allurgical science and technology. This has led
hardness and the tensile strength are the same. to the development of new tool materials like
cast alloys, cemented carbides, sintered oxides
80
and ceramics.
The proper selection of tool material is not a
simple phenomenon, as no set of standard rules
t 60 can be laid down for it. Many text books, tech
nical publications and catalogues are available
to a tool designer for translating information to
-o
40 suit particular requirements. Frequently this in
formation may not match with a particular job.
(I)
(I)
In such cases he is forced to rely on past experi
! : 1L-,,
ence. Results are often achieved by trial-and
error. In many cases, the number of failures may
-r, -r, -r, -,-, -,-, --,,,---,,,---,,-- be quite high, especially when dealing with new
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 tooling materials. Past experience and basic
Tensile strength (N/mm2)---+- knowledge enables a designer to make optimum
Fig. 15.1 The curve drawn for feed = I mm/rev and use of materials.
depth of cut = 4 mm SISI and SAI have classified tool steels into
the following groups:
The following points need consideration while 1. Water hardening tool steels
evaluating the machinability of a material: · 2. Shock resisting tool steels
1. Life of cutting tool 3. Oil hardening cold-work tool steel
2. Cutting forces and power consumption 4. Air hardening medium alloy cold-work tool
3. Rate of metal removal under standard force steels
4. Surface finish of the component 5. High-carbon high-chromium cold-work
5. Size and form of chip. tool steels
----- ---- -----Machinability---- ---------�2111
6. Chromium hot-work tool steels Hot-work chromium tool steels These steels
7. Tungsten hot-work tool steels contain 5.0% chromium with varying amounts
8. Molybdenum hot-work tool steels of tungsten, molybdenum and vanadium. The
9. Tungsten high-speed tool steels carbon percentage varies from 0.35 to 0.55. They
10. Molybdenum high-speed tool steels are capable of withstanding high working tem
11. Low-alloy special purpose tool steels peratures and are used for hot forging dies, hot
12. Carbon tungsten tool steels extrusion dies, hot shears, die casting dies and
13. Low-carbon mould steels plastic moulding dies.
14. Other alloy tool steels. Tungsten hot-work tool steels These steels
Water hardening tool steels These are also contain up to 18% tungsten and 2-12% chro
known as carbon steels and are the oldest type mium. These alloys retain their hardness at high
of tool steels. They mainly contain carbon, with temperatures and. are used in hot working dies.
small amounts of chromium and vanadium as Molybdenum hot-work tool steels Molybde
alloying elements. Alloying elements are mainly num acts as a cheaper substitute of tungsten and
added to these steels to increase hardenability. is often added to hot-work tool steels. Molybde
The carbon content in these steels varies from num hot-work steels contain 5.0-9.5% molyb
0.6 to 1.0%. denum, 4% chromium and 1.5-6.5% tungsten.
Shock resisting tool steels These steels pos High-speed tool steels High-speed tool steels
sess good shock resistance and good toughness possess good red hardness. Commonly used
at normal temperatures. They contain little car high-speed steel contains 18% tungsten, 4%
bon. Hardness is usually less than 60 Re after chromium and 1% vanadium. The cobalt per
hardening and tempering. centage in high speed steels varies from 2 to 12.
Oil hardening cold-work steels Oil hardening These steels possess good abrasion resistance.
cold-work steels are preferred over water hard Special purpose tool steels Steels at SL Nos.
ening tool steels. They possess good hardenabil 11-14 are known as special purpose tool steels.
ity and show smaller dimensional changes during Low-alloy tool steel contains small quantities of
heat treatment. tungsten and chromium. Nickel is added to in
Air hardening tool steels The properties of crease toughness and hardenability. Carbon tung
air hardening tool steels are similar to oil hard sten tool steels possess high wear resistance.
ening tool steels, but they give better results. They are used for low-shock applications, like
These steels mainly contain manganese, chro wire drawing dies and paper cutting knives.
mium, molybdenum and vanadium as the chief 15.6 VARIABLES AFFECTING
alloying elements. They are suitable for making
MACHINABILITY
intricate tool shapes.
High-carbon high-chromium cold-work steels Many variables, such as the design of the ma
These steels contain 12% chromium and 1.0% chine, the cutting tool, cutting conditions and
molybdenum. The carbon percentage varies from material of the workpiece have a marked influ
1 to 2.35, but commonly used steel contains 2.0% ence on the machinability.
carbon. These steels possess high wear resis Machine Variables
tance and deep hardening properties. They have 1. Power and torque of the machine
extremely low dimensional changes during heat . 2. Accuracy of the machine
treatment. 3. Rigidity of the machine.
l21- -Manufacturing Processes I
� - - - -- - - - - - --
-- - - - - -
- � -----
Tool Vari;ibles pends upon many variables, such as work mate

1. Material of the tool- high speed steel, car rial, machining conditions, wear resistance and
bides, ceramics, etc. cost of the cutting tool.
2. Geometry of the tool Proper tool geometry is necessary for perfect
3. Nature of cutting operation. machining. The geometry of a cutting tool de
pends upon the work material and machine tool
Cutting Conditions
to be used. Standard tool geometries should be
1. Speed of cut
used to get optimum results. The clearance angle
2. Feed of tool
should be of the size required. Different para
3. Depth of cut.
meters, such as nose radius, type of tool and
The efficiency of a machine tool depends
operations to be performed on the machine tool
upon the rigidity of the machine and work hold
have a marked effect on tool life. The rake angle
ing devices. The machine tool must be rigid and
and side cutting edge angles also effect tool life.
capable of withstanding the cutting forces. The Rake angle, relief angle, side cutting edge angle,
surface finish obtained on rigid machines is end cutting edge angle and nose radius also
good. Lower values of cutting speed and feed considerably effect the machinability and surface
also produce good surface finish. finish of workpieces. In a turning operation, a
Tool material and geometry form the basis of tool is in continuous touch with the workpiece.
a cutting operation. A machining operation can Tool life is generally higher in this case than for
not be performed efficiently with a tool of im a tool having interrupted cuts. as in a milling
proper material and geometry. Optimum cutting operation. In face milling operation, the angle
conditions of the tool show good tool life. The of engagement should be less than 20° . If 'the
different materials used for tools are high-car angle is more than 30° , the tool fails prematurely.
bon steels, high-speed steels, carbides, ceramics In intermittent cutting, a tool is subjected to
and diamonds. The selectJ.on of proper tool de- variable forces that reduce tool life.
fflUI.,TIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
L --�� ··-=-�--=--�-
Mark ( ") for the right answer (b) lower carbon content in steel
1. Machinability of a component (c) formation of a graphite in cast iron·
· (a) increases with increase in hardness (d) increase in sulphur content in steel
(b) decreases with increase in hardness 4. Most machinable metal is one, which
(c) decreases with increase in carbon content (a) forms continuous chips
(d) decreases with increase in chromium con- (b) shear angle is maximum
tent (c) length of shear plane is maximum
2. Machinability of a material depends on (d) permits maximum metal removaller min-
(a) tool life ute
5. During any machining operation, removal of
(b) cutting forces acting on a tool
metal takes place by
(c) clearance angle (a) shearing forces
(d) its microstructure and physical properties (b) tearing of chip
3. Machinability tends to decrease with (c) distortion of metal
·· (a) higher carbon content in steel (d) compression process
-----------------Machinability--- -----------2131
6. Which is the correct order of machinability of (b) magnesium alloys, cast iron, medium-car
metals bon steel
(a) magnesium alloys, low-carbon steel, grey (c) mild steel, magnesium alloys, cast iron
cast iron (d) cast iron, magnesium alloys, mild steel
1. What is machinability? 5. Discuss the importance of the following vari

2. Enumerate the criterion for assessing the ma ables on tool life:
chinability of materials. (a) Machine variable (b) Tool variables
3. Define machinability. What are the factors on 6. List the various factors on which the efficiency
which the machinability of a material depends? of a tool depends.
4. What are the different types of tool materials?
16.1 INTRODUCTION materials should be economical too. Selection
of the cutting tool material and geometry of the
The main demand of modern manufacturing cutting tool calls for a good knowledge of the
industry is the development of improved machine material to be machined, production rate requi
· tools, cutting tools, and production processes. red, rigidity of the setup, accuracy and surface
The cutting tool is one of the important ele finish of the component, etc.
ments of any machining operation. Tremendous
improvement in tool materials has taken place 16.2 SELECTION OF TOOL MATERIALS
during the last 60 years. Demands of economic
competition have motivated a lot of research in The following factors govern the selection of
the field of metal cutting. This has led to the the tool material:
evolution of a large number of tool materials. 1. The material to be machined
Rapid progress has been made from plain car 2. Condition and form of materials to be cut,
bon tool steels to the development of high-speed i.e. whether casting, forging, drawn bar,
steels, cast alloy, carbides and ceramics. These bar stock, etc.
materials have facilitated the application of high 3. Rate of production
cutting speeds at each stage of development, due 4. Quantity of parts to be machined
to better cutting properties of the tool materials. 5. Machine tool on which a part is to be ma
Methods of retaining and presenting the cutting chined, i.e. lathe, milling, grinding, etc.
edges have also shown great improvements. 6. Surface finish and the degree of dimen
Different types of tools are used for various sional accuracy required
types of cutting jobs. Cutting needs vary and 7. Type of operations, whether skilled, un
making tools for different cutting needs is in skilled, or semi-skilled
deed a tough job. A large variety of tool materi 8. Rigidity of the machine tool.
als have been developed but none· of them is 16.3 PROPERTIES OF CUTTING TOOL
suited to all cutting needs and can be consid MATERIALS
ered superior from all angles. A particular tool
material has to be selected according to a par The suitability of a cutting tool material in a
ticular requirement. Much of it depends upon given machining application is determined by
the service to which it is to be subjected. The three important properties:
- - - ---------Cutting Tool Materials-- --------- -
-2151
1. Capacity to withstand wear resistance. This 16.4.1 High-Carbon Steels

property is necessary to enable the cutting
tool to retain its shape and cutting effi These are plain carbon tool steels contammg
ciency. almost negligible quantities of alloying elements.
2. Red hardness property of a tool material. Very small quantities of silicon, manganese and
It is the property of a tool to retain its chromium are added to increase the hardness
hardness at high temperatures. At the tool and refine the grain size. The tool steels contain
chip, interface temperature of the order of generally 0.70-1.50% carbon, and the proper
550 ° C is generated during cutting. The tool ties of the tool steels vary with its carbon per
should not lose its hardness at high tem centage. Low-carbon steels are tough, and
peratures. shock-resistant, whereas high-carbon steels are
3. The tool should have sufficient toughness abrasion-resistant having the ability to maintain
to enable it to withstand force, like shocks a keen cutting edge. The carbon tool steels are
associated with interrupted cuts and to pre easy to machine, they develop a keen cutting
vent chipping of the fine cutting edge. The edge, and have a high surface hardness with a
bearing down of the chips on the tool tough core. High-carbon steels can be divided
causes pressure on the tool. Toughness of into two classes: (i) oil hardening carbon tools
the tool material resists this pressufe. and (ii) water hardening carbon tools, depend
High-speed steels start losing hardness at a ing upon the method of quenching during the
temperature of 550 ° C. Carbides, ceramics and heat treatment. Oil hardening carbon tools con
diamond retain their hardness at very high tem tain additional amount of manganese and other
peratures. Cast alloys, ceramics and cast cobalt elements.
alloys completely recover their hardness after The main drawback of high-carbon tool steels
cooling, whereas carbon steel and high-speed is that they have low hot hardness and they lose
steels lose their hardness. Recovery hardness is
their hardness rapidly at 200 ° C and do not re
the hardness of a material measured at room
temperature after exposure of the material to an gain it at room temperature. In order to achieve
elevated temperature. Several other properties the hard and wear resistance properties of tools,
like coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal various alloying elements like tungsten, chro
conductivity, grindability, weldability, hardenabi mium, vanadium, etc. are added to tool steels.
lity also need consideration when selecting a This results in the formation of very hard and
tool material. complex carbides like V4C3 , WC, W4C, Cr2Co,
etc.
16.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TOOL
MATERIALS Table 16.1 High-carbon tool steels
The materials available for making cutting tools Carbon percentage Applications
are classified as follows:
0.75-1.0 Cold chisels, press tools, wrenches,
1. High-carbon steels
jaws of vices, pneumatic drill bits
2. High-speed steels l.0-Ll Large taps, reamers, wood working
3. Stellite tools, mandrels, railway springs
4. Tungsten carbides 1.15 Drills, reamers, small taps, twist
5. Ceramics drills, shearing blades
6. Non-ferrous alloys L3 Turning tools, f-tles, shearing blades
7. Diamond 1.4 . Files, razors, saws, wire drawing
8. Miscellaneous materials dies
12161, ----. -------------Manufacturing Processes I
16.4.2 High-Speed Steels der to reduce the risk of cracking. The annealed
structure is soft and shows carbide globules in
Though the evolution of high-speed steel took
the matrix of fine pearlite.
place in the year 1860, with Muschet's self-hard
ening tungsten manganese steel, little was known Hilrdening On heating to 800 ° C, high-speed
about it till 1900, when Taylor and White deve steel forms austenite that contains only 0.2%
loped the forerunner of modern high-speed steels. carbon. If quenching is carried out at this tem
The addition of tungsten, chromium was found perature, martensite is produced, which tempers
to be essential. These steels resisted tempering readily and has no advantage over carbon steels.
up to 600° C. It facilitates the tool to cut at speeds More carbides dissolve on heating and the
quenching produces structures of increasing red
of 30-50 m/min with its nose at a dull red tem
hardness, due to the effect of the large amount
perature. Tungsten imparts the property of red
of alloying elements in the solution. Even at the
hardness to steels. They retain their cutting
maximum quenching temperature, only 0.4%
properties even at red hot temperatures.
carbon is dissolved and the remaining forms
Generally, high-speed steels contain 18% complex carbides. In order to attain cutting effici
tungsten, 3-5% chromium and 0.6-0.7% car ency, it is necessary that the maximum amount
bon. Other elements like vanadium, molybde of carbon and alloying elements must be dissolv
num and cobalt are frequently added to modern ed in the austenite. So quenching is carried out
high-speed steels, Vanadium improves the cut from 1260 ° C to 1300° C. While hardening high
ting qualities of the tool and increases the ten speed steels, the tools are carefully preheated to
dency towards air hardening. Cobalt raises the 850° C, then heated rapidly to the quenching tem
solidus, temperature and enables higher harden perature of 1260° C to 1300° C and quenched in
ing temperature to be used. 'Secondary hard oil or air blast. No soaking is done at the hard
ness' is marked in such steels and it permits the ening temperature but quenching is done as soon
use of deep cuts at fast speeds. as the temperature is attained. Soaking at this
Anneilling ofhigh-speed steel Annealing of temperature results in excessive grain growth
high-speed steel is carried out at 850 ° C for about and burning of the steel.
4 hours followed by very slow cooling. The steel Tempering Quenched high-speed steel con
must be protected against oxidation. After forg tains a sufficient amount of austenite which is
ing, the tools should be heated to 680 ° C for half softer than m�ensite. It is decomposed by sub
an hour and air cooled before hardening in or- zero cooling to 80 ° C or by tempering at
Table 16.2 Chisel steel
Percentage Composition Heat Treatment Forge Uses

C Ni Cr w Temp. (° C) (OC)
0.4 1.0 A.820, H 800 WQ 1050 Coal cutter picks
T.280 to 350
0.5 2.0 A.850. OQ 860 1000 Chisels and other tools
T.250 to 300
0.4 1-8 2 A.860, OQ 850, 1000 Pneumatic chisels
T.250 to 300 1100 & punches
0.4 3 0.6 A.860, OQ 860, 95� Hans tools resistant to
T.250 to 320 1000 shock, chisels, drifts
A-Annealing; H-Hardening; T-Tempering, OQ-Oil Quench.
- -- --- - - - - Cutting Tool Materials-
- ------ - - --217)
Table 16.3 Typical compositions of high-speed steels
C% W% Cr% V% Mo% Co% Hardening temp. ( ° C) Remarks

0.6 14 3-5 1 OQ 1250, Temp Cheap
2 X 560
0.6 18 4 1 OQ 1280 Temp. Widely used
2 X 560
0.7 17 4-5 1-5 4 1300 A.C. Temp. Expensive, used on
3 X 560 hard materials
0.7 20 4-5 l lO 1300 A.C. Temp. Expensive, used on
3 X 560 hard materials
0.65 14 4-5 1 0,5 1300 A.C. Temp. Cheap
2 X 560
0.80 6 4-5 6.0 1250 OQ Temp. Mo acts. as cheaper
2 X 540. snbstitute of tungsten
Note: OQ-Oil Quench; A.C.-Air Cool.
Temp. 2 x, and Temp. 3 x; means double and triple tempering, respectively.
520-560 ° C. Tempering at 340-410° C slightly not respond to heat treatment. As cast, it is very
reduces the hardness but increases the toughness. brittle and cannot be machined. It is only ground
Tempering at 450-560° C increases the hardness to final shape.
to a value which is greater than the hardness It is used in the form of tips of turning tools.
obtained by quenching. This phenomenon is For use, it is fitted to the tool shanks of 0.45-
known as secondary hardening. Double temper 0.60% carbon steel by brazing. It can be held as
ing at 520-560° C further increases the hardness a bit in special tool bit holders. The stellite re
and the cutting properties. sists shock loads better than carbides and can
also be welded. It is also used in inserted type
16.4.3 Stellite
milling cutters in the form of blades.
It is a non-ferrous cutting tool material. Its main
constituents are cobalt, tungsten, chromium, and
16.4.4 Cemented Tungsten Carbides
carbon. All these are carbide formers. Other car- Tungsten carbide forms the basis of almost all
. bide forming elements like molybdenum,. tan the cutting tool alloys. It was first produced in
talum or boron are also added to it to ascertain an electric arc furnace in 1880 by Mission. Be
certain required cutting properties. cause of its low tensile strength, it was not used
The name stellite has been derived from the as a tool material at that time. An alloy named
word stella (meaning a star), because it gives a Widia, which was as hard as the original tung
high lustre when polished. In properties, stellite sten carbide, was marketed by the Krupps Com
is similar to modem cemented carbides. A typic pany of Germany in 1926. An important feature
al composition of stellite contains 40-50% coba of Widia was the presence of enough tungsten
lt, 15-35% chromium and 12-25% tungsten. It to be used as a cutting tool. The name Widia is
has a Rockwell hardness of 60-62 Re and can be derived from the German name Wie Diamant
cast to any shape. It cannot be rolled or forged. which means like a diamond.
After casting to shape, stellite needs no heat As all carbide cutting tools are manufactured
treatment as it gives good cutting properties and by a process known as sintering, these tools are
has a high value of hardness. Actually, it does also called sintered carbide tools are suitable
j218--- - --------Manufacturing Processes I
for high production rates. These tools give a The micro-constituents found in carbide tools
better finish to jobs and need grinding less are:
often than high-speed steels. Tungsten carbide (a) Tungsten carbide (WC) not affected by sin
is produced by the powder metallurgy technique. tering.
Very fine ground tungsten powder is mixed with (b) Tungsten carbide (WC) with dissolved co
cobalt powder, put in a proper die and moulded balt during sintering and precipitated on to
by pressing. Sintering is done under pressure existing crystals to form angular particles
and the tool is made to the final shape. Sintering on cooling.
is done in an electric furnace, in an atmosphere (c) Brittle complex carbide of tungsten and
of hydrogen at a temperature of 1530°C. When cobalt generally (Co3 W3C). It promotes
the material cools, it is taken out and ground to brittleness in the alloys.
the final shape. (d) Cobalt binder with a little WC in solution,
Many alloying elements such as titanium, tan crystals are large but the boundaries are
talum, chromium, and molybdenum are added difficult to itch.
to it to increase the hardness of tungsten car (e) Saturated solution of TiC with WC (upto
bide. Cobalt is added to increase the toughness 75%), present as rounded grains.
of materials. Titanium and tantalum resist the Tough sintered carbide tools need little grind
sticking of steel chips or their welding to the ing, and are suitable for high production rate,
carbide tool top, and also help in preventing the machines on which they are to be used must
erosion by the chips and formation of grooves be capable of producing at high-speed and rigid
at the tool top. Some typical compositions of in foundation. These must have the true running
carbides are given in Table 16.4. of the machine spindle, ample rigid holding ar
All carbide cutting tools have very good red rangement and adequate holding of the tool with
hardness and can retain their cutting edge upto the minimum of overhang.
a temperature of 1200°C. Carbide tools are very
hard and difficult to grind. They can only be 16.4,5 Ceramics
grounded by diamond wheels or silicon carbide Sintered oxides or cemented carbides such as
wheels. These tools are useful and can be used magnesium oxide, aluminium oxid.§��ili.f.QD�
at speeds two to three times the speed of high bides, boron carbides, titanium carbides, and ti
speed steel cutting tools. tanium borides are knm as ceramics. These
Table 16.4 Some typical composition of carbides
WC TiC Co Hardness VPN Uses Properties

14/19 1450/1650
1450/1650
7 1450/1600 Slow cutting
4 1700/18-00 Cutting of elfonite chilled iron rolls·
ferrous. materials
94 6 1550/1700 Cast iron & non- Copper, brass, aluminium, drawing dies
ferrous materials and cast iron
89 i1 1200/1250- Cast iron & non- Rock drill bits, hard wood
ferrous materials
. 85 15 1100/1200 Cast iron & non- Large drawing dies and extrusion nozzle
ferrous materials
--- - - --- ---- -
Cutting Tool Materials--------------2191
materials are usually made by sintering the ele 1. It should be firmly held in the tool holder.
ments at extremely high temperatures, approach 2. The workpiece should be held rigidly.
ing that of pottery ceramics. However, the 3. The machine should be free from vibra-
ceramics do not contain any clay and thus can tions.
not be treated as pottery. Ceramic tools were
developed during the Second World War be 16.4.6 Diamond
cause of the shortage of tungsten carbide. Then Diamond is the hardest substance known and
much research work was done in the USSR, the_ offers great resistance to abrasion. It is so costly
USA and Europe in the field that finally led to that its application to metal, machining is not
the production of ceramics.
economical until special circumstances warrant
Adv,1nt,1ges it. It is widely used for cutting hard materials
1. Faster machining rate as compared to the which cannot be machined with other cutting
carbides. materials like dressing or turning the grinding
2. Can machine a wide range of materials.
wheels, finishing operations on the bearings, hard
3. Can be used for rough as well as fine cuts.
4. Have poor thermal conductivity and refrac rubber, cutting glass and for non-ferrous metals
toriness due to which, the cutting edge like aluminium, magnesium, copper and bearing
remains cooler even when the chip is red metals. Diamond is also used for machining non
hot. metals like carbon, plastics and rubber. Diamond
5. Cutting of hardened steels is easier than tools are also used for wire drawing dies, grind
with carbide tools. ing and lapping.
6. Ceramics give better finish as compared to Diamond is suitable for cutting at very high
carbides. speeds. The machines on which these tools are
7. Ceramics have high compressive strength. to be used must be free from vibrations and
8. These are resistant to oxidation and acid play. A constant supply of lubricant is needed
corrosion. where it is used. Diamond tips are brazed on a
9. They do not weld ru_id form built-up edge. medium carbon steel shank and used for cutting
10. No coolant is required during machining. purposes. It can be used at speeds of 500-3000
11. Ceramics are___chemically inert. rpm. Diamond tools work satisfactorily without
12. Coefficient of friction is less, thus less
a coolant as they are chemically inert, having a
power is required for machining with
ceramic tools. low value of thermal conductivity. Thus, it re
mains, cool at very high speeds and can with
Dis,1dvantages stand thermal shocks. Inspite of the above
1. Ceramics are brittle materials.
properties, it is better to use a soluble oil cool
2. They have low toughness and little impact
resistance. ant for clearing away the chips. Diamond par
3. Ceramics are not fit for brazing. ticles embedded in a suitable matrix are used
Ceramic tools are prepared by mixing alu for specialised applications.
minium oxide powder with other oxides and Bort diamonds are the highest quality dia
binding material. After proper mixing, the mix monds, and are used for finishing purposes.
ture is pressed and sintered. Ceramic tools are These are found in Brazil and South Africa. A
used by clamping to tool holders, because they slightly inferior quality is used for cutting
cannot be brazed. non-metallic substances like rubber, plastics, etc.
Prec,1utions As ceramic tools are brittle, the Diamond tools should be stored carefully in felt
following precautions should be observed dur lined boxes to avoid deterioration and chipping
ing machining: when not in use.
!220,:-------------Manufacturing Processes! --
- ----------
16.4,7 Non-ferrous Alloys Rubber is used as a pad for drawing, blank

ing and forming.
Ceramics, stellite and tungsten carbides are com
monly used tool materials, but sometimes alloys Masonite is an organic cellulose. It is used
of bismuth and zinc are also used for making for making special purpose dies like thin gauge
tools like punches and dies. They are cast to metal dies. It is light in weight, hard and cannot
shapes and machined to get various forms for be scratched easily.
cutting purposes. Due to their low hardness, they Plastics have good resistance to chemicals,
are rarely used in industry. They can easily be moisture, weak acids and atmosphere. They are
fabricated and possess a self-sharpening prop used as tool material in the aircraft industry for
erty as they have a tendency to flow towards the making jigs, fixtures, dies and punches. For spe
cut. cial applications, they are used in combination
with other materials.
16.4.8 Miscellaneous Tool Materials
Compressed and <lensed hard wood in con
Materials like rubber, plastics, masonite and junction with phenolic acids is used for making
compressed wood are also used as tool materials. jigs and fixtures for aluminium components.
\MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( .f) for the right answer (c) tungsten (d) vanadium
1. The main constituent that controls the proper- 6. The main element of hot die steel is
ties of steel is (a) manganese (b) chromium
(a) carbon (b) manganese (c) tungsten (d) molybdenum
(c) silicon (d) nickel 7. Commonly used stellite contains
2. The main constituent of high-speed steel is (a) 10-15%· cobalt, 60-70% tungsten and
(a) carbon (b) manganese remainder nickel
(c) tungsten (d) vanadium (b) 40-50% cobalt, 15-35% chromium and
3. The percentage of tungsten in commonly used
remainder tungsten
high-speed steel is
(c) 40-60% tungsten, 20-30% molybdenum
(a) 6 (b) 10
(c) 18 (d) 24 and remainder silicon
4. Tungsten imparts the following property to (d) 40-60% nickel and remainder chromium
high-speed steel: 8. The main micro-constituent of carbide tools is
(a) work hardening (b) age hardening (a) tungsten carbide
(c) cold shortness (d) red hardness (b) chromium carbide f
5. The main element of cold die steel is (c) molybdenum carbide

(a) manganese (b) chromium (d) iron carbide
tR.Evmw QUESTIONS
1. Describe in brief the various types of tool ma 2. What factors govern the selection of tool mate
terials used in industry. rials?
�
-------------- - ----
-Cutting Tool Materials - -- - - -- '
3. Write short notes on the following tool mater 5. Differentiate between high-carbon steels, high
ials: speed steels, tungsten carbides and ceramic tools.
(a) high-speed steel 6. Write short notes on:
(b) tungsten carbides (a) ceramics
( c) ceramics (b) non-ferrous tool materials
4. Compare the properties of high-carbon steel (c) ste!lite
with high-speed steel tools. (d) diamond
-
17.1 INTRODUCTION made to operate at high speeds. Practical

applications have shown that for high-speed
A variety of operations such as turning, milling,
machining, it is only the cooling action that is
shaping, planing, honing, drilling, grinding, significant, the lubricating action being very
drawing, and blanking are carried out in a work small. The effectiveness of cooling action depen
shop. These cutting operations produce an ds upon the physical access of the fluids to the
enormous amount of heat. Heat is generated due cutting zone.
to plastic flow of metal in the form chips and Water base fluids are best suited for cooling
friction at the point of contact. Heat is also pro action, due to their high specific heat and ther
duced when two or more mating surfaces are in mal conductivity. The rate of transfer of heat by
motion. The heat produced is not only harmful water base fluids is two to three times more than
to the mating surfaces, but increases the tem by oils. It may be noted here that the cooling
perature of the tool and renders it useless after a efficiency of the cutting fluid is not decided
short period of operation. It lowers productivity solely by thermal conductivity. Other factors that
by increasing the time taken for tool sharpen need to be considered are wetting action, cool
ing, setting, and machining. Thus, in machining ing action and vapour formation of fluids. For
operations, the use of coolants is indispensible, high-speed machining, a very effective cooling
particularly after the development of high-speed method is to pass a liquid coolant through the
production technology. These fluids are variously shank of the tool to the cutting zone.
called lubricants, coolants, or cutting fluids. Any
substance applied to a tool during a cutting op 17.3 FUNCTIONS OF A CUTTING FLUID
eration to facilitate the removal of chips and The main functions of a cutting fluid are as
increase tool life is known as a cutting fluid. follows:
1. To provide lubrication effect to the tool,
17.2 COOLING ACTION OF CUTTING
workpiece and chip.
FLUIDS
2. To minimise friction at the mating surfaces
Chemically active cutting fluids have little and thus prevent rapid increase of tempera
effect on cutting efficiency when machines are ture.
--------- -------CuttingFluids:-------�- - ---2231
3. To dissipate the heat generated during dif leum-based fluids. Another method of classifi
ferent machining operations to keep the cation of fluids is according to their state, i.e.
tool and workpiece cool. solid, liquid and gaseous.
4. To wash away the chips, scale and dust In the market, mineral oils are sold under dif
from and in-between the working surfaces. ferent trade names. Thus, it is necessary to refer
5. To improve surface finish and machinabil to the manufacturer's catalogue to know about
ity. the various types of cutting fluids and their char
6. To protect the finished surface from oxi acteristics. We now discuss lubricants commonly
dation and corrosion. used in machining.
7. To reduce cutting forces. Minerals oils Mineral oils are blended with
8. To decrease wear and tear of the tool and base cutting oils to obtain the required proper
increase tool life. ties for different machining operations. They are
17.4 QUALITIES OF A GOOD CUTTING generally hydrocarbons having complex struc
FLUID tures. The main constituents of these oils are
paraffins, naphthalene and aromatics. They are
A good cutting fluid must satisfy the following mainly used for light cutting operations. The
requirements: selection of mineral oils mainly depends upon
1. It should be chemically stable. the flash point, cost, viscosity and lubricating
2. It should not have any adverse effect on effects.
the operator, tool, workpiece or machine.
Straight fatty acids Lard oil is the most com
3. It must possess a low evaporation rate and monly used variety of fatty acid. These lubri
must not fume.
cants are not used currently, firstly due to their
4. It must carry away the heat generated dur harmful effects on the operator, and secondly
ing the process and thus cool the tool and
due to the gummy characteristics caused between
the workpiece rapidly.
the tool and workpiece.
5. It must impart anti-welding properties to
the tool and workpiece. Sulphurised or chlorinated cutting oils These
6. It must provide sufficient lubrication be- lubricants are very suitable where high chip bear
tween the tool and workpiece. ing pressure is required, such as the machining
7. It should not deteriorate in storage. of tough alloy steels. These lubricants are ob
8. It should have a high flash point. tained by chemical processes in which sulphur
9. It must prevent the electrochemical effects and chlorine are added to minerals. They have
of corrosion. good corrosion resistance and good cooling prop
10. It should be suitable for a variety of cut erties.
ting tools. Waxes Waxes commonly used as lubricants
11. It should not present fire or accident haz are (a) paraffin wax, (b) soft wax and (c) natu
ards. ral or bees wax. Waxes compounded with fatty
12. It should cause no skin irritations. acids and soaps are also used as lubricants. They
are mainly used for rolling, extrusion and wet
17.5 CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING coating on mould surfaces.
FLUIDS
Compounded emulsions A colloidal disper
Cutting fluids used in machining can be classi sion of one liquid in another is called an emul
fied as (a) petroleum-based, and (b) non-petro- sion. A compounded emulsion contains some
r ,�
Cutting Fluids in Metal Working
Petroleum-based cutting oils Non-petroleum-based lubricants
I
l. Straight mineral oil Solids/Suspensions/Emulsions Liquids Air and forced gases
2. Compounded oil i::
t;:'
3. Heavy refined oil 2
4. Waxes 1. Graphite suspensions Water soluble Petroleum soluble ;:!.
I I
::,
5. Paraffins 2. Molybdenum disulphide
O<l
a·
"O
6. Mineral oil mixed with emulsion/suspension
fatty acids 3. Salt suspension 1. Synthetic oils I. Mineral oils (I)
Cl)
2. Soluble oils 2. Emulsions

Cl)
7. Sulpho-chlorinated oil 4. Stick waxes (I)
Cl)
3. Soap solution 3. Chemically active emulsions

4. Salt solution 4. Suspensions in oils
5. Chemically active
emulsions
Fig. 17.1 Classification of Cutting Fluids

-----------------Cutting Fluids----------------225j
special solid additives. Different compounds are machine shops. Liquid salts are used for surface
added to emulsions to improve the characteris hardening and heating steel during heat treat
tics of fluids. The water content in these emul ment. Brine, liquid caustic soda, and quenching
sions varies from 5 to 16 parts. These emulsions oils are used for quenching. A molten lead bath
are very useful for heavy duty operations. is a good quenching medium for a controlled
Conventional emulsions The main constitu rate of cooling. Sodium, potassium, strontium,
ents of these emulsions are fats, fatty acids, and barium and lithium salts are used in preparing
soaps. Conventional emulsions are manufactured salt baths for tempering and drawing.
by mixing neat soluble oils in water. These emul Water Water is principally used as a coolant.
sions are used in most cutting and machining It is the cheapest, and has a rapid cooling rate.
operations in workshops. For machining opera It is used as a solvent for various aqueous solu
tions, the water content varies from 40 to 60 tions and emulsions. It is principally used for
parts, and for grinding from 15 to 30 parts. quenching during hardening and for cooling
Aqueous solutions Soap and salt solutions are rolls, workpieces and big furnaces by circulat
also used as coolants. The commonly used soaps ing water on the outer walls.
are sulphonates, fatty acids, resins and chlori Synthetic coolants This is the newest entrant
nated fatty acids. Chlorinated fatty acids should to the family of cutting fluids. They are mainly
be used with great care, to prevent corrosion non-petroleum products, though a small quan
that may take place due to the presence of chlo tity of mineral oil is added to provide various
rine. Soda and borax in water is the coolant characteristics. They are most commonly used
mainly used in machining operations.
in grinding. The ratio of one part of synthetic
Graphite suspensions A colloidal suspension coolant varies from 50 to 250 parts of water.
of graphite powder is very commonly used in The main disadvantage of these coolants is their
foundry, forging, extrusion and wire drawing. chemical affinity to metal parts and paints.
The main reason for this is that graphite is cheap
and forms a protective lubricating layer on metal 17.6 SOURCES OF HEAT GENERATED
surfaces. IN METAL CUTTING
Compounded mineral oils Plain mineral oils In metal cutting operations, beat is generated
do not give a satisfactory performance in bound from the following sources:
ary lubrication and are therefore unsuitable for
use in various metal working processes, such as Friction During machining operations, a lot
extrusion, deep drawing and forging. To fulfil of friction takes place between (a) the tool and.
various requirements, mineral oils are often com the workpiece, and (b) the tool and the chip.
pounded with mineral acids. The proportion of The passing of the chip over the tool contributes
various constituents varies according to the con the maximum friction. The heat so generated is
ditions of use. Sulphurised fatty acids compoun known as the heat of friction. the total quantity
ded with mineral oils are used for drawing, cutt of heat generated depends upon many factors,
ing and forming operations. They are capable of such as cutting speed, material of the tool and
withstanding high pressures and excessive the workpiece, depth of cut and feed of tool.
friction. Plilstic deformation of metal Due to suffi
Minerals Various types of natural salts and ciently high pressure exerted by the tool on
minerals are used as lubricant coolants. Bento the adjacent grains of the workpiece, a slip in
nite, mica and lime are used in foundries and the planes of weakness take place, producing
1226_-
� - - - --
.
-- - - M
- anufacturing Processes! - -------------
deformation in the grains. The slipping action 1. Abrasion resistance of the material is more.
between the grains causes friction, leading to 2. Diffusion rate of constituents is less.
generation of heat called the heat of deforma 3. It increases tool life and maintains its cut
tion. The quantity of heat generated in this case ting properties.
also depends upon the cutting speed, material of 4. It reduces thermal expansion and distortion
· the tool and the workpiece, depth of cut and of the workpiece.
feed of tool. The deeper the cut and heavier the 5. Surface finish of machined surfaces is bet-
feed, the greater is the amount of heat produced, ter.
since the amount of slip is greater. 6. It reduces chip curl.
Chip distortion In machining operations, as 7. It reduces built-up edge formation.
the cut proceeds, the chip curls out and tensile Coolants suffer from the following disadvan-
and compressive stresses are generated in the tages:
chip. The outer surface is in tension, whereas 1. Lower temperature of the workpiece
the inner surface is in compression. This results requires increased shear flow stress.
in distortion of grains and consequent genera 2. Higher cutting forces and power consump
tion of heat. Heat so produced is known as the tion.
heat of chip distortion. The fluids used in machining pass through
The above discussion shows that a consider the following conditions while flowing down the
able amount of heat is generated during ma chip, workpiece and tool:
chining operations. Thus, it is necessary to drive 1. High local temperatures
away the heat continuously from the workpiece 2. High pressures at the chip formation
and the tool, to keep them cool. At this stage, portion
the use of a cutting fluid is essential. The heat 3. Highly stressed metal
generated during machining flows towards the
4. Freshly produced surfaces.
coolant and keeps the tool and workpiece cool.
Another advantage of cutting fluids is that they Selection of cutting fluids The selection of
act as a lubricant and reduce friction between cutting fluids depends upon the following three
the tool and the workpiece. The power consump factors:
tion is also less while using a lubricant. 1. The process of machining
Cutting fluids help in preventing welding or 2. The cutting tool material
adhesion of metal to the tool point. 3. The material of the workpiece.
Action of cutting fluids The basic actions Apart from these three major factors, the fol-
of a cutting fluid are as follows: lowing points also need consideration:
1. Cooling 1. Compatibility with the machine
2. Lubrication or reduction in friction 2. Depth and feed of cut
3. Reduction of shearing stress of the 3. Speed of cut
workpiece material. 4. Requirements of performance
Initially, cutting fluids were primarily used 5. Human interaction and economy
as coolants. By pouring the coolant over the 6. Multiplicity of operations.
tool, chip and workpiece, the cutting fluid re In a workshop having a variety of machine
moves heat and lowers the temperature at the tools and different materials for machining, it is
cutting zone. It also increases tool life. A low not economical to stock a large variety of
temperature for the tool and workpiece has the cutting fluids to meet· all the requirements. In
following advantages: such shops, rationalisation of cutting fluids is
Cutting Fluids- - - -- ---------2271
essential. Thus compatibility of the fluid with Filteration of cutting fluids During machin
different systems is of vital importance. ing chips and foreign materials get mixed with
Effect of cutting fluid on tool life The use the cutting fluids. These have to be separated,
of cutting fluids during machining operations since they produce adverse effects on tool life
increases tool life to a considerable extent. The and the surface quality of the workpiece. Metal
effect of tool life when represented on a log lic particks in the fluid have two marked ad
graph between cutting speeds and tool life can verse effects-they promote bacterial growth and
be well understood from Fig. 17 .2. they produce corrosive acids. They not only re
In case of high-speed steels, the increase in duce the effective life of a coolant but also of
tool life is nearly 25%, while for carbide tools it the machine tool. The benefits derived by using
is 15% and for high-carbon steels it is 50%. a cleaned coolant are summarised as follows:
Application of cutting fluid during machin 1. It promotes consistent cutting action.
ing operation The effective and efficient 2. Control of dimensional tolerances is easier
working of a fluid as a lubricant depends to a 3. Wear of machine parts is less
large extent upon the penetration of the fluid to 4. Life of the tool is more
the point of contact. It is therefore necessary to 5. Burning and glazing of workpiece is less.
ensure the delivery of the cutting fluid into the
Methods of filteration Gravitational settling
cutting zone by proper location and flow of the
jet. A proper method of supplying the cutting is one of the easiest methods of filteration. It is
fluid is also important. The method to be em widely used in turning, milling and grinding op
ployed for supplying the cutting fluid depends erations. The main disadvantages of this pro
upon many factors, such as tool material, cut cess are that (a) the degree of filteration achieved
ting conditions, type of machine tool accuracy is very poor and (b) it requires frequent clean
requirements and material of workpiece. ing of the tank.
-- Car
bid
----- _e.!_�� i 10-15%
£_
100 _ _ __
Carbide /__ �oofant
too/s
t 20-27% f Dry
------
� -
.l!l Hig� s ---- --t_ ) j c
E · peed stee/ _,,;:,7- - - -0_:!f!!_rJ!_
.!::
-o 10
High-s
peed ste
Q)
e/
Cl 6.0 _ 40-55%
C:
��;b- --
on stee/- - \t �
0 4.0 �,s t - -��1!2 ��11_! _-
Hi.gh-car
bo n stee/ 'f No c
2.0 s too/s oo/a
nt
0 10 100
Life in log scale-+
Fig. 17.2 Cutting speeds of various tools
Table_ 17.1 c·utting fluids used for cutting different materials
Materials. .. _ Operations
Turning Milling/shaping! Drilling Threading I taping I
planing reaming
1. Mild steel/low- Lard oil or Soluble oil Soluble oil Medium sulphurised
carbon steel mineral oil containing containing fatty acids
85-95% water 90-95% water
. .. �
2. Medium-carbon 20-70% �Soluble oil . _S_o1uble oif High sulphur £�tty
steel lard oil in containing containing acids
mineral oil - 85-95% water -90-:95%
.
water
3. High-carbon 20-70% Translucent Translucent High chlorinated
steel lard oil in soluble oil soluble oil sulphurised fatty
mineral oil acids
4. Alloy st�ls High chlorinated - Soluble oir Qiiorinated ·- _Chlorinated�
mild sulpholfated with 90--95% fatty acids- -� _ ;..sulphunated fatty
fatty acids water acids .
5. Stainless/heat- Soluble oil Translucent Translucent High chlorinated

resistant steels soluble oil soluble oil sulphurised "fatty
acids
6. east irons Cast irons are machined dry as graphite present :in.them-acts as a li.Itiricant
7. Aluminium and Mineral oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Lard oil, wood
its alloys containing 10% grease, spur oil,
fat, or soluble oil, fatty acids
or kerosene oil
8. Copper and Mineral oil fatty mineral · Fatty mineral Mineral oit
brass with 10% fat. or oil or soluble oil oil or solutiie eif containing
soluble oil _ 10--20% lard oil
9. Gun metal/ Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil or 20% lard oil with
cupronickel or mineral oil 25% lard oil + mineral oil
75% mineral oil
10. Bronze Translucent -Soluble oil Soluble oil or 20% lard oil with
soluble oil or 25% lard oil + mineral oil
lard oil 75% mineral oil
11. Magnesium/zinc 10-13% lard Mineral oil or Mineral oil Fatty oil or mineral
and its alloys oil with mineral lard oil oils
oil or soluble oil
Depending upon the type of fluid and degree Magnetic separators These are primarily used
of filteration required; the following filteration to remove magnetic solid particles to the extent
devices are used for fine filteration: of 70-75%. They are very useful for removing
1. Magnetic separators fine dwarf particles of grinding operations. For
2. Centrifuges fine filteration, the liquid after passing thrnugh
3. Hydrocyclones magnetic separators, is passed through other fil
4. Paper filteration. teration devices, such as centrifuges or hydrocyc-
- ---- ------ --Cutting Fluids--- --- - -
------2291
lones. The initial cost of magnetic separators is Outlet for

also high.
Centr_ifuges Centrifuges are used for fine Inlet for
cleaning of coolants upto 1 mm. They work on
the principle of cleaning by centrifugal force. It
is a rapid method, but requires frequent clean
ing of the bowl. The use of pre-roughing de
vices extends the cleaning period to some extent.
The cost of centrifuges is high.
Hydrocyclones This is a recently developed t
process. In it the liquid enters tangentially into Sludge out
the spinning spiral, as shown in Fig. 17.3. The Fig. 17,3 Hydrocyclone method offilteration
centrifugal force near the bottom of the cone is
about 5000 to 7500 times greater than the force (ii) This system is only useful for viscous
of gravity. The high centrifugal force throws the fluids.
solid particles to the wall of the cone. The spi Precautions in handling of _cutting
ral pushes it down through an opening at the fluids The following precautions should be ob
lower end of the cone. The high speed of mo served while handling cutting fluids:
1. Always use a splash guard to protect the
tion of the fluid develops a rising column of air
operator from the splash of the fluid.
and pushes the pure liquid upwards. The liquid 2. Use a clean non-permeable apron while
is taken out by the outlet provided at the top of working with fluids.
the cyclone. 3. Keep the emulsion away from contami
Paperfilteration In paper filteration,·the dirty nants.
coolant is passed through paper filters. The clean 4. Use soluble emulsion with proper pH value.
The most appropriate pH value for use is
liquid passes through the filter, whereas dust
8-10.
particles are trapped in it. This is the cheapest 5. In case of irritation due to oil use protec
method of filteration and can be used for very tive cream.
fine filteration. The disadvantages of this sys 6. Avoid contact of emulsion with other sol
tem are: vents.
(i) Paper gets clogged quickly and requires 7. Clean contaminated hands immediately
frequent replacements. after use.
Q\.fULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( v'') for the right answer 2. A cutting fluid helps in
1. No cutting fluid is required while machining (a) increasing tool life
the following material: (b) quick removal of chip
(a) steel (b) copper (c) removing stresses in job
(c) cast iron (d) spring steel (d) cutting action of the tool
j
e Manufacturing Processes I
3. At high-speed machining, cutting fluids have (c) four to six times faster than oil base fluids
(a) good cooling action (d) six to eight times faster than oil base flu-
(b) easy access to cutting tip ids.
(c) good shearing action 5. Which one of the following is not the property
(d) high corrosion resistance of a cutting fluid:
4. The rate of transfer of heat by water base flu- (a) A cutting fluid minimises friction
ids is (b) A cutting fluid dissipates heat quickly
(a) nearly the same as that of oil base fluids (c) A cutting fluid passesses good viscosity
(b) two to three times faster than oil base flu- (d) A cutting fluid decreases wear and tear of
ids cutting tool
fft..Evmw QUESTIONS
----· --· -· -------.............--.-........-·-·-· ---�----�-----
1. What is meant by a cutting fluid? 7. What are the different sources of heat genera-
2. Enumerate the functions of a cutting fluid. tion in machining operation?
3. Explain the different ways in which a cutting 8. What are the characteristics of a good cutting
fluid is able to reduce tool chip temperature. fluid?
4. How are coolants classified? Describe any three 9. Why is the continuous application of cutting
types of coolants used in industry. fluids preferred over intermittent application?
5. Why does a cutting fluid only act as a coolant 10. What is filtration? Describe the various meth-
at high speeds? ods used in the filteration of cutting fluids.
6. Descirbe in brief the suitability of water as a 11. What are the precautions needed while han-
cutting fluid. dling cutting fluids?
18.1 INTRODUCTION Rolling friction comes into action when one
body rolls over another. The value of rolling fri
Improper and insufficient lubrication is prob
ction is far less then sliding friction. Most mach
ably the chief cause of rapid wear and tear of
ine tools use antifriction bearings in the form of
machine tools. Machine tools often cause trouble
balls or rollers to diminish rolling friction. This
due to improper lubrication of th.e bearing and
increases the efficiency of the machine. Friction
sliding units. Lubrication is needed to minimise
in moving parts results in the wastage of energy.
friction and increase machine life.
However, friction is necessary in belts and
When a metallic body moves over another
clutches to prevent slippage.
body, dry or solid, friction is produced, due to
interlocking between irregular surfaces. The 18.2 ACTION OF LUBRICATION
interlocking of mating surfaces also takes place
when the bodies are at rest. Once interlocki!_!g When lubricants are applied to a bearing, a thin
between the surfaces occurs, motion between the film of lubricant adheres to the bearing and an
parts takes place by teari-;g off the interlocked other to the shaft thus, completely separating
surfaces. No matter how smooththe surfaces the metal surfaces. Due to the lubricating ac
may be, they always contain elevations and depr tion, the films slip over one another, which re
essions, which permit a small degree of inter duces friction. This is due to the smaller
locking. This produces a lot of heat, resulting in coefficient of friction between the films of lu
the wear of metallic surfaces. bricants. A lubricant acts in two ways to reduce
The addition of a small film of lubricating oil the force of friction. Firstly, by filling small de
between the two mating surfaces eliminates pressions, and then by lessening the force or
actual physical contact, and the only resistance friction between the oil surfaces.
to motion is the resistance offered by the oil.
18.3 OBJECTS OF LUBRICANTS
This type of friction is known as fluid or viscous
friction. The value of the viscous coefficient of Lubricants are used in machine tools, primarily
friction is far less than dry friction. Thus, every for the following reasons:
effort must be made to keep ideal viscous friction 1. To reduce friction between the parts
conditions in machine tools. 2. To reduce wear and tear of the parts.
1232------ - - - ---Manufacturing Processes!--------------
In addition to the above factors, lubricants also due to thermal deformation. Indirectly, it in
serve the following secondary objectives: creases the life of components. The use of lubri
1. Provide cooling effects to the surfaces cants also permits a higher value of static
2. Provide cushioning effects against shocks pressure. The selection of a lubricating material
3. Provide cleaning action to surfaces. depends upon the following:
1. Type of guides:
18.4 REQUIREMENTS OF LUBRICANTS (i) circular guides
A lubricant must possess the following charac (ii) flat guides.
teristics: 2. Type of work
Viscosity · Viscosity may be defined as the in 3. Velocity and intensity of pressure
ternal resistance of a fluid, resisting motion of 4. Constructional features and accuracy of
one layer of fluid over another. It is the single unit.
most important property of oils. Lubricants are also used extensively in bear
Low-viscosity oils flow easily, whereas high ings. The selection of a lubricant for use in bear
viscosity oils do not. High-viscosity oils are ing depends upon various factors. Based upon
generally known as heavy oils. Ideally, the vis the design of the bearing, lubricants are classi
cosity should remain the same at all temperat fied as:
ures. However, this is not the case, and viscosity (i) Antifriction bearings, such as roller bear
decreases with increase in temperature. Because ings, ball bearings, and taper roller bearings
of this, oils showing minimum variation in visco (ii) Sliding bearings.
sity are preferred as lubricants.
Standards have been designed by the Bureau 18.6 TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
of Indian Standards for the use of oils in machine According to their origin, lubricating oils are
tools. In addition to the correct viscosity, the classified as follows:
selection of oil of proper quality is also essential. 1. Animal oils
Before starting a machine tool, the operator
2. Vegetable oils
�hould consult the operator's manual and follow
3. Mineral oils
the instructions laid down in it to increase
4. Synthetic oils
machine life and efficiency.
5. Greases
Physical stability The lubricating oil must be 6. Solid lubricants.
physically stable at different temperatures. It
should not vapourise under working conditions. Animal oils Animal oils are obtained from ani
mal fats. They are used as tallow in cold draw
Chemical stability The lubricant must be ing. However, they are not used widely in
chemically stable and must not oxidise easily. It machine tools, since they get oxidised easily.
should not decompose at higher temperatures.
In addition to these main characteristics, a lu Vegetable oils Tnese oils are extracted from
bricant must be corrosion-resistant and possess seeds of fruits and trees. Except castor oil, used
a high flash point. in automobiles, these oils do not find much ap
plication.
18.5 SELECTION OF PROPER Mineral oils These are petroleum products and
LUBRICATING OIL are used extensively in industry due to the fol
The main function of a lubricant is to eliminate lowing reasons:
friction between the two rubbing surfaces. It also 1. They possess greater stability at higher tem
minimises wear and tear and eliminate chances peratures.
---------------Lubricants and Lubricationi--- --------�-2331
2. They do not form emulsions with water. require a soda grease of spongy or fibrous text
3. They are available in plenty at cheap rates. ure, distributor shafts require a cup grease, chas
Mineral oils are further classified as paraf- sis require a tacky grease, and so on.
fins, naphthalenes, aromatics and olefins. Many types of greases are used in machine
tools. A review of the operator's manual will
Synthetic lubricants These are polyorganosil
indicate the types or grades of grease that are
oxane or silicon fluids. They possess good lu
needed for different applications. Table 18.1
bricating properties but are costly.
shows the various types of greases used for dif
Greases They consist of suspensions of metal ferent applications. Most multipurpose greases
lic soaps dispersed in lubricating oils. In autom contain additives like rust inhibitors and antioxi
obiles, they are used where high temperatures dants.
are encountered.
Solid lubricant Graphite is used as a lubri Table 18.1 Characteristics of greases
cant in powder as well as in colloidal form. It is
type Appraximate Characteristics
stable over a wide range of temperatures. It acts dropping point and uses
as a lubricant by filling the gaps or voids in
metallic surfaces. Cup ggoc Smooth, water-resis-
tant, limited consis-
18. 7 GEAR OILS tency loss on working
Complex above 27ff'C Smooth, water-resis-
Gear oils are used for smooth transmission of tant, used in high tem-
motion in gear boxes and final drives. Since perature parts
modern gear boxes are designed to transmit a Sponge 195 °c Fibrous, non-water
high amount of power, lubricants must be capa resistant
Medium 198 °C Variable consistency
ble of withstanding extreme pressure exerted loss on working; Slid-
between the teeth of meshing gears. Oils must ing and rolling parts
be able to withstand high temperatures and still Multi- 200 °c Smooth, water and heat
maintain good lubricating properties. They must purpose resistant; Sliding parts.
also possess good viscosity. Non-soap 220°c High temperature mu!-
Older machine tools require extremely heavy tipurpose, -good me-
oils or greases to lubricate gear teeth. Many op chankal and chemical
stability
erators still prefer gear box lubricants as greases.
The commonly used gear oils are SAE 80, SAE
18.9 METHODS OF APPLYING GREASES
90, and SAE 140.
Grease is applied with instruments such as a
18.8 GREASES paddle, swab or brush. Many machine tools have
A grease is a semi-solid combination of a high pressure grease fittings. Grease is applied
petroleum product and a soap or a mixture of to such fittings with a pressure grease gun. Many
soaps, with or without fillers, suitable for certain manufacturers recommend a central lubrication
types of lubrication. Machine tools have many system, called a multi-luber system. The system
bearings carrying light to heavy loads. Parts oper consists of a diaphragm pump activated by vacu
ating at high speeds and high temperatures requ um from an engine. A hand push player multi
ire special high-quality greases. Water pumps luber system is used in easily accessible points
require a water repellant grease, wheel bearings where grease need not be forced under pressure.
1234,------------ Manufacturin
- g Processes!-- ---- - - -- --
18.10 LUBRICATORS The cup is filled with oil with an oil can. The
lubricating oil flows to the moving part under
In the workshop, lubricating oils are generally
gravity. This is quite an efficient method of lu
stored in drums of 200 litres. Since the quantity
brication, and lubrication by this system is done
of lubricating oils to be used in workshops is
small, they are stored in containers of 20 litres or at different intervals of time.
5 litres. From the drums, the oil is taken out with
the help of oil pumps. From the small tins, the oil
is transferred to oil can of different shapes and
sizes. The commonly used can is of 400 ml or
1 pint capacity. Wherever possible, the lubri
cant should be applied on the sliding parts with
the help of an oil can. Commonly used systems (a)
of lubrication of machine tools can be classified
into: (b)
(i) Gravity feed systems
(c)
(ii) Force feed systems.
Fig. 18.2 Gravity feed oil cups: (a) oil nipple, (b) oil
cup, (c) sight feed oil cup
Force feed system Lubricants cannot be sup

plied to all the moving parts in motor cars, buses
or trucks by the gravity feed system. Lubricants
3
are supplied to inner parts through an oil pump
�
generally situated in the lower part of the en
gine. The oil fed to the engine is periodically
----
�I checked with oil gauges. The two commonly
....... used designs of oil gauges are shown in Fig.
18.3. Moving parts that do not possess many
(a) lubricating points are provided with an oil well,
(b)
where they get dipped in the oil. While the parts
are in motion, they splash oil .to other parts also.
This system is very common in gear driven drills,
(c)
Fig. 18.1 Different types of oil cans: (a) Rigid spout
oil can with spring bottom. {b) Transpar
ent oil can. (c) Horizontal spout oil can
(1. Spout, 2. Body (steel). }. Body (synth
etic materials))
(a)
Gravity feed system In this system, the lu
bricant is applied to the sliding parts through oil
cups or oil nipples which are located at the top (b)
position of the moving parts. The various de- Fig. 18.3 Checking oil level: (a) oil level cup.
signs of cups and nipples are shown in Fig. 18.2. {b) oil gauge or dip stick
----------- - -
- Lubricants and Lubrication-------------2351
lathe and milling machines. The oil level is main fullproof. Inspite of covers and other protective
tained in such machine tools through oil level devices, these minute particles entrapped be
cups or sight feed glasses. The level is periodi tween the slides act as abrasives to accelerate
cally checked with a dipstick. The moving parts wear. By keeping the slides as clean as possible,
that cannot be oiled or greased through holes wear can be eliminated at the sliding surfaces.
are oiled with the help of grease guns. The com Various devices, such as brushes, compressed
monly used designs of grease guns are shown in air and blast from nozzles are commonly used.
Fig. 18.4(a), (b), (c), (d), (e). All these devices have their own advantages and
(a)
(c) (e)
Fig. 18.4 Grease lubricators.- (a) grease cup, (b) and (c) nipple, (d) grease gun {light duty}, (e) grease gun
(heavy duty)
18.11 LUBRICATION OF MACHINE TOOLS limitations. Compressed air is a rapid process of

cleaning machines, but the pressure tends to
Many parts of modern machine tools, such
force the small particles of an abrasive dust into
as headstocks are provided with automatic
the surface of the metal. Blast from nozzles
lubrication by means of a pump, with provision
carries dust into the crevices of slides, bearings,
for a continuous fitting system and an indicator
to observe the circulation of the oil. Other parts motors and gear boxes.
need to be attended daily by the operator. The Lubrication of headstock Regular lubrication
general practice is to issue a chart of lubrication with a properly selected lubricant is an impor
programmes for his guidance. For a proper lu tant factor in the satisfactory functioning of the
brication system, the chart must be under the machine tool. Before operating a machine, the
charge of an operator and not be kept some various oil reservoirs are filled upto the required
where in the office. Many big industries main level, as indicated by the sight glass. Lubrica
tain a travelling operator who is well trained in tion should be carried out according to the in
the field and carries out the lubrication work of structions laid down in the lubrication plan
a set number of machines and is responsible for supplied by the manufacturer. Mobil oil DTE,
that batch of machines only. Heavy medium of Indian Oil Corporation and
In addition to lubrication, cleanliness is an Mobil grease BRB are the commonly recom
important factor in the life of a machine. It is mended lubricants.
particularly important where slides are involved. Lubrication of headstock is initially carried
When a metal is being cut during a machining out by filling it with heavy medium duty lubri
operation, minute particles of the dust are de cating oil. The oil level is checked from the
posited on the slides. Though protective covers glass provided on the rear side of the lathe. Oil
are often provided, they are not completely can be drained through the drain plug provided
1236-------- ----Manufacturing Processes! --- ---------
at the bottom of the headstock. The process of cleaned well and refilled with bearing grease.
pumping the oil is done by a piston pump oper The melting point of the grease used must not
ated by a cam. Before pumping, the oil is passed be less than 140 ° C.
through a wire mesh filter designed to trap all Lubrication of feed box Lubrication of the
impurities. The recommended practice for oil feed box is done by forcing the lubricating oil
change is after 200, 500 and 2000 hours of the with a piston pump driven by an eccentric fitted
first, second and third instance, respectively. to the rotating shaft.
Before refilling, the headstock should be washed Saddle and apron Lubrication of saddle and
thoroughly with kerosene oil. apron is done by a hand pump. Oil is drawn
Lubrication of speed box In a lathe machine, from the reservoir and forced into various points,
a speed box is generally housed in the cabin such as bed slideways and cross-feed unit. The
directly below the headstock. For lubrication, oil is filled to the desired level after removing
the screw plug on the speed box is removed and the screw plug.
lubrication is done by a continuous splash of oil Worm housing Lubrication of worm housing
upto the level indicated by the right glass. is done through the nipples provided for this
Lubrication of speed box pulley bearings purpose.
Lubrication of speed box pulley bearings is car Screw end bearings Lubrication of screw end
ried out by filling them with grease while ass bearings is done from an oil pump by removing
embling at the work. End plates are dismantled, the screw plug on the top of the end bearing.
Fi$· 18.5 Lubrication system of all gearedPSG latlie. 1. 2. 3, .... 32 are the various points oflubrication
-------- -
- ------Lubricants and Lubrication------ -- - - --2371
tkULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIO�S
---�--�=,��
Mark ( "') for the right answer 3. Viscosity of an oil
1. A good lubricant gives (a) decreases with increase in temperature
(a) cushioning effect between the surfaces (b) increases with increase in temperature
(b) softness to surfaces (c) remains constant at working temperature
(c) hardness to surfaces
(d) none of the above
(d) toughness to surfaces
2. When a lubricant is applied to a bearing, it 4. The commonly used gear oils are
increases the (a) SAE 20 and SAE 30
(a) contact between the surfaces of parts (b) SAE 40 and SAE 50
(b) · rubbing action between the parts (c) SAE 80 and SAE 90
(c) friction between the parts (d) SAE 200 and SAE 300
(d) film lubrication
�VIEW QUESTIONS '-'-"-��-----------·-- -----�·-----------·

1. What is the role of friction in machine tools? 6. Explain the procedure of selection of a lubri
2. What is lubrication? What are the effects of cant.
lubricating oils on machine tools? 7. What are the various types of lubricants used
3. Enumerate the kinds and sources of lubricants_ in machine tool?
4. What are the advantages of using lubricants on 8. What are greases? How are they applied to ma
machine tool? chine tools?
5. Enumerate the requirements of a good lubri 9. Discuss the importance of lubrication of vari
cant. ous machine tools.
19.1 INTRODUCTION for the location of the machine tool in an opti
mum manner. The location should be selected
Initial inspection is the first operation carried
such that sufficient working space is provided
out on a machine tool after receipt by the con
for the operator and for the movement of
cerned department. As soon as the packing is
workpieces.
received, it is immediately opened and checked
for transport damages and shortages. Generally, 19.2 FOUNDATION
a packing list is enclosed in the packing, which
acts as a record of all the items supplied with The foundation of a machine can be said to be
the machine tool. Special care is needed while the structure that serves as a base for its instal
unpacking the materials, especially the small lation and provides normal conditions for the
accessories. After opening the packing, small operation of the machine at all static and dy
accessories must be sorted carefully. Any short namic loads involved. The designed support of
ages or defects should be immediately brought the machine tool serves the following functions:
to the notice of the nearest manufacturer's rep 1. It supports the whole weight of the ma
resentative. chine tool or equipment.
Efficient organization demands that there 2. It helps in keeping the machine tool prop
should be proper verification and inspection as erly aligned with all its mechanisms.
soon as the material arrives at the factory. In 3. It acts as a source for absorbing all the
spection of material is needed before the goods vibrations produced by unbalanced forces
are stored. The equipment, after inspection, is in the machine tool.
directly sent to the section where it is to be 4. It prevents transmission of vibrations from
installed. one machine tool to another.
After inspection of the machine tool, the next 5. It helps in maintaining a proper working
step involved is the preparation of a foundation height for the operator.
plan. This involves the selection of a proper site 6. It provides normal working conditions.
--- - - - - -
-Installation. Foundation and Alignment Testing of Machines- - ---- 239
- j
19.3 PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION where n = constant. The value of n varies with

the machine to be installed.
The primary principles of foundation, can be
grouped as follows: Bearing capacity of the soil The complete
weight of the machine tool and the foundation
falls on the soil. The maximum load that a soil
is capable of withstanding without giving away
or setting down is called its bearing capacity.
Thus, this is an important factor in the founda
tion design for a machine tool. It is important to
.. .. mention here that the bearing capacity varies
... .
· -
I!-.-• .. .
with the type of soil.
•·· ....· <··,: �--.-..•..-�-� .... _. "·
.-
Engine speed The foundation design for a ma

chine tool also varies with the engine speed.
Mathematically
Fig. 19,1 Machine base and foundation bolt after
grouting Wfoc J'ii
1. The machine should operate normally. where Wf = weight of the foundation
2. It must ensure quality and productivity. and N = number of revolutions.
3. It must operate as long as possible without Type of motion The type of motion and its
repair. direction are also important in the design of ma
After installation, the machine should be well chine foundations. All the conditions for instal
balanced and levelled. Each unit of the machine lation of a machine tool remaining same, a
should be well-aligned without any error in set vertical machine requires less foundational
ting. weight as compared to a horizontal machine.
Unbal,mced forces In general, it is practically
19.4 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR impossible to balance a machine perfectly. Un
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS balanced forces produce vibration in a machine
The main factors that need consideration while tool. The more the vibrations, the heavier is the
installing a machine are as follows: foundation needed to absorb vibrations. The
foundation should be strong enough to ensure
Weight of the machine The primary factor
that vibrations are not transmitted to other ma
that needs consideration for determining the
chines.
foundation of the machine is the weight of the
machine. The heavier the machine, the greater Material The foundation design depends upon
is the load falling on the foundation. Thus, stron the material used, i.e. brick, concrete, etc. How
ger foundations are needed for heavier machines. ever, a concrete foundation is preferred over
other types.
Horse power to be transmitted The depth
Prior to the commencement of the foundation
of the foundation increases with the increase in of a machine tool, it is essential to choose ap
the horse power of the machine. The simplified propriate soils. After the selection of soil, other
conventional formula used for calculating the requirements, such as materials, erection facili
depth of the foundation is ties and type of workers to do the work is estab
Df oc (HPt lished.
1240-------- ------Manufacturing Processes I
19.5 FOUNDATION PLAN (vi) Dimensions of supporting floor areas

(vii) Information regarding power cables
For proper installation, it is necessary to chalk (viii) Position and size of anchor bolts and other
out a schedule of operations or the preparation required members.
of ground, construction of the foundation and The drawing supplied by the manufacturer is
installation of machine tool/equipment. Manu known as the foundation plan. The person in
facturers or suppliers generally supply a detailed charge of the foundation must follow the speci
drawing of the foundation for installation of the fications and dimensions laid down in the
machine tool. The drawings supplied with the foundation plan. The correct procedure ensures
machine tools, indicate: a smooth and easy foundation of the machine
(i) Dimensions for excavation tool.
(ii) Main dimensions and weight of the ma 19.6 VIBRATIONS
chine
The periodic motion that occurs alternatively in
(iii) Weight of the largest piece to be processed opposite directions from the position of equilib
(iv) Dimensions of installation of each mecha rium of a machine, machine element or any other
nism supplied with the equipment mass is called vibration. During vibrations, the
(v) Location of each mechanism and its rela motion repeats its characteristics at regular in
tive position with respect to various drives tervals of time.
a, ,-
LO l'
---.,...!;;,;aa=�'===m<;:::;;::==--Depth
l>ffi;:,;•\•.:.�:·:·�W.1
fa·..... ·, . t,, •, ...,!ft(: according to
.... ·:,
.../. =.tJ.
type of soil,
250-300 mm,
normally
2370
Levelling screw Foundation bolt
547 2870. 1271 ;300
M 16 x 80 M 16 x 300
177(
0
- I()
a,
I•-�.;
<.'l
I()
C\I
IO
LO
C\I
-<'?
1--
Levelling pad
"For 1250 m/c
Fig. 19.2 Founilation plan layout of an all geared lathe

---------Installation. Foundation and Alignment Testing of Machines-------2411
The number of vibrations per second is called In a machine tool, vibrations can be minimised
the frequency of vibration. The various causes by:
of vibrations in a machine tool are as follows: (i) properly designing the foundation plan
1. Imperfect balancing of rotating machine (ii) properly distributing unbalanced forces
parts (iii) rigidly bolting the machine to the floor
2. Insufficient holding down bolts (iv) providing shock absorbing devices
3. Wrong design of foundation block (v) insulating the machine with insulating ma-
4. Incorrect levelling of the machine tool terials.
5. Incorrect alignment of parts The isolation of a machine is done by means
6. Springy or bent shafts of elastic supports. These supports counterbal
7. Loose bolts and fasteners ance the unbalanced forces. A brief description
8. Worn out or loose bearings of the methods used for the isolation of the bed
9. Defective pipelines plate, foundation top, sides and the bottom of
10. Incorrect setting of cutting tool in the tool the block is given as follows:
post 1. By providing layers of cork, felt, lead
The prevention of vibrations in engines and sheets or timber planks between the bed
machines is a problem of great concern to engi plate and the top of the foundation.
neers. It not only effects the running of the en 2. By mounting the machine on resilient sup
gine but also the accuracy of the product. It may ports, such as special rubber.
even cause accidents. The effects of vibrations 3. By isolating the engine bed from the foun
can be summed up as follows: dation, by supporting it on special coil
1. Due to vibrations, the molecules of the springs.
machine structure gain energy. Due to this 4. By filling cork planks, sand, saw dust and
gain, the velocity of molecules with respect wood sawings between the foundation
to one another increases, which generates block and the subsoil.
heat in the machine parts. 5. By providing specially prepared slabs.
2. Vibrations cause excessive wear and tear Vibration control in machine tools is useful
of the machine parts. in the following ways:
3. Vibrations produce shock loading in foun 1. The chances of transmission of vibrations
dation bolts. This increases fatigue and from one machine to another are reduced
reduces the strength of bolts. considerably.
4. Vibrations of a machine tool are transmit 2. The efficiency of the machine increases.
ted to the building in which it is housed. 3. The life of the machine increases.
Excessive vibrations can thus cause fail 4. It results in improved working conditions.
ure of the building. 5. The maintenance of machines is reduced
5. Excessive vibrations can result in the break considerably.
down of parts. The failure of a moving part 19.7 INSTALLATION
can result in accidents that are injurious to
man and machine. As discussed earlier, as soon the machine is re
6. Vibrations can be transmitted to adjacent ceived by the purchaser, it is subjected to initial
machines inspection to check for damages in transit and
7. Vibrations produce noise. In a noisy atmo shortages. Before despatching the consignment,
sphere, the efficiency of work decreases. the bright parts of the machine are coated with
1242- --- -
-- - ---Manufacturing Processes! - -------- ---
rust preventives. Before using the machine these ing and placement is needed so that the machine
preventives should be carefully removed. Kero does not drop or bump unduly.
sene oil can be used for this purpose. Cotton A variety of general purpose equipment is
waste is generally used for washing away the used for lifting and placing machines. The com
preventive coatings. All bright parts should then monly used lifting instruments are:
be immediately oiled. Nipples should be cleaned (i) Pulley blocks (Fig. 19.6)
carefully. (ii) Chain slings (Fig. 19.7)
After completion of the above operations, the (iii) Derrick
process of installation of machine tools begins. (iv) Tripod shear legs.
This involves the following steps:
1. Preparation of a good foundation plan, as 19.9 LEVELLING AND ALIGNING
discussed before. After preparing the foundation, levelling the sur
2. Setting the machine on its own for instal face and allowing the concrete to harden for a
lation. sufficient time, the machine is placed in position
3. Levelling and alignment of the machine for levelling and aligning. The threaded founda
on its foundation. tion bolt is held in holes in the base and allowed
4. Connecting the machine tool to the power to remain loose with a nut on the end to retain it
supply. from falling.
A countershaft driven machine tool is lined
19.8 SETTING THE MACHINE
up by dropping a plumbline from each end of
After the preparation of the foundation plan and the shaft and setting the machine until its spindle
digging the pits for the foundation, the process or some parallel machined face is in line with
of lifting the machine and placing it in exact the two suspended plumb bobs (Fig. 19.3). Indivi
position is carried out. Machines often weigh dual drive machines are set to the general line of
several tonnes. Thus, careful planning for lift- the shop or to any other position necessary.
Plumb for belt

line
Fig. 19.3 Aligning the machine to crankshaft

---------Installation. Foundation and Alignment Testing of Machines:-------2431
�---,
A A
�---,A A
i )ij
I I
,----�
I I
,----�
I I
I I I
A A A A
Fig. 19.4 Arrangement of wedges for levelling a
machine A, A . . . are wedges
Fig. 19.5 Hydrostatic checking of bed level
The accurate working of a machine depends
much upon careful levelling. To level the ma 19.10 HYDROSTATIC CHECKING OF BED
chine, a number of steel wedges are used. The LEVELS
commonly used size of wedges is 5-8 cm length, The hydrostatic device used for checking bed
2.5 cm width and 3-5 mm thickness. For ma levels as shown in Fig. 19.5 consists mainly of
chines having a perfectly rectangular base, one
measuring heads, flexible tubes, hydrostatic res
wedge is driven at each corner and one at suit
ervoirs and micrometers. Two cups are joined
able intermediate points. Machines like lathes,
stand on two cabinet legs. In such machines, one together by a flexible tube and the system is
wedge is placed at each corner of the legs. The filled with kerosene oil.The position of one cup
machine is levelled by driving in such wedges, is fixed near the centre of the guide and the read
as necessary, to eliminate any error, if noticed. ing of the second cup is noted by placing this
Always ensure that all wedges are tight.For test cup adjacent to it. Let this reading be x. The
ing a machine, a good quality precision level second cup is now moved to different places all
should be used with each division, indicating a along the guide.The conventionally adopted pro
difference in level of 0.01 mm per metre. Level cedure is to take reading 50 0 mm apart. Let these
tests should be carried out in both longitudinal reading be x 1 , x2, ..• , xn).The difference in level
and cross directions. For machines having long with respect to the first cup will be, 2(x - x 1 ),
beds, such as lathes, cross-tests are made at each 2(x - x2), •.. , 2(x - xn). From the above read
end to ensure absence of twist in the bed. After ings, the difference in levels between any two
satisfactory levelling, check again that the points can be computed, which is equal to the
wedges are tight. Leave the machine in this po maximum difference of level between any two
sition for a day or two. Again check the level points. This device is not only used for the lev
of the machine. If it is found satisfactory/accept elling of surfaces but also for measuring near
able, the machine can be grouted in. Before by surfaces.
doing this, the gap between the edge of the base
and the concrete should be covered by strips of 19.11 MATERIAL HANDLING
wood. Grouting is carried out by pouring in a
creamy mixture of almost pure cement, so that A machine tool requires a lot of handling till it
it fills up all the voids between the base and the is grouted firmly on foundations. Proper handling
concrete. It also provides a large area for sup of machine tools is necessary to protect them
port and acts as a packing of the space sur from damages.
rounding the foundation bolts. In a few days, The following points are important for the
the grouting settles and becomes hard. Now the proper handling of machine tools:
wedges are removed and the concrete at the 1. Place the machine at a proper place in a
edges made good. well-planned manner.
1244,'-------------Manufacturing Process'es 1-- - - -- - ------
5. Sliding wheel box truck

6. Sliding wheel platform truck
7. A hand-operated lift truck
8. Sliding wheel steel box truck
9. Truck with containers
10. Fork lifters
11. Ski� and pallet
12. Wire mesh box
13. Hoists
14. Chain conveyor
15. Belt conveyor
16. Mobile crane
17. Overhead crane
(a) (b) (c)
18. Jib crane
Fig. 19.6 Pulley blocks: (a) Rope block, {b) Weston 19. Screw conveyors
block, (c) Worm block 20. Roller conveyors-mechanical and gravity
21. Lifts.
2. unnecessary handling should be eliminated
as far as possible.
3. A machine tool, once lifted, should be
handled in such a way that it does not
require rehandling.
4. Use the right method and equipment for
lifting loads. This saves a lot of time and
money.
5. As far as possible, place the machine dire
ctly where it is to be grouted. If at all it is
to be placed somewhere else, place it on
planks. This facilitates relifting.
6. Use mechanised devices as far as possible.
(c)
Types of Material Handling Equipment
Proper and efficient material handling requires
(b)
the selection of the right type of material han
dling equipment. Various difficulties in materi Fig. 19.7 Slings: (a) Collar sling. {b) Double sling.
(c) Endless sling
als handling are experienced if suitable and
versatile material handling equipment is not
available. The various material handling devices The first eight items are mainly used for trans
used in stores are as follows: porting raw material/finished materials from one
1. Wheel barrow place to another inside the factory. A truck with
2. Two-wheel truck containers is used for transporting goods over
3. Two-wheel portable bag and package long distances. A fork lifter and a mobile crane
stakes are used inside the production shop for lifting
4. A hand trolley and moving heavy components. Overhead cranes
Installation. Foundation and Alignment Testing of Machines--------245 j
are used for carrying heavy and bulky material
within limited distances. It is very suitable for
handling heavy materials repeatedly inside the
section. A simplified diagram of an overhead
crane is shown in Fig. 19.8.
An electrical hoist moves op monorails. It is
extensively used in wire drawing sections,
chemical factories and medium machine shops
for transporting components from one place to
another. A monorail consists of an I-section
beam attached to the
ceiling, on which the hoist
Fig. 19.8 Method of slinging a capstan lathe moves in different directions.
�ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( v") for the right answer (a) horse power of the motor
1. A support of machine tool does not serve the (b) rpm of the motor
following objective: (c) unbalanced forces
(a) It keeps the machine tool properly aligned (d) engine speed
(b) It imparts motion to parts of machine tools 4. Prior to commencement of the foundation of a
(c) It helps in maintaining proper working machine tool, it is essential to choose
height for the operator (a) appropriate soil
(d) It supports the whole weight of the ma (b) proper size of foundation bolts
chine tool
(c) type of worker to do the work
2. After installation, the machine should be well
(d) all the above parameters
(a) balanced
(b) levelled 5. Vibration control in machine tools
(c) aligned (a) helps in proper flow of power
(d) balanced, levelled and aligned . (b) increases efficiency of the machine
3. The following factor is not of primary impor (c) reduces maintenance
tance while considering machine foundation: (d) all the above
tlt.Evrnw QUESTIONS.
----"___....· ·--��- � .... --.�--- ---�
··------�_.._,_.-�--..---·-·---·........
1. Outline the importance of proper installation 6. What is the utility of preventing vibrations in a
of a machine tool. machine tool?
2. What is meant by the foundation of a machine? 7. Describe the process of installation of a ma-
What are its functions? chine tool.
3. Describe the various principles of foundation. 8. Describe the process of levelling a machine tool.
4. Discuss the different factors that need consid- 9. What is the importance of material handling in
eration before carrying out machine foundation. industry? How it can be minimised?
5. Enumerate the various factors that need con- 10. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of
sideration for a good foundation plan. different material handling devices.
20.1 INTRODUCTION 20.2 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT
Various engineering techniques like casting, Powder metallurgy may be defined as the pro
forging and rolling are used for the manufacture cess of manufacturing components (metallic,
of different components. Each process is suit nonmetallic or mixtures of two) from the pow
able for a particular component and material der of materials and then making objects, by
only, and cannot be used for manufacturing all applying pressure and heat simultaneously or one
types of machine parts. In fact, the sequence of after the other. Different definitions have been
given for powder metallurgy. However, the least
manufacturing process is designed as per the
controversial and most accepted definition states
requirements of the component to be manufac
that "powder metallurgy is the technique of form
tured. The principle of powder metallurgy have ing solid objects from metal/nonmetal powders".
been in use since 300 B.C. when massive solid Various metal and nonmetal powders are thor
iron objects were manufactured. oughly mixed in the required proportions and
More recent developments of powder metal pressed in suitable dies. Heating and compact
lurgy took place in the year 1829, when an En ing of the powders is done, either concurrently
glish engineer cold pressed and sintered platinum or subsequently, for the required time. Heating
powder to produce ductile platinum. Later, in in this process is always done below the melting
1870, the osmium filament was prepared by the point of the parent metal. For the powder metal
powder metallurgy technique. In 1916, a com lurgy process, a metal must possess the follow
mercial tungsten wire was produced by the ing characteristics:
method of powder metallurgy. After that many 1. It must be capable of responding to solid
phase welding.
developments took place in the field of powder
2. The metal powder to be used must be ca
metallurgy, and now a large variety of compo pable of sufficient close packing under
nents like carbide cutting tools, refractory parts, pressure, and in the case of alloys, it must
tantalum, molybdenum, etc. are produced by this be capable of being sufficiently and inti
technique. Nonmetallic powders are often a�ded mately mixed to permit welding to take
to improve bonding of particles and to give cer place to form a component in a coalesced
tain other characteristic properties. mass.
�---------------Manufacturing Processes I
powder and its behaviour during sintering and product. Microstructure also helps in the study
moulding. Its analysis is done on the basis of of fissures and porosity of the component.
powder passing through different sieves.
20.3.9 Flow Factor
20.3.5 Density
Flow factor or flowability is defined as the rate
Density is mass per unit volume. Apparent den at which the metal powder will flow under grav
sity is the weight of a unit volume of powder ity "from a container through an orifice, both
when packed loosely. It is calculated in terms of having the standard shape and finish. Usually, it
gram per cubic centimetre by weighing a known is the time taken for 50 g of tbe ,powder to flow
volume of powders. Apparent density is also through a standard orifice at the bottom of a
caHed loading weight and its value is much Less metal cone whose internal angle is 60° . The time
than the vaJue of the solid particle. is noted in seconds. The flow rate is necessary
to study the behaviour of powder, whether it
20.3.6 Compression Ratio will fill aJI the cavities and recesses in the mould.
It is the ratio of the volume of uncompressed The flow factor depends on the size, shape, size
powder to the volume of the product after press distribution and inter-particle friction between
ing. This is also known as compressibility. Com the particles. Good flow factor is necessary for
pression ratio varies from material to material filling the moulds quickly and uniformly.
and depends on the particle size. Generally, 3 to 20.3.10 Ability to be Sintered
l compression ratio is desirable in powders but
can be higher in the case of fine powders. Com It is the property of the metal powders due to
pression ratio is important in designing dies for which they do not require too narrow a tempe
rature range for the purpose of sintering. Every
particular powders and is often obtained by di- ·
·metal powder has a good sintering ability. A
viding the density of the compressed powders
metal powder having good sintering ability pos
by the apparent density of the powder. sesses good bonding among its particles, and
. . Den�ity of the compressed powder consequently results in better mechanical and
Compress1on ratio = ---------
Apparent de�ty of Lbe powder physical properties of the product.
20.3.7 Particle Shape 20.4 METHODS OF PRODUCING METAL
Metal powders have various shapes like spheri POWDERS
cal, angular, rounded and acicular. Spherical MetaJlic powders are the first and prime requir
particles are found in condensed zinc and have ement in the technique of powder metallurgy.
ex.cellent sintering properties, whereas irregular AJJ metal powders are not used in powder metall
(acicular or angular) particles have superior urgy. MainJy two forms of metallic powder are
moulding properties. used. These are iron-based materials and copper
20.3.8 Particle Microstructure based materials. Powders of tungsten, nickel,
steel, silver and aluminium alloys are frequently
The microscopic examination of particJes of high used in powder metallurgy. The Metal Powder
magnification reveals various phases, inclusions, Company Limited, M,µavankulam, Thirumang
impurities, etc. and is very heJpful in the study lam (Madurai) produces a variety of metallic
of behaviour of the material after forming into powders.
----------------Powder Metallurgy--------------2491
The most important techniques used in the of brittle and soft materials like magnesium, an
production of metallic powders are discussed in timony and aluminium. In the shotting technique,
the following subsections. the molten metal is passed through a sieve or an
·20.4.1 Mechanical Disintegration or orifice followed by cooling in water by drop
ping from a height. This process gives spherical
Pulverization
or pearshaped particles. Metal powders of alu
By this process, metallic powders are produced minium, lead and zinc are produced by this
by the application of mechanical force on the method. Finally, powders are produced by ham
metal pieces. Some of the mechanical disintegr mering.
ation methods used for producing metal pow
ders are turning, machining, milling, shaping and 20.4.2 Atomization
grinding. This process is generally used for This technique is used for metals like lead, tin,
brittle materials. Hammering and eddy mills are aluminium, cadmium, tin, copper, etc., i.e. for
also used in mechanical pulverization process. metals which have low melting points. In this
In mechanical pulverisers, blows from revolv process, the molten metal is forced through a
ing hammers are struck continuously on the me small orifice and is broken by a powerful jet or ·
tallic powders which disintegrate into small stream of compressed air, gas, liquid or steam.
particles due to heavy blows. Mechanical As a result, the jet of liquid metal is changed into
disintegration is usually followed by machin very small particles that are generally spherical
ing, turning, milling, etc., where the coarse me
or pear shaped, coated with a thin film of ox
tallic particles are changed to fine particles as
ides. The collision between the stream of metal
shown in Fig. 20.1. Crushers, rotary mills and
stamping also produce fine· powders. Very fine and air, etc. produces small particles which are
particles can be produced by milling of particles erron-eously called atoms, and hence the pro
cess is called atomization. As shown in Fig. 20.2
an inert gas stream is used often to improve the
purity of the metals by avoiding the formation
of oxides.
Molten
metal
(a)
Metal
Motion of job particles
Metal
(b) powder
Fig. 20.1 Mechanical disintegration (a) Crushing
(b) Milling Fig. 20.2 Atomization process
1250-------------Manufacturing Processes!----- ---------
20.4.3 Electrolytic Deposition cess is used to produce metallic powders of met

als having high melting point, like cobalt, nickel,
This method is used to produce very pure pow
tungsten, molybdenum and iron. In this process,
ders. Powders of copper, silver, iron, tantalum,
zinc, tin and molybdenum are usually produced metallic oxides are heated in a current of hydro
by electrolysis as shown in Fig. 20.3. These pow gen to reduce them to i:netallic powders. Ex
ders are free from impurities and are also resis tremely fine particle size can be produced by
tant to oxidation. Powders obtained by this reduction. Particles of the metals obtained by
process have characteristic dendritic structure, reduction have a sponge like nature and are ideal
with low apparent density and are easily com for soft pressing due to their softness and plas
pressed. Copper powder is widely used for the ticity. Pure powders of silver and copper are
manufacture of porous bearings. produced by precipitation. Reduction of iron is
carried out by heating iron oxide with charcoal.
The iron so produced is called sponge iron.
Fe3 04 + 4C -� 3Fe + 4C02
Fe304 + 4CO � 3Fe + 4C02
Metallic powders of low melting and boiling
metals like zinc, cadmium and magnesium are
produced by condensation. A rod of the metal is
fed into a high-temperature flame and the metal
vapourized. The vapourized droplets of the metal
Fig. 20.3 Electrolysis are allowed to condense by passing through a
cold surface of the material, where the pure metal
The process of manufacture is similar to elec
condenses in the form of powder. This method
trolysis in which the pure metal deposits on the
cathode in an electrolyte when an electric cur is not economical for large scale production of
rent is passed through it. The metal deposits on powders.
the cathode and is removed from the cathode to 20,5 PRINCIPLES OF POWDER
the required degree of fineness. Then it is washed METALLURGY
with water to remove the impurities and is dried.
Powder metallurgy is the most suitable technique
20.4.4 Chemical Methods for the manufacture of refractory materials and
Reduction, precipitation and condensation are other materials which are difficult to work with
some of the chemical methods used to produce tools or possess very high melting points. It is
metallic powders. The chemical reduction pro- an important tool for the fabrication of metals
Waste outlet H2 Inlet
Metal powder �
., J) r
Fig. 20.4 Reduction of metallic powders

------- - - - - ----Powder Metallurgy--------------2511
and their alloys having high melting points like Blending or mixing powders The blending or
ceramics, tungsten carbides, porous self-lubri mixing operation is carried out on the metallic
cating bearings, etc. powder prior to pressing. It is done to add cer
Powder metallurgy is the process of produc tain lubricants, binding materials and volatalising
ing parts from metallic powders of a single metal agents to give the desirable porosity. Thorough
mixing is done to obtain uniform distribution of
or different metals. The powders are thoroughly
the particle size.
mixed, compacted at high pressure into a par
ticular shape and then heated at elevated tem Pressing or compacting of powders In simple
peratures below the melting point of the solid words, powder metallurgy may be considered
as a technique in which metal powders are
powder. Heating helps in providing the bonding
pressed into desired shape, usually in a metal
strength in the powder and thus the powders mould, under high pressure. Pressing is the name
coalesce into a solid mass. Heating also improves given to compacting, and sintering is the stage
the physical and mechanical properties. of heating. The process of compacting is also
termed as briquetting. Compacting requires very
20.6 PROCESS OF POWDER high pressures, i.e. 100-1000 kg/cm2 •
METALLURGY Metal powder is selected according to the .
In simple terms, the process of powder metal characteristics required for the manufactured
lurgy involves different steps for the production product. In many cases, two or more powders
and finishing of components by this technique. are mixed or blended when a single powder is
not capable of giving the required properties.
Broadly, the process of powder metallurgy can
Sometimes particles of various sizes are blended
be divided into the following stages: to improve density and the flow factor. While
1. Production of metallic powders mixing, powders should be protected from oxi
2. Selection of the powder dation.
3. Conditioning of the powder During the process of mixing, sometimes lu
4. Blending or mixing of the powders bricants are added to the powders to minimise
5. Pressing of powders into desired shape die wall friction and for better ejection. Pow
(compacting) dered graphite, lithium stearate and stearic acid
6. Sintering of the product are generally used as lubricants. Lubrication mix
7. Further processing of the component ing is essential in automatic feed presses, but
8. Inspection and testing of components lubricants added to the powders also increase
9. Incorporation of special methods of pro- the porosity of the product, resulting in poor
mechanical properties.
duction.
When pressure is applied on the powders, the
Production of metallic powders has already particles move into the voids, are deformed and
been discussed above. keyed to one another. It reduces porosity, and
Selection of metallic powders Much care is increases coherency of the particles, producing
needed in the selection of metallic powders. They a compact having sufficient strength to with
stand handling. Some particles are cold welded
must be chemically pure, of uniform dimensions
by the application of pressure. The extent of cold
and capable of withstanding the requirements of welding depends upon the particle size, extent
use. of the particle deformation, and hardness of the
Conditioning ofpowders Proper care is needed metal. Soft metal particles require less pressure
to see that particles are of uniform size and do for cold welding than hard metal particles. Incr
not possess any moisture or oxides.. ease in pressure increases hardness and density
1252-------------Manufacturing Processes 1--------------
of the material, .but there is a limit to the in

crease in pressure, beyond which it has no ef
fect. This value of pressure, is called the powder
optimum pressure. Pressure must be applied
evenly and smoothly from all sides and increased
slowly, taking into consideration that air is not
entrapped in it. The extent of pressure to be
applied depends upon the shape of the particles,
mode of preparation, degree of oxidation and Loading
work hardening tendency of the material. Com . position
pacting of powder may create the following
effects on the component:
1. As the particles are forced together under
pressure, the porosity of the material de
creases and the surface irregularities are
removed.
2. Compacting causes deformation of the par
ticles and increases the mechanical prop
erties of the metallic powders. Proper bon
ding and pressure increases the tensile as
well as the compressive strength. Loading Final position
3. Cold welding occurs between adjacent par position
ticles. (b)
Generally, two types of presses are used, i.e.
automatic and hydraulic presses. Mechanical pre Fig. 20.5 Compacting ofpowders: (a) Initial position
sses are preferred where high rate of production ofpunch {b) Final position ofpunch
is needed and the size of the component is small.
Hydraulic presses and used where high pressure quired. As the length of the lower punch is more,
is needed, as in the case of larger components. the upper punch is taken out and the product is
The compacting operation may be continu ejected out of the cavity by the lower punch.
ous or in a single cycle. The presses used are Proper draft is provided on the die and punch
either of the single-punch type, or high-speed to easily take out the component. The die surface
rotary multiple-punch type. Rate of production should be smooth and well polished, so that the
of the rotary table press is higher as it consists material does not stick to 1t and comes out easily
of a number of die cavities. The table rotates without friction and rubbing. If friction between
and various stages of the pressing process, i.e. the walls and the punch and the die and the
filling, pressing, sintering and ejecting, are car component is high, most of the punch pressure
ried out. will be used to overcome this and consequently
Figure 20.5 shows the principle of the punch only a small portion will reach the metal powder.
and die arrangement for pressing a simple metal Pressure on powders is applied by both the upper
compact. The upper punch conforms to the top and the lower punches and it is important that
shape of the part, while the lower punch moves the pressure applied be uniform throughout the
up. The metallic powder is compressed to shape compact to ensure uniform density and properties
in between the two punches. The shape and size of the component throughout. The travel of the
of the punches and dies conforms strictly to the punches depends upon the size of the component
shape and size of the compact (component) re- and compression ratio required for the compact.
-------- - ------Powder Metallurgy -----------
- --2531
Generally, the compression ratio is 3: 1 for drying, the component is processed in the usual
copper, iron and brass. Pressure needed for way.
compacting varies from material to material. For
tin, a pressure of 1.0 kg/mm2 is sufficient, 20. 7 SINTERING
whereas for tungsten, iron and refractory
It is a process of heating the compressed com
materials, pressure varies from 7.5 to 150 kg/
2 pacts at high temperatures, under controlled at·
mm . It has also been seen that fine powders
mospheric conditions, so as to give more cohes
require higher pressure than the coarse powders
to provide necessary strength and density to the ion to the particles. It is a process by which solid
material. bodies are bound by atomic force, and thus give
During operation, the die should be uniformly more strength and better mechanical properties
filled with powder. This is easier for the free to the finished product. The effectiveness of the
flowing powders, but difficulties are experienced surface tension reactions is more and the par
in the case of very fine powders, which cannot ticles· are pressed into a more compact mass by
travel uniformly or automatically to all parts of the application of heat. During sintering, the flu
the die cavity. Mechanical and electrical impulses idity of the component increases. This gives bet
are used to tap the dies to fill all cavities in such ter interlocking of atoms of the constituents
cases. Atmospheric conditions like humidity have resulting in better properties. Heat also elimi
a marked effect on the powder properties. Hu nates gases and any other volatile material
midity hinders filling operations and lubricants present in the constituents. The temperature of
like graphite of hydrogenated oils are used in sintering depends largely upon the composition
such cases. Small quantities of stearates, alkali of the constituents but is always kept below the
and alkaline earth metals are also used as lubri melting point of the parent metal. The tempera
cants. ture and time of sintering varies with the type of
Green compact is similar to the ejected fini metal powders, compressive load applied and
shed parts, except that it has only the strength the strength required in the finished product. At
obtained from the interlocked particles, because mospheric conditions and time have a vast im
of compression, but the final strength is obtained pact on the sintering process of the component.
only after sintering the product. Since the products are made from very small
Centrifugal compacting is a recent develop particles having vast surface area, the chances
ment in powder metallurgy, which is used for
of formation of oxides are high. Therefore, the
heavy metallic powders like tungsten carbide,
control of atmospheric conditions is important.
molybdenum, etc. to obtain a product of uni
form thickness and density. In this · process, This is done by carrying out the sintering opera
centrifugal force is used for compacting the metal tion in a suitable inert atmosphere or atmosphere
powders. This process is used· on components of nitrogen. The temperature and time of sinter
of uniform thickness, and is not suitable for com ing of some materials is given in Table 20.1.
ponents of small and irregular thickness. The
cost of the product produced by this method is Table 20.1
also less and wastage is minimum. ------------------
Type of Powder · Sintering . Time
Another method used for making components temperature ("C)
having considerable variation in size and shape -··
of green compacts like tungsten carbide and mol Iron and its alloys 1000-1100 10-12 h
ybdenum powders, involves the preparation of Porous bearing bronze 750-850. 30 min
900 30 min
metallic powder into a slurry and then driving it Brass
Al and its alloys 170-400 3h
into a mould made from plaster of paris. After
1254- - - -- -
------Manufacturing Processes!-------- ------
Temperature for sintering is always below the process of sintering should not be carried out
melting point of the main constituent of the pow for a long time as grain growth occurs on
der. There is always an optimum temperature for prolonged heating and this adversely affects the
a particular material and no purpose is served by properties. The following changes take place in
exceeding it. In addition to the temperature for si the compact on heating at optimum temperature:
ntering. the time of sintering and the presence of 1. Grain growth occurs across the original
impurities and gases also has a marked effect on inter-particle boundary. Excessive heating
the result of sintering. The atmosphere in which coarsens the grains that result in the com
sintering is done is also important, because the ponent having unacceptable mechanical
surface area of the particles is quite large. To pre properties.
vent the formation of oxides, an atmosphere of 2. The number of pores is minimised.
cracked ammonia, partially burned coal gas, pure 3. Angular and acicular powder particles and
hydrogen or nitrogen, etc. are commonly used trapped oxides change into spheroidal stru
depending upon the requirements of the material. cture.
During the sintering operation, the size of the Whenever any machining operation is to be
compact generally shrinks and in very few cases carried out on the component, the operation of
remains unaltered. The particle size, pressure presintering is carried out. In this operation, the
used, sintering temperature and time have a mar compact is heated to a temperature much below
ked effect on the sintering properties. First chan the actual sintering temperature. It provides suf
ge takes place at about 260° C. The process of ficient strength to the compact and after the ma
sintering becomes rapid in the range of the rec chining operation is complete, sintering is carried
rystallization temperature of the metal. At this out to completion. The process of pre-sintering
point, much change occurs in the properties of is useful for those products which are too hard
the compact. The porosity of the compact is and brittle to be machined.
given by the following relation: The sintering furnace may be batch type or
continuous type, and is heated by gas, oil, coal
Apparent density
Porosity = [1 - ] x 100% or electricity. A continuous belt conveyor hav
Theoretical density ing a wire mesh belt to carry the compacts
The porosity of a component also increases through the furnace is shown in Fig. 20.6. Di
due to the removal of the absorbed gases. The mensional changes sometimes take place during
Exhaust hood
Thermo-
Fig. 20.6 Continuous type sintering furnace used in powder metallurgy

---- ----- -----Powder Metallurgy------- - -
- ----255)
sintering, depending upon the compacting pres by the powder metallurgy technique. Parts are
sure. A proper allowance should be made for machined after sintering for the above operations.
the same.
20.8.4 Impregnation
To obtain high dimensional accuracy and sur
face finish, further operations like coining, hot Impregnation is an operation of the addition of
pressing and swaging are performed on the sin oil, grease, wax or other lubricating oils to the
tered compacts. These operations are carried out saturation point of absorption. Sintered parts are
at much higher pressures than compacting. This immersed in the lubricants heated nearly to 95° C
results in increased density and strength. In for 20-25 minutes. The lubricant is retained in
filteration is the process used to close the voids. the pores by the capillary action and 95-99%
Copper is infiltrated into iron by this process. porosity is eliminated. The sintered parts are imp
regnated by plastics also to improve their corr
20.8 SECONDARY OPERATIONS OR osion resistance, machinability and introduce pre
FURTHER PROCESSING ssure tightness. It is also done to provide a seal
Generally, the components are ready for use af prior to electroplating.
ter sintering. In many cases, further operations 20.8.5 Infilteration
are needed to get better surface finish and prop
erties. These operations are known as secondary Infilteration is the process of the addition of one
operations, and are described as follows. metal to the pores of the sintered component. It
1. Coining is done by placing a replica (or infilterant) blank
2. Sizing of copper over the sintered iron component
3. Machining which has 30-40% porosity. The components
4. Impregnation (iron compact and copper replica) are heated in
5. Infilteration side a furnace where the copper melts and infil
6. Heat treatment terates into the pores of the component, produc
7. Plating ing a component of 100% density. lnfilteration
8. Joining provides extra strength, hardness and toughness
to the sintered components.
20.8.1 Coining
20.8.6 Heat Treatment
It is the process of pressing the sintered compo
nent in the dies to reduce porosity and increase The heat treatment operation is carried out in a
its density. controlled atmosphere on sintered parts to in
crease wear resistance, strength, hardness, tough
20.8.2 Sizing
ness, impact, etc. It also improves grain size
During sintering, distortion and other changes and prevents oxidation of the internal structures.
take place in the component. Sizing is the pro Stress relieving, carbonitriding, carburising, in
cess of pressing the component in the dies to duction hardening, full hardening and nitriding
make it dimensionally accurate. Sizing also imp are some heat treatment operations performed
roves surface finish with relatively small changes on sintered components.
in density.
20.8. 7 Plating
20.8.3 Machining
Sintered components are plated to protect them
Many operations like threading, grooving and from corrosion, and to improve wear resistance
undercutting cannot be provided on a component and friction and increase hardness characteris-
1256�------------Manufacturing Processes I
tics and electrical conductivity and to impart a ish, sheets are rolled and fabricated into suit
pleasing appearance. Chromium, nickel, tin, co able shapes. These stainless steel sheets are cor
pper, cobalt and cadmium plating is generally rosion resistant and are used as filters for
done on the sintered components. Before plat gasoline, oils, petrol and chemicals.
ing, the component is impregnated with plastic The rolling process is used for making brass,
resin so that the electrolyte is not entrapped in copper, bronze and monel sheets from their pow
the pores of the component. ders. The metal powder is filled in a hopper and
the powder is allowed to fall in between two
20.8.8 Joining metallic rollers, which compress it into a metal
Different joining operations like soldering, braz lic sheet. The component is sintered in a sinter
ing and welding are carried out on the sintered ing furnace and rolled once again to the final
size. During compressing, the particles interlock,
components.
and this results in sufficient strength. Strength
Welding Different operations like tungsten in and porosity are controlled by suitable pressures.
ert gas welding, atomic hydrogen gas welding, This process results in uniform mechanical prop
projection welding, friction welding, electron erties and controlled porosity.
beam welding, plasma arc welding are carried
out on the sintered components. 20.9.2 Porous Bearings
Brazing It is the process of joining two differe Articles made by powder metallurgy can be given
nt materials. Carbide tip tools are brazed on mild any degree of desired porosity. It is done by co
steel shank. The operation is carried out in a va ntrolling the size of the particles, their distribu
cuum or controlled atmosphere. tion . and pressure during compacting. Porous, ·
self-lubricating bearings of bronze, copper, tin,
Soldering Soldering is done on low melting graphite and iron are made by powder metal
alloys like copper and aluminium components. lurgy. Controlled-porosity self-lubricating bear
Soldering is done with solders in vacuum or ings are used in high capacity electrical
controlled atmosphere. accumulator plates, filters, oil pump gears, door
catchers, cams, washers guide blocks, machine
20.9 APPLICATIONS OF POWDER saws, etc.
METALLURGY
20.9.3 Babitt Bearings for Automobiles
The following are the applications of powder
metallurgy: Main bearings and connecting rod bearings for
automobiles are produced by the powder metal
20.9.1 Porous Metal Sheets lurgy technique. In this process, the mixture of
Metal powders like copper, brass, bronze, monel copper and nickel powder is applied to a steel
backing piece which is passed on to a sintering
and stainless steel are rolled into porous sheets
furnace after pressing. Generally, a mixture of
having controlled porosity. Generally, two meth 45% nickel and 55% copper is used in this pro
ods are used for rolling the sheets, viz. gravity cess. During sintering, a strong bond is formed
sintering and rolling. by copper with a steel backing piece, while the
The gravity sintering method is used for stain nickel alloy forms a composite porous bearing
less steel powders. In this process, a layer of material with copper.
uniform thickness is spread over ceramic trays.
20.9.4 Cemented Carbides
It is sintered at high temperature for 40 hours in
an atmosphere of dissociated ammonia. To ob Carbides of tungsten, molybdenum, titanium and
tain a uniform thickness and better surface fin- tantalum are generally used for cutting tools.
------ - ---- - -
- Powder Metallurgy·- ---- - ------2571
All these metals have very high melting points. lar to those of grey cast iron with the advantage
Tungsten carbide is produced by heating tung that the components made by this process have
sten oxide with lamp black in a current of hy 20% porosity.
drogen at 1600° C for many hours. Cobalt powder
20.9.7 Motor Brushes
is produced similarly. Cobalt is used as a binder
in tungsten powder. The two powders are mixed The brushes of motors are also produced by pow
in equal proportions, pressed to 48 kg/cm2 and der metallurgy. In this process, powders of cop
sintered in two stages. Preliminary sintering is per and graphite are mixed in the required quan
carried out at a temperature of 900° C. Then the tities and sintered. The compact combines the
component is machined to exact dimensions. high conductivity of copper with the light weight
Final sintering is carried out at a temperature of and lubricating properties of graphite. Small qua
1300° C for 2 hours and the component is ready ntities of tin and lead are added to increase the
for use. wear resistance of brushes.
20.9.5 Ductile Tungsten 20.9.8 Refractory Material Composite
Tungsten has very high melting point, and is The refractory material must be capable of with
very difficult to cast. Dr. W.D. Coolidge was the standing a minimum temperature of 1580° C.
first scientist to develop tungsten powder by the These materials cannot be produced by any meth
od other than powder metallurgy. These materi
reduction of tungsten oxide with hydrogen. The
als are also called cermets and are materials like
powder is pressed, pre-sintered and re-sintered
magnesium oxide, sillica carbide, graphite, chro
to get ductile tungsten. Swaging and drawing mium oxide, molybdenum, tantalum and platin
operation is used to form strong ductile wires of um. These are produced by the grinding, mixing,
nearly 0.2 mm diameter by passing it through compacting and sintering of metallic powders.
diamond or tungsten carbide dies. Further fin
ishing of the wire is done at l000° C. This tung 20.9.9 Metallic Filters
sten wire has a strength which is more than twice Parts upto 80% porosity can be produced by the
the hardest steel and is used as a filament in the powder metallurgy technique. Filters are used in
incandescent lamp industry. Tungsten wire is the industry to remove impurities from oils, liq
used for various industrial applications requir uids and gases. These materials are also shock
ing high value of strength and hardness. resistant. Nickel, silver, bronze and monel are
generally used· in filters. The metal powder is
· 20.9.6 Pump Rotors and Gears crushed, mixed in proper proportions with bond
Pump rotors and gears used in the automobile ing material, pressed and sintered to form fil
industry are manufactured by the powder metal ters. Pores ranging from 1 to 50 microns are
lurgy process. Powdered pure iron is mixed with produced by this process. These days, stainless
sufficient graphite to provide the desired carbon steel filters that are commonly used are produced
by this method.
content of the product. The powder is then pres
sed in moulds to provide exact dimensions and 20.9.10 Diamond Tools
then sintered. These components are then impre
Diamond tool bits are made by blending 30%
gnated with oil after sintering in order to reduce diamond dust with iron powder. Pressing of the
wear and tear and also noise during operation. compact is carried out at 8-10 kg/cm2 and then
This process is especially suitable for making sintering is done at 1000° C. These tools are used
gears of exact shape and size. The properties of for cutting hard materials like porcelein and
the components made by this process are simi- glass.
1258-------------ManufacturingProcesses !---- - - - ----- -
-
20.9.11 Cores and Electrodes 20.9.15 Other Applications of Powder

Metallurgy
Metal combinations having widely different melt
ing points like tungsten-copper, tungsten-cobalt, 1. Diamond cutting laminated wheels
silver-molybdenum and silver-tungsten, are fre 2. Brake bonds
quently used to form cores and electrodes. Met 3. Welding electrodes
als like tungsten and molybdenum can resist the 4. Graphite electrodes used in arc furnace
effect of the arc and are used in switch gears. 5. Clutch friction surfaces containing Cu, Sn,
These parts are also wear resistant. The cores of C, Pb, etc.
sintered tungsten are used in telegraphy, telep 6. Paints and pigments
hony, radios and televisions. These are also suita 7. Metal powders are also added to plastics
ble for high-frequency and magnetic applications. 8. Oil well drills
9. Grinding wheel dressers.
20.9.12 Magnets
Small magnets known as Alnico, a mixture of 20.10 ADVANTAGES OF POWDER
aluminium, nickel and copper powders are prod METALLURGY
uced by powder metallurgy. These magnets have The following are the advantages of powder
better properties than the cast magnets. They metallurgy:
possess a homogeneous structure, fine grain size 1. High production rate.
and are free from internal defects. Magnets used 2. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish
in the scientific instruments are produced by of the component is good and machining
powder metallurgy because they possess good operation is eliminated.
magnetic characteristics. 3. Articles of any typical shape, but of limited
20.9.13 Glass Metal Seals size can be manufactured by this method.
4. Components of d�sired porosity can be
Glass metal seals are produced by the powder manufactured by controlling the composi
metallurgy technique using refractory metal com tion of the cqnstituents and pressure of
binations. These materials have the advantage of compacting.
low coefficient of thermal expansion or contrac 5. Two or more metals can be mixed in the
tion and give better results than castings. required proportion to give desired prop
20.9.14 Metallic Coating erties, which is difficult by melting.
6. Cleaner and quicker operation and longer
It is the process of deposition of a very thin life of the component.
layer of one material over the surface of another 7. Super-hard cutting tool bits of tungsten
material. A metallic coating of copper is done carbide are also made by this process.
over stainless steel cooking utensils to produce 8. There is no wastage of any raw material as·
a perfectly uniform temperature over the whole in the case of casting, etc. This process
range. Duplex thermostat materials are manufa makes use of 100% of the material.
tured by powder metallurgy in which different 9. Relatively more uniform structure, free
layers of different metals are brazed one over the from defects is obtained.
other. Iron backed platinum contacts for �he 10. Metals and nonmetals can also be mixed
Payne mercury switch metal plates are manufac in any proportion and components made
tured by pressing and heating in an atmosphere thereof.
of hydrogen. It is purely a powder metallurgy 11. Parts with wide variations in material com
technique. positions can be produced.
Powder Metallurgy---------,----------2591
12. Production of diamond impregnated tools 4. Initial cost of the dies is high.
is possible only by this method. 5. Big size components cannot be produced
13. Electrical and magnetic . contact materials by this technique.
are produced by this method. 6. Metal powders possess greater volume, are
14. Alloys of the metals having widely differ- difficult to store and get oxidised on long
ent melting points and densities can be pro storing or deteriorate after some time.
duced by this method. 7. The articles produced by this method have
15. Highly skilled and qualified labour is not
poor ductility.
required.
8. Machining of the components is difficult.
16. Production of copper and lead alloys (bear
ings) has become possible by the powder 9. As the dies are used under very high pres
metallurgy technique. sures in powder metallurgy, wear and tear
of the dies is high.
20.11 DISADVANTAGES OF POWDER 10. This process is not economical for produc
METALLURGY ing components less than 35,000 in num
ber.
The following are the disadvantages of powder
11. A completely dense product cannot be pro
metallurgy:
1. Many complicated shapes that can be pro duced by this method.
duced by casting cannot be produced by 12. It may be difficult to obtain a particular
powder metallurgy. alloy powder.
2. The components made by powder metal 13. There are design limitations in the case of
lurgy do not possess as good. physical prop parts being produced by powder metal
erties as the cast or wrought parts. lurgy.
3. The procedure of manufacturing powders, 14. Some metals are difficult to compress.
also of compacting and sintering is costly, 15. Parts pressed from top tend to be less dense
i.e. metal powders are expensive. at the bottom.
a\1:ULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( ,./) for the right answer (c) the powders are heated to above the melt
1. Powder metallurgy is the process of ing point of the parent metal
(a) converting metals into powders (d) the heating is not necessary
(b) converting powders into solid metal 3. The desirable compression ratio for producing
(c) making component by applying pressure components from metallic powders is
on powders (a) 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1
(d) making component from metallic powders (c) 5 : 1 (d) 7 : 1
by applying heat and pressure. 4. The following component is made by powder
2. While making component from metallic pow metallurgy:
ders, (a) carbon brushes (b) pump bodies
(a) the powders are compressed at room tem (c) safety valves (d) copper wire
perature 5. The following component is not made by pow
(b) the powders are heated to below the melt der metallurgy:
ing point of the parent metal (a) porous copper bearings
1260.--- --- - ---- Ma
- nufacturing Processes!------- - - ---- -
-
(b) tungsten wires (a) powders are easy to handle

(c) high-speed steel tools (b) powders require lesser space
(d) motor bushes (c) many metals cannot be melted and pro-.
6. In comparison to conventional metal producing cessed easily
methods, articles produced from metallic pow (d) powdered parts have low porosity.
ders have 8. The following component is not made by pow
(a) higher ductility der metallurgy:
(b) lower ductility (a) diamond tools
(c) higher strength (b) chisels
(d) higher impact resistance (c) metallic filers
7. Metallic powders are used in industry because (d) graphite electrodes
. VIEW QUESTIONS
'..... ·--�•-•
. �••-...•M•-·--·--·--·--.......,..,...... ..��---�=....c..�,
1. What do you understand by powder metallurgy? 9. Enumerate the importance of (a) pressing and
What should be the characteristics of metallic (b) sintering in powder metallurgy.
powders? 10. State whether the following statements are true
2. What is powder metallurgy? What are the vari- or false:
ous methods of producing powders?
(a) Metallic powders are easy to produce.
3. State briefly the process of making a powder
metallurgy product having improved properties (b) Metallic powders have long life.
and discuss the advantages of powder metal- (c) Components produced by powder metal-
lurgy. lurgy have better strength than components
4. Enumerate the various desirable properties of produced by other conventional methods.
metallic powders used in powder metallurgy. (d) Long thin parts should be produced by
5. What are the main factors that should be con- powder metallurgy.
sidered in the process of sintering? Explain the (e) The powder metallurgy process is easier
sintering process. than conventional methods.
6. What is powder metallurgy? What are its
(f) Components produced by powder metal-
advantages and disadvantages?
7. Discuss the essential stages in the process of lurgy are porous.
manufacture by powder metallurgy. State a few (g) The powder metallurgy process is appli-
important applications of powder metallurgy. cable to metals and nonmetals.
8. What are the present industrial uses of powder (h) The powder metallurgy process is used for
metallurgy? high melting metals and alloys.
21.1 INTRODUCTION (ii) Mechanical cleaning processes
(a) Sand blasting
Components, particularly those made of steel,
(b) Shot blasting
get contaminated during and after production.
Scale is formed on the components after hot (c) Hydroblasting
working. Castings get contaminated with sand. (d) Tumbling
In a workshop, components get contaminated (e) Barrelling.
with cutting oils, grease, wax, tars, dirt and scale. Surface coating processes can be classified into
Thus, surface treatment of components is neces (i) Metallic coatings
sary (a) to increase the life of the component, (a) Galvanising
(b) to carry out further operations, and (c) to put (b) Electroplating
it to practical use. (c) Sherardising
All contaminants cannot be removed by a (d) Tinning
single cleaning operation. Different methods are (e) Metal spraying
used for removing different contaminants. (f) Vapour deposition
After the removal of contaminants, different (g) Cladding
protective coatings are applied on components (h) Dipping.
(a) to increase the life of the component and
(ii) Non-metallic coatings.
(b) to improve its appearance.
(a) Painting or lacquering
21.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE (b) Plastic coating
TREATMENT PROCESSES (c) Anodising
(d) Chemical dip coating
Surface treatment processes can be classified into (e) Vitreous enamelling
(i) Cleaning processes (f) Slushing compounds coating.
(ii) Surface coating processes.
Cleaning processes can be classified into 21.3 CLEANING BY ACIDS
(i) Chemical cleaning processes
(a) Cleaning by acid The cleaning of steels with acids is called pick
(b) Cleaning by alkali or salt ling. It is basically a chemical process carried
(c) Cleaning by solution and vapour. out by dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric
1262,-_ -------- ----Manufacturing Processes!---------------
acid with the addition of an inhibitor. An in Removal of scale by sodium hydride takes
hibitor is added to moderate the attack of the place according to the following reactions:
acid upon the metal. It makes the action milder, Fe304 + 4NaH = 3Fe + 4NaOH
so that the scale is gently removed without ex CuO + NaH = Cu + NaOH
cessive attack upon the metal. Hexamine is used
as an inhibitor for hydrochloric acid and stannine Salt bath cleaning is preferred over acid pick
for sulphuric acid. ling because:
Pickling solutions vary in chemical composi (i) it is a comparatively quicker process
tion, concentration and temperature of use. These (ii) pitting of surface is less
variations are governed by (a) the kind of sur (iii) loss of metal is eliminated.
face oxide and (b) the degree of surface cleanli This is a comparatively costlier process and
ness required. Hydrated ferric oxide constitutes is primarily used for descaling stainless and high
the common reddish rust and is soluble in a alloy steels.
pickling acid solution. Anhydrous ferric oxides
21.3,2 Solution and Vapour Cleaning
. and magnetic oxides are usually removed by acid
pickling. Cleaning of surfaces is carried out to eliminate
Pickling solutions are not used for the re all types of unwanted substances. Unwanted sub-
moval of grease, oil and lubricants. If these con stances can be divided into (a) organic and (b)
stituents are present on steel components, it is inorganic substance. Oils, grease and fats are
advisable to give a degreasing (cleaning) treat organic substances. Rust, metallic oxide, abra
ment to them. sive dust particles, etc. are inorganic substances.
During a pickling operation, the bath should
preferably be agitated to prevent the formation 21.3,3 Degreasing
of gas on the surface. A gas acts as a barrier Degreasing is the process of removing grease
between the acid and metal surface, resulting in and oil from metallic components. It is carried
small areas of sealed metal. Mechanical stirring out by using a number of special reacting sub
is the most commonly used practice in industry. -stances. A degreasing substance must possess
21.3.1 Salt Bath Cleaning the following properties:
1. It should be capable of eliminating every
Sodium hydride is the most commonly used salt
form of oil, grease, wax and tar from
bath process of descaling. It does not constitute
metallic surfaces.
the descaling agent in itself. For practical pur
2. It should be non-toxic in nature.
poses, sodium hydride is embedded in a liquid
bath containing a carrier. Sodium hydroxide acts 3. It should be non-inflammable.
as a carrier for this bath. This process is advan 4. It should possess low viscosity and sur
tageous, as the hydride does not attack the face tension.
cleaned surface and is a good cleaning agent. 5. It should not chemically react with grease
Hydrides are not added directly to the bath. They and must be separable easily for reuse.
are produced in the bath according to the chemi 6. It should not attack the component.
cal reaction Soda is the most commonly used degreasing
2Na + H2 = 2NaH agent. Other degreasing agents are trichloroeth
by passing hydrogen gas in· open chambers con ylene, white spirit, sodium silicate and caustic
taining sodium (the chambers are also known as soda. The principal plants used for degreasing
regenerators). can be classified as:
Surface Treatment of Metalis-----------------'203-J
(i) Vapour degreasing plant 21.3.6 Electrolytic Cleaning

(ii) Liquor degreasing plant
(iii) Multiple-liquor degreasing plant. The electrolytic process of cleaning consists of
A vapour degreasing plant consists of an open suspending the workpiece in an alkaline solu
tank heated from underneath by suitable fuels. tion. A de current of 6-12 V is passed through
Depending upon the requirement, different ma the workpiece and one of the electrodes. The
terials are used for making tanks. Stainless steel current varies from 300 to 850 A per square
is a commonly used material. In this process of metre of surface area. The bath is vigorously
degreasing, the components are suspended in a agitated by a gas generated at the surface of the
degreasing bath. When the bath is heated, the workpiece by the flow of electric current. The
liquid produces vapour. The rising vapours come gas generated at the surface of the workpiece
in contact with the component, condense, dis breaks the film of grease. In· many cases, the
solve the adherent matter and run back into the tank may form the anode, whereas the workpiece
bath. The dissolved matter settles down, whereas acts as the cathode.
the liquid rises again for reuse.
Liquor degreasing plants can be divided into 21.4 MECHANICAL METHODS OF
(a) liquor plants and (b) liquor-vapour plant. CLEANING
Liquor plants consist of a stainless steel tank In addition to the various chemical cleaning pro
having three compartments. Each compartment cesses discussed above, many mechanical pro
contains boiling solvent. For degreasing, the cesses are also used in industry for cleaning
work is immersed in various compartments suc
components. The commonly used processes are
cessively. Degreasing takes place in three suc
sand blasting, shot blasting, hydroblasting, tum
cessive stages with the purest degreasing liquid
bling, and barrelling.
in the third compartment. Liquor-vapour
degreasing is used for degr-easing small compo 21.4.1 Sand Blasting
nents. The operation can be divided into two
stages. In the first stage, the component is im Sand blasting is one of the oldest methods of
mersed in the boiling solvent. Later on the com cleaning surfaces, but its use has been declining
ponent is hung over the boiling liquid over the last 70 years. The process consists of
compartment to eliminate contaminants com directing the sand at a high velocity on the com
pletely. ponent. Many plants use mixtures of water and
sand (called slurry) as jet. The slurry is fed to
21.3.4 Emulsion Cleaning the jet by a flexible rubber tube. The spent slurry
Petroleum spirit or chlorinated hydrocarbons in is collected in the settling chamber and sepa
water are used as emulsions for surface clean rated by filters and pumps for further use. The
ing. The process is carried out from 50 to 80 ° C. amount of jet to be embodied depends upon
The components to be degreased are immersed (a) the type and capacity of equipment,
in the emulsion. Alternatively, emulsion can be (b) the amount of material to be removed, and
sprayed over the components. (c) the type of scale on the workpiece.
Sand of different grain size is used for clean
21.3.5 Alkaline Cleaning ing components by sand blasting. A mixture of
Alkaline cleaning is a very commonly used fine sand and water ·is used for the sand blasting
degreasing process. The process consists of of files. Coarse sand particles are embodied un
spraying an alkaline cleaner over the compo der pneumatic pressure for cleaning castings and
nents with a steam gun or spray washer. forgings. A sand blasting operation is inexpen-
1264,___ _ ________ _ Manufacturing Processes I
sive, since sand is easily and cheaply available. Circular barrels were commonly used before, but
The selection of sand should be done with care. now advanced technology uses hexagonal or
Ordinary sand is not suitable for sand blasting, octagonal barrels. In modern barrelling tech
as it does not possess sharp comers. niques, the components never come in contact
with each other and the possibility of damage is
21.4.2 Shot Blasting negligible.
This process is similar to sand blasting, except
21.4.5 Burnishing
for the blasting material. The process uses metal
abrasives instead of sand. The blasting of metal It is the process of producing bright, shining
abrasives is carried out by pressure, gravity and and smooth surfaces of materials. The process
suction methods. The centrifugal process was is similar to barrelling and is carried out by
developed nearly 50 years ago and is commonly (a) hardened steel balls or (b) rolling the com
used these days. The process consists of blast ponents over and inside the barrel. It differs from
ing the abrasive over the surface to be cleaned, tumbling, in that no abrasive is used in this pro
at a speed of 80-100 mis. Depending upon the cess. The process eliminates small surface
requirement, the work may be cleaned on bar scratches and produces smooth surfaces. It is
rel, table or special cabinets. Conveyors are used used in succession to turning, milling and shap
for large-scale and regular blasting of compo ing operations. The pressure required for bur
nents. nishing is derived from the weight of the
burnishing charge.
21.4.3 Tumbling
21.4.6 Electrolytic Polishing or
Barrel tumbling is also known as rumbling. It is
Electropolishing
the process of cleaning small metallic parts with
the help of an abrasive. The process consists of Electrolytic polishing or electropolishing is very
inserting the metallic pieces into the drum and useful for obtaining varying degree of lustre,
rotating them on trunions. The parts to be smoothness and polish on metallic surfaces. This
cleaned are packed tightly in the drum. process is reverse of electroplating. The compo
Tumbling can be said to be a metal finishing nent to be polished is made the anode. A cath
operation, since it eliminates a fairly large ode is used to complete the circuit. As the current
amount of metal and produces clean surfaces. is passed through the electrolyte, dissolution of
Since it is a metal removing process, it cannot metal takes place. Depending upon the quantity
be used on components having comers, because of current passed and time taken, different de
it produces round comers. grees of surface finish is obtained.
Basically this process was developed for pol
21.4.4 Barrelling
ishing of metallurgical specimen. Now-a-days
This is a metal cleaning process by the tumbling this process is extensively used for polishing
action of components. Tumbling action takes complicated and complex workpieces of all types
place with the help of chips of inert materials of steels and its alloys, copper, brass, bronze,
like fine abrasives, sand and even liquids. The nickel, magnesium, aluminium, zinc and several
process relies on the rubbing action of the com alloys.
ponent and abrasive chip. The surface cleaning
21.4.7 Ultrasonic Cleaning
by a liquid takes place due to rubbing action
between the component and liquid particles. The Many parts require high-quality cleaning. This
abrasive removes material from the component. process particularly is used for cleaning aircraft
::.- Surface Treatment of Metals- --- - -- - -
--2651
parts, automobile parts, marine parts, electronic than the base metal. Galvanising and tinning are
components, computer parts, automation equip the common examples of dipping.
ment parts, watch parts, precision machine parts, This procesf is also called as hot dipping. It
etc. is a very commonly used and cheap method of
After polishing operations like grinding, buff providing a coating of one metal over the other.
ing, polishing, etc. unwanted particles are left This process produces a corrosion-resistant sur
over metallic surfaces. Since these particles are face coating. To form a well-adhering and uni
insoluble, they collect at hidden surfaces of form coating, the surface of the base metal
workpieces. Precision parts as above require should be thoroughly cleaned from undesirable
thorough cleaning. Ultrasonic cleaning is the materials.
ideal process for cleaning precision parts. During the dipping process, the atoms of the
The equipment for ultrasonic cleaning con molten metal diffuse into the surface of the base
sists of a generator, transducer and a cleaning metal and combine to form an alloy. Aluminium,
lead and tin are the commonly used coating met
tank. Liquid freon is used as a common clean
als. This process is used for coating of sheets,
ing agent. Cheaper substitutes like detergent
pipes, strips and components made of steel, cast
mixed in water and hydrocarbons are also used.
iron and copper.
The parts to be cleaned are suspended in the
cleaning solution. The generator produces high 21.5.2 Electroplating
frequency electrical energy. In is then transmit This process is also called electrodeposition and
ted to the transducer. The transducer converts is one of the most important methods used for
electrical energy into ultrasonic waves (mechani� the commercial protection of a material by me
cal vibrations). These waves are transmitted to tallic coating. The article to be electroplated is
the metal parts through the electrolyte and the cleaned and acts as the cathode, whereas the
component gets perfectly cleaned. material to be deposited is made the anode. The
salt of the plating metal dissolved in pure water
21.5 METALLIC COATXNGS
acts as an electrolyte in an electrolytic cell. Fig
Metallic coatings are applied on components to ure 21.1 shows the electroplating of a copper
achieve one or more of the following objectives: cathode by nickel. The amount of electric cur
(i) To provide corrosion resistance to surfaces rent and time of electroplating depends upon
(ii) To increase wear resistance of surfaces the thickness of the electroplating layer required.
(iii) To provide good decorative appearance An electroplating plant consists of a tank con
(iv) To increase thermal and electrical conduc taining an electrolyte, a positive terminal called
tivity of surfaces Current key
(v) To increase the size of components.
The commonly used processes of metallic
coatings are discussed as follows. Article to be
electroplated
21.5.1 Dipping
Cathode
It is the method of deposition of a coating on
the metallic surface by dipping the component
in a bath of molten metal. The article is thor
oughly cleaned and dipped in a molten metal,
bath. The coating metal has a lower melting point Fig. 21.1 Electroplating
�66,;---------- - - - -
Manufacturing Processes! - - ----------
anode, a negative terminal called cathode and a Pickling tank/

Rinse
Fluxing Molten
t
cleaning bath bath zinc
low-voltage de supply. The electrolyte commonly
used is metallic salt solution of the metal to be
electroplated (deposited). The component to be
electroplated is suspended and immersed in the
electrolyte filled in the tank. ElectricallY- the com
ponent is connected to the cathode in the cir
cuit. The material to be deposited acts as the
anode (positive terminal). When plastics are to G) @ 0
be plated, a primary coat of an electrically con Fig. 21.2 Sequence ofoperations ofgalvanisingprocess
ducting metal is first provided over them and
then they are electroplated. rosion resistance of galvanised components is
A wide variety of metals are used for electro superior to those that. are electroplated.
plating, but chromium is the most commonly The commonly used processes of galvanising
used. Tin is used for making tin plates. Electro are described below.
lyte mainly consists of dissolved salt of the plat Hot-dipping galvanising It is the oldest and
ing metal.
cheapest technique of mass galvanising of com
The commonly used electrolyte or plating
ponents. First of all, the component is thoroughly
baths are acid bath, alkaline bath and neutral
cleaned to obtain an absolutely clean surface. If
bath. Acid bath is most commonly used for elec
sheet-metal is to be galvanised, it is first an
troplating as it enables a heavy layer of deposit
nealed and then cooled in oxide-free atmosphere
with good surface finish. Some metals like iron,
steels, zinc, cast iron, etc. are reactive to acids, to the temperature of molten zinc bath. The sheet
thus acid bath is not suitable for these metals. is then dipped in the bath. Immediately after the
Alkaline bath provides very fine grains, and even coating process, the sheets are drawn through
recesses and pockets can be electroplated by this the rollers to obtain perfect and uniform thick
method. Neutral bath is heat resistant, but it tries ness. This process removes the extra zinc and
to pit the workpiece. It is commonly used in the desired thickness of coating is obtained. This
conjunction with organic materials. process is not suitable for galvanising delicate.
and complex-shaped components.
21.5.3 Galvanising
Flow galvanising In this process, hot zinc is
It is the process of providing zinc coating on made to flow over the surface of the component.
iron and steel parts. It is mainly used for pre This process is used for galvanising very large
venting corrosion by natural water and atmo surfaces of iron and steel sheets. The excess
sphere. Zinc has a corrosion resistance only in a zinc flows down the surface automatically.
narrow natural range of aqueous solution. It can Schoop process or spraying process is an
be attacked easily by acids. Zinc rapidly tar improved form of flow galvanising. The process
nishes on exposure, forming a smooth adherent uses a metal spraying gun. The gun consists of
film of zinc oxide, which forms a protective coat a device to produce oxygen flame. Zinc wire is
ing on the surface of the metal. The process is fed through the gun and melted. Molten zinc is
carried out by dipping the component in a mol sprayed on components under air pressure. This
ten bath of zinc. The time of dipping should be process is highly suitable for galvanising large
long enough to attain the component the tem parts like large sheets, big tanks and marine
perature of bath and form zinc coating. The cor- parts.
.,
--------------Surface Treatment of Metals-------------2671
21.5.4 Sherardising sence of oxidisers is negligible, and (c) iron is

cathodic to tin under certain conditions.
Sherardising is the process of providing a zinc
coating on steel. The article is thoroughly
cleaned, packed in zinc dust and heated for the
required time at a temperature of 400-450° C. Palm
The article becomes coated with a continuous oil
film of zinc.
21.5.5 Electroplating Galvanising
The principle of electroplating galvanising is
similar to galvanising as discussed earlier. In Fig. 21.3 Tinning of steel sheets
electrogalvanising, alkaline baths are used. The
electrolyte consists of zinc chloride, zinc sulphate 21.5.7 Metal Spraying
or ammonium sulphate dissolved in water. A
cyanide bath consists of potassium cyanide and Protective metal coatings are also obtained by
zinc oxide dissolved in distilled water. Another spraying heated metal particles under pressure
bath consists of zinc carbonate and caustic pot against the metal surface. The molten metal par
ash dissolved in distilled water. This process is ticles fall in the shape of atoms on the base
not very popular because it is time consuming. metal and interlock themselves with the irregu
The surface thickness produced is too less and larities of the base metal and deposit on its sur
the surface is not shining. Corrosion resistance face, as shown in Fig. 21.4. Metal spraying is
of components is also lesser as compared to other done either by the wire gun or powder metal
conventional processes. method.
21.5.6 _ Tinning 21.5.8 Vapour Deposition
Tinning is done on steel sheets containing less This method provides a protective coating of
than 0.1 % carbon. Tin is used as a coating metal by condensation of the metal vapours on
mainly because (a) it is quite inactive by nature, a metallic surface. Tellurium, selenium, and sili
(b) corrosive action of food stuffs in the ab- con are the metals most commonly used to pro-
Base metal
Molten wire
Compressed ---+
air
Oxy-acetylene or --+-,.....__ __ ______--1----i
Oxy-propylene
Metalwir� /
gas nozzl
/ envelope
Compressed Oxygen Acetylene metal
air knob spray
knob
Fig. 21.4 Metal spraying with metal spraying gum
j268----- -
- ------Manufacturing Processes I
vide metal coatings by this process. Such sur Pigments are colouring agents added to paints.
faces are corrosion and erosion resistant at high Some commonly used pigments are red lead,
temperatures. graphite, lamp black, prussian blue, green
chrome, titanium dioxide and vermilion. A sol
21.5,9 Cladding
vent or thinner is added to the paint to increase
It is the process of providing a comparatively its fluidity. Turpentine and naptha are the com
thick lining on the metal surface by bonding monly used thinners. A drier is added to in
one sheet metal to another by hot rolling. Steel crease the rate of drying the paint. Some
is cladded with stainless steel, and aluminium commonly used driers are red lead, zinc sulphate,
alloys with pure aluminium by this process. In manganese sulphate and lead acetate.
this process, care is taken to ensure that the clad
21.6.2 Varnish
ding metal is such that it is anodic to the core,
so as to provide electrolytic protection to the Varnish is a resinous substance produced from
base metal. resin, copal, lac, sandarch in oil or turpentine.
Varnishes are produced by dissolving a natural
21.6 ORGANIC COATINGS or synthetic resin in a drying oil and then cook
Organic coatings are used for the protection of ing the mixture. Gums, amber and <lammer are
metallic as well as nonmetallic surfaces. These the commonly used natural resins. Epoxy, alkyl,
coatings cover the surface with a thin film or silicon, melamine and urea are commonly used
layer. This film prevents the direct contact be synthetic resins in varnishes. Castor oil, cotton
tween the metal surface and its surrounding at seed oil, soyabean oil, tung oil and com oil are
mosphere. It prevents the metal surface from the commonly used drying oils. Varnishes pos
corrosion. Coatings also provide a good appear sess good resistance to moisture and are used
ance to the surface. Principal organic coatings for electrical insulation. They are also used on
include varnishes, lacquers, enamels, paints, plas wood, steel furniture, metallic containers, and
tics, shellac, etc. The main type of vehicles used auto vehicle bodies.
are linseed oil and synthetic resins. A brief de
21.6.3 Enamels
scription of these coatings is given below:
Enamels are organic finishers. Enamels are pro
21.6.1 An Oil Paint
duced by adding pigments to varnishes or by
The main ingredients of an oil paint are a base, combining a resin and a varnish. Drying of an
a vehicle, a pigment, a solvent and a drier. It is enamel takes place (a) by oxidation or (b) by
widely used on wood for decorative and protec polymerization or by combination of both (a) and
tive purposes. Sometimes it is used on large ex (b). Two varieties of enamels are (a) air drying
terior steel structures also. However, it is not and (b) bake drying. Air drying enamel dries at
used for finishing the metallic products. room temperature, whereas baking temperature
The base forms the main constituent of a for bake drying enamel lies between 80 and
paint. It provides strength to the dried film. It 205 ° C. Coating provided by bake drying enamel
provides hardness to the surface and makes it is harder and possesses more resistance to abra
wear resistant. Red lead, white zinc, iron oxide sion as compared to air drying.
and white lead are commonly used as base ma
21.6.4 Lacquers
terials in oil paints. The vehicle in an oil paint
acts as a binder. Some commonly used vehicles Lacquers are non-metallic materials available in
are linseed oil, sand oil, poppy oil and nut oil. natural as well as synthetic forms. They are
.....
--
--- - - - -Surface Treatment of Metals,---- - - --
- --- ---2691
soluble in volatile solvents that are resistant to 3. Phosphating

water, alcohol, mild acids, alkalies, vegetable 4. Parkerizing.
oils, mineral oils and animal oils. The principal
21.7.1 Chromate Coating
ingredient of a lacquer is nitrocellulose. Nitro
cellulose is dissolved in a volatile organic sol Chromate coating is also known as chromating
vent. A suitable pigment may be added to obtain or chromium impregnation. It is a corrosion pro
the desired colour. Lacquers do not provide good tection technique applied on the surfaces of steel,
surface finish. They also do not adhere to sur aluminium and zinc components.
face tightly. Two commonly used methods of chromium
plating are: (a) powdered chromium technique,
21.6.5 Shellac
and (b) salt bath technique.
Shellac is produced by dissolving a natural resin The powder mixture consists of 55% pow
like lac in alcohol. It produces orange-coloured dered chromium and 45% alumina by weight.
shellac. White shellac is produced by bleaching The component to be plated is packed in the
orange-coloured shellac. It is mainly used for mixture and kept in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
providing a seal coating on wood. Afterwards, The box is heated to a temperature of
varnish or lacquer is applied on wood to give it 950-1300° C and soaked for 3-5 hours. Alumina
a desirable finish. Shellac is also used in indus keeps the chromium particles in powder form
tries. and does not allow them to fuse together.
The salt bath used for chromating consists of
21.6.6 Plastic Coatings
a mixture of chromium chloride and barium chlo
Materials such as tools, saws, cutters, and gears ride heated from 1080 to 1220° C. The compo
need protection against rust and transportation. nent to be chromated is immersed in the bath
This is especially useful when the parts are to for sufficiently long time to get the desired thick
be shipped under dry atmosphere or stored for a ness.
long time. The metal to be plastic coated is prop
21.7.2 Chromate Pickle
erly cleaned, dipped in the liquid plastic bath
for the required time and then taken out. A thick Chromate conversion coatings are used on zinc
adherent film on the parts form a tough and and cadmium-plated parts, aluminium, magne
abrasion resistant coating on the metal surface sium and their alloys. In this process the com
after cooling. Ethyl cellulose is a very commonly ponent is dipped for about 1 minute at room
used material for plastic coating. temperature in a solution containing 180 g/1 of
sodium dichromate and 187 cm 3/I of concen
21.7 CHEMICAL DIP COATINGS trated nitric acid. This forms a thin protective
These coatings are formed on the metal surface coating on the surface.
either by immersion of the component in a 21.7.3 Phosphating
chemical or by spraying, in which case the
chemical reacts with the metal surface to pro Phosphating is done on iron, steel, zinc and mag
duce an adherent surface of metal compound. nesium components by dipping them in hot phos
Generally, the following types of chemical dip phate solutions for a suitable time. The solution
coatings are applied. consists of aqueous solution of phosphates and
1. Chromate coating phosphoric acid. The protective thin film con
2. Chromate pickle sists of crystalline zinc, iron or manganese-iron
1270�------------Manufacturing Processes!-------------- -
phosphates and serves the following two main 21.8 ANODISING

functions:
Anodising is a process of artificially building
1. It provides some protection against corro
sion directly. up a protective oxide film. It was first used for
2. It is a porous film that provides a blanket aluminium, but is now also used for zinc, mag
for holding paints, shellac and oils, the ap nesium and their alloys. In this process, a base
plication of which is more effective and metal acts as the anode in an electrolytic bath of
helps in corrosion resistance. suitable composition. The nature and thickness
The commonly used salts for phosphate coat of the coating depends upon the type of electro
ing are iron phosphate, zinc phosphates, lead lyte, temperature, current densities and time of
phosphate and manganese phosphate. Iron phos application.
phate coat is provided on steel as a primer coat Anodising is also sometimes known as an
to prepare its surface for painting. Zinc phos odic oxidising. Anodising means depositing an
phate coating is corrosion resistant and acts as oxide film on a metal surface with the help of
an excellent base for subsequent organic coat anode and oxidation. Aluminium and its alloys
ings. Lead phosphate coating prevents iron from has a natural tendency to form protective oxide
rusting and corrosion. Manganese phosphate film on its surface. These days this process is
coating reduces friction and is used on automo also used on metals like magnesium, copper,
bile parts like piston rings and gears. zinc, bronze, brass, etc. Anodising of metals is
done to (a) provide protective coating on metal
21.7.4 Parkerizing
surface, (b)- decorate the components, (c) pro
Parkerizing is the process of producing thin cor vide good surface finish, (d) improve strength
rosion resistant phosphate coating on steel. The and durability, and (e) increase corrosion resis
thickness of the coat is 0.004-0.008 mm. This tance.
coating acts as a primer or base for paints and The workpiece to be anodised is made the
enamels. The component to be parkerized is anode. The electrolyte must contain oxygen in
dipped in a bath of manganese dihydrogen phos it. On passing the current, a chemical reaction
phate at 85-90° C for about 30 minutes to 1 hour. takes place and oxygen is liberated. This oxy
This process is used mainly on domestic appli gen reacts with metal surface to form protective
ances like refrigerators, washing machine and oxide layer. In this process, no metal deposition
oven-cum-griller. takes place.
r]\fULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Mark ( "') for the right answer (b) shot blasting
1. The process of providing a thin layer of zinc (c) tumbling
on other metals is known as (d) chemical cleaning
(a) tinning (b) galvanising 3. Which one of the following is a mechanical
cleaning process?
(c) sherardising (d) cladding (a) tumbling (b) pickling
2. The following process is used for cleaning (c) vapour degreasing (d) electrocleaning
robust parts: 4. The following process is used for cleaning elec
(a) sand blasting tronic components:
I' ------- - ------Surface Treatment of Metals---------- -------;�,711
(a) shot peening 6. The following process is used for producing a

(b) buffing thin oxide film for surface protection
(c) electrocleaning (a) oxidation (b) anodising
(d) ultrasonic cleaning (c) cathode deposition (d) electroplating
5. The process of producing a thin layer of phos 7. The process of impregnating a metal surface
phate on steel is known as with another metal is known as
(a) pickling (b) parkerizing (a) metallising (b) cladding
(c) sherardising (d) colorising (c) electroplating (d) galvanizing
tlt.:Evmw QUESTIONS -
......-.-.1..---------·--- .__....___-..___.__�-- ·�-"
- ---
1. What is the necessity of surface treatment of 5. Discuss briefly the various metallic coating pro
materials. cesses used in industry.
2. How are surface treatment processes classified? 6. Enumerate the various non-metallic coating pro
· 3. What are the various chemical cleaning pro cesses.
cesses? Explain any one chemical cleaning pro 7. Wite short notes on:
r
cess. (a) electroplating (b) galvanising

4. Write short notes on (c) sherardising (d) cladding
(i) Sand blasting (ii) Shot blasting (e) painting (f) anodising
(iii) Tumbling (iv) Barrelling (g) chemical dip coating
Example A.I Example A.3
A conical job is 200 mm long. The larger diam A shaft is 1 m long. It is having a taper of 4 mm
eter is 100 mm and the smaller diameter is per metre over a length of 500 mm at one end.
80 mm. Find the conicity of the job. The maximum diameter of the shaft is 80 mm.
Solution Given: Large diameter D1 = 100 mm Find the smaller diameter of the shaft.
Smaller diameter= D 8= 80 mm Solution The diagram of the shaft is shown
Length of taper, L = 200 mm in Fig. A.I
Conicity of the job, K= ?
4
. . . Di - Ds Taper .K = - -
S ubstltutmg the va1ues m K= --- r--- 1000
100-80
L
80mm-ff=---E---3 f os
= 200 = 10
1
Ans. l-+---1QOO m
� 500 mm -:4
Fig. A.l
Example A.2
A conical job is to be produced to the following Using the formula of conicity of job
dimensions.
Length of the taper portion= 120 mm -Ds
Di --
K=-
Larger diameter= 50 mm
Smaller diameter = 45 mm
Find the angle of swivel of the compound rest. 4 80-D5
or
Solution Given: L = 120 mm; 1000 500
D1 = 50 mm; Ds = 45 mm or Ds = 78 mm. Ans.
Angle of swivel, a= ?
Substituting the values in the equation Example A.4
A job is 300 mm long. Half of its length is to be
50-45 1 tapered from one end. The larger diameter of the
= 24 = 0.0416 job is 60 mm and the smaller diameter is 54 mm.
120
or a= tan-1 0.0416 = 2° 23' Ans. Find the amount of setover of tailstock.
I:
----------------Appendi.xl---------------2731
Solution Given: Job speed, N= ?, Cutting time, T= ?

Substituting the values in the equation
L=300 mm·' l=300 x l = 150 mm trDN
2
D1 = 60 mm; D s = 54 mm V= 1000
Substituting the values in the formula
,rx 56 x N
� -Ds or 30 = or N= 172 rpm
S = Lx 1000
21 Number of passes = 2 (one rough + one finish)
60-54 L
·= 300 x = 6 mm. Ans. T= -- xn
2x150 fxN
Example A.5 or T= -61- 0- - x 2 min

Twelve threads per inch are to be cut on a lathe 0.4 X 172
having a lead screw of 4 mm pitch. Calculate = 17.8 min (say 18 min.) Ans.
the change gears required.
Example A.7
Driver gear(s) Boring operation is to be carried out on a cast
Solution Change gear ratio = ing for enlarging a hole of 50 mm diameter to
Driven gear(s)
54 mm diameter over a length of 100 mm. Job
pitch of the job (in mm) speed is 160 rpm and feed/revolution is 0.3 mm.
=----------- The job is to be completed in two cuts, i.e. rough
pitch of the lead screw (in mm)
and finish. Determine the machine time. Assume
suitable data if required.
� X 25.4 127 X 20
= Solution Let the rough depth of cut= 1.5 mm
4 60x 80 and the finish depth of cut= 0.5 mm
Thus, number of cuts= 2
127 20 l = 100 mm;
= -x - (compound gearing)
60 60 Approach length, A = 5 mm
Over run length, 0= 5 mm
Example A.6
Total length of cut, L = l + A + 0
A piece of 56 mm diameter is to be reduced to
= 100 + 5 + 5= 110 mm.
50 mm diameter over a length of 600 mm on a
Job speed, N= 160 rpm; feed, f= 0.3 mm
lathe. The depth of the rough cut is 2 mm and
Using the formula for machining time,
finish cut is 1 mm. If the cutting speed and feed
T ( A_+__+z __O )
are 30 m/min and 0.4 mm/rev, what is the ma
chining time of the job?
=_
fxN
Solution Given: Length of turning= 600 mm 110
Feed per revolution, f = 0.4 mm/rev =--- = 2.3 min per cut.
0.3 X 160
Cutting speed, V = 30 m/min
Let, approach length, A= 5 mm Total time= 2 x 2.3 = 4.6 min. Ans.
and over run length, 0= 5 mm Example A.8
Then, overall length, L= 600 + 5 + 5 M 24 threads are to be cut in a workpiece. What
= 610 mm. will be the size of the drill?
!274,-------------Manufacturing Processes!-----------�---
Solution As seen from the table, threads M (ii) machine is capable of making the job, i.e.
24, have 3 mm pitch. check the capacity of the machine
Tap drill size TDS = MD - p (iii) raw material exists or available
= 24 - 3 = 21 mm. Ans. (iv) cutting tools are available
(v) suitable feeds, speed and depth of cut are
Example A.9 possible
3" (vi) machine is in proper working condition and
Find the tap drill size for B.S.W. tap hole.
8 its hydraulic systems are in order
(vii) tools and equipments are set in proper
Solution TDS = Major diameter
sequence and proper depths/working limits.
-2 x depth of thread The sequence of production of a hexagonal
= S3 - 2 X 0.64 p bolt on a capstan lathe is given below:
(i) Mount the hexagonal bar on collet. The
collet rotates with the bar.
3
Since �' major diameter (MD) job has 16 TP 9 (ii) Feed the hexagonal bar through the collet
against bar stop tool no. 1 fitted on the hex
TDS = 1_ _ 2 x 64 x J_
agonal turret.
8 100 16 (iii) Turn the hexagonal bar to the required dia
meter and length with the help of tool no. 2.
59"
= 200
= 0.295 "or 7.5 mm Ans. (iv) Provide proper form at the end of the bolt
by tool no. 3 on hexagonal turret.
Example A.10 (v) Cut threads by self-opening die head fitted
Describe the procedure of production of hexa with chasers.
gonal nuts on a capstan lathe. (vi) Face the lower side and chamfer the other
side of the bolt_head by the facing and cha
Solution Before starting the job ensure the
mfering tools (tool no. 5) fitted on the front·
following: slide tool post.
(i) drawing with suitable/required dimensions (vii) Part off the hexagonal bolt by using part
is available ing tool fitted on the rear tool post.
Rear tool post
Parting-off
tool
Job holding Self-opening

devic_e_ die head
� Chamfering
ail' fa,109 fool
5
1 Square turret
2
Fig. A.2 Tool layout for production ofhexagonal bolt

AppendixI---------------2751
Example A.11 Example A.13

During a drilling operation, a hole of 20 mm was What are the advantages of providing side cut
drilled in a casting 16 mm thick. The hole is to ting edge angle (lead angle or principal edge
be brought in alignment by boring. Assuming the angle) on the cutting tool?
cutting/speed of H.S.S. boring tool as 32 m/min Solution Measured perpendicular to the cut
and feed as 0.12 mm/rev, calculate the time taken ting edge, large side cutting edge angle decreases
in boring operation. the chip thickness (Fig. A.3). Smaller chip thick
Solution During the boring operation, the time ness means less load on the tool and decreased
taken is the same as for turning. Using the same wear. Thus, for the same load and cutting condi
formula as for turning tions, feed can be increased. It increases the rate
Length of cut of production.
Time taken for boring = -----
rpm x feed/rev
I
minutes Feed _i
I
Given: Length of ctit= 16 mm,
__J1
I
cutting speed= 32 m/min Chip Feed
thickness 1
1000 x cutting speed
rpm= -------- I Side cutting edge
Jt x diameter angle ·o·
(a)
1000 X 32 1600
= =
JtX 20 7t
feed/rev= 0.12 mm
time taken in boring operation
Chip Feed
16
=----- thickness
min Side cutting
1600 X 0.12 edge angle
7t (b}
Fig. A.3
- · t. min = 15.70s Ans.
12
If the side cutting edge angle is more than
Example A.12 zero, then the tool will first make contact at a
Relief or clearance angles can never be zero or point only. It will gradually keep on increasing,
negative. Why? resulting in increased load on the tool. Also, the
Solution Relief or clearance angles are provid first contact is at a position at the back of the
ed on tools to prevent the end, which is parallel point where the tool is quite strong. Due to the
to the work, and the side, i.e. the cutting edge, gradual pick-up of the load, it is advantageous
from rubbing on the work. If these are made for machining a job. On the other hand, if side
zero or negative, or even very small, then the cutting edge angle of the 'tool is zero, it will
rubbing with the job starts and the tool wears pick up the fuU load on the first contact. It re
down. It leads to heating up of the tool, and chat sults in shock or impact loading and reduced
ter marks on the workpiece. Thus, relief or clear tool life. Increasing the side cutting edge angle
ance angles can never be made zero or negative. too much is also not desirable as it would result
j276--- - -------Manufacturing Processes!--- - ------ - -
in increase in radial force which can bend the Example A.15

work and cause chattering. 93 teeth are to be cut on a circular gear blank.
Describe the procedure of cutting it.
Example A.14
A grey cast iron plate is 800 mm x 600 mm in Solution Rotation of index crank = :�
size. It is to be finished on a shaper by two
rough cuts and one finish cut. Cutting speed of Cutting 93 teeth by simple indexing is not pos
the tool is 10 m/min, return/cutting time ratio is sible. So it is to be done by differential index
2:3, and feed is 1.2 mm/cycle. If the lengthwise ing.
allowance is 20 mm and widthwise allowance is Number to be indexed, I = 93
5 mm, calculate the machining time required to Let the assumed number be, N = 95
finish the plate. Total rotational motion of index crank,
Solution Given: Length of stroke, 40 (95-93)x40
n= +
L = 800 + 20 + 20 = 840 mm = 0.84 m 95 95
Time of cutting stroke,
= �+.!.§_=�+ 64
0
Tc = L = ·84 = 0.084 min. 19 19 19 76
VC 10 For the first motion, move the index crank by
Time for return stroke, 8 holes in a 19-hole circle 92 times on index
plate no. 1.
0.084
Tr = 3/2 = 0.056 mm For the second motion, set teeth no. 64 taper
shank stud at position A. Set teeth no. 76 on
Time required for one complete stroke, horizontal bevel gear shaft at position B. Using
T = Tc + Tr ·= 0.084 + 0.056 one idle gear on the idle shaft in between A and
= 0.140 min. B, use positive simple gearing 64/76.
Shaping width, B = 5 + 600 + 5 = 610 mm
Number of cycles required per cut, Example A.16
A screw has been designed to conform to M
B 20 x 2 ISO. Find the value of (a) best wire size
feed/cycle and (b) the distance over wires.
610 Solution Given: D = 20 mm; p = 2.5 mm
= - = 509 cycles
1.2 Diameter of the wire,
Time required for one complete cut, d= 0.5774 p
Tm =Nc xT = 0.5774 x 2 = 1.444 mm Ans.
= 0.140 x 509 = 71.2 min (b) Distance over wires
Time required to finish the job = 71.2 x 3 W = D + 3 d - 1.5156 P
= 214 min = 20 + 3 X 1.444 - 1.5156 X 2.5
= 3 h 34 min. Ans. = 20.544 mm Ans.
•
Chapter 1 Chapter 8
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d)
Chapter 2 Chapter 9
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (d) Chapter 10
Chapter 3 1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d)
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) -s. (c)
6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. ca) Chapter 11
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (c) 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (b)
Chapter 4
4. (d) 5. (a) Chapter 12
1. (b) 2. (c) · 3. (c)
6. (b) 7. (b) 1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
Chapter 5
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (c)
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d)
7. (b) 8: (c) 9. (a) 10. (d) Chapter 13
6. (d)
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b)
Chapter 6
6. (d) 7. (b)
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b)
Chapter 14 "·
Chapter 7
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a)
Chapter 15 Chapter 19
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) .1. (b) 7- (d) 4. (d)
3. (b) 5. (d)
6. (b)
Chapter 16 Chapter 20
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c)_
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 0
6. (b) ·1. (c) 8. (b)

Chapter 17
Chapter 21
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c)
Chapter 18 1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b)
6. (b) 7. (a)
l. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c)
Abrasives 159 speeds 154
Abrasives tool design 150
artificial 157 tool elements 149
natural 157 tool material 149
Adjustment of stroke length of a shaper 6.5 Broaching machines
Advantages of powder metallurgy -258 electromechanical 152
Allowances and tolerances of grinding I 76 horizontal 150
Anodizing 270 rotary 153
Application of cutting fluid during selection 153
machining operation 227 special continuous 153
Applications of powder metallurgy 256 special purpose 152
Atomization 249 specifications 153
Automatic lathe 34 surface 152
Automation in machine tools· 17 vertical 151
Burnishing 264
Balancing of grinding wheels 164 ·
Band saw 25 Capstan lathe 51, 52
Barreling 264 Capstan lathe operations 56
Bench lathe 34 Cemented tungsten carbides 217
Bonds and bonding processes 157, 158 Center drill 123
Boring machine Ceramics 218
horizontal 134, 135 Characteristics of metal powders 247
prec1s10n 139 Chemical dip coating 269
vertical 137, 138 Chip formation 187
Boring machines 134 Chromate coating 269
Boring operations 140, 141 Chromate pickle 269
Boring tool mountings 139 Circular saws 24
Boring tools 139, 201 Cladding 268
Broaching 148 Clamping devices of a planer 83
Broaching Classification of
cutting action 154 broaching machines 150
method 148 cutting fluids 223
12801-------------- - - -Index--------- ---------
milling cutters 95 Elements of

milling machines 87 machine tools
planing machines 79 plain milling cutters 96
lathes 28 side milling cutters 98
saws 21 Enamels 268
structures 5 Engine lathe 33
surface treatment processes 261 Evaluation of machinability 210
tool materials 215
Cleaning of components 26l. Face plate 32
Collets 47 Feeds of machine tools 99
Comparison between a mechanical shaper and a Filteration of cutting fluids 227
hydraulic shaper 66 Fixed bed plane milling machine 90
Cooling action of cutting fluids 222 · Fixed circular saw 24
Copying milling machine 110 Forces acting on lathe cutting tools 6
Cutting fluids 222 Forces on cutting tools 195
Cutting fluids in metal working 224 Forming processes 4
Cutting speeds and feeds i3, 38, 69, 82, 102, 131 Foundation 238
Cutting tool angles 36, 97 Foundation plan 240
Cutting tool materials 214 Frames 5
Functions of cutting fluids 222
Degreasing 262
Diamond tools 219 Galvanizing 266, 267
Die sinking 108 Gear oils 233
Difference between Generating helical grooves 103
a capstan and a turret 57 Generating processes 4
orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting 203 Grade 160
shaper and a planer 7 Grain size 159
shaper and a slotter 75, 76 Greases 233
Dipping 265 Grinding 156
_Disc saws Grinding machines
abrasive disc 25 abrasive belt grinder 167
steel friction 25 cam grinders 173
Dividing head 94 centreless grinders 169
Down milling 102
crank shaft grinder 173
Dressing of grinding wheels 162
cylindrical grinders 168
Drill chuck 121
flexible shaft grinder 167
Drill gauge 121
Drill grinding 122 floor grinders 166
Drilling 114 internal grinders 170
Drilling machines 114, 124 precision grinders 166
Drilling operations 123 portable grinder 167
Drills 205 roll grinders 173
Drill size 120 rough grinders 166
Drill sleeves 121 surface grinders 171
Drives for rotational movements 12 swing frame grinder 167
Dry grinding 176 thread grinder 1 73
tool and cutter grinder l 72
Electrolytic deposition 250 Grinding wheel shapes and sizes 162
Electrolytic polishing 264
Electroplating 265 Heat generated in metal working 225
Index ----------------2811
High carbon steels 215 Machinability 208

High speed steels 216 Machinability criteria 208
Holes in workpieces 114 Machine tool drives 7
Honing 181 Machine tools 1
Horizontal milling machine 88 Machine tools
Hydraulic shaper 65 classification 2
Hydraulic slotter 75 definition I
elements of 2
Impregnation 255 functions I
Indexing I 03 leveling 2
Indexing head 94 performance criteria 3
Indexing plates 94 safety devices 17
Individual versus group drive 9 vibrations 2
Infiltration 255 working principles 3
Installation 24 l Machine vices 71
Installation and foundation 288 Manufacture of grinding wheels 187
Marking system of grinding wheels 161
Jig boring 143 Material handling 243
Jig boring machines Measurement of tool life 193
planer type 144, 145 Mechanical disintegration 249
vertical milling type 144 Mechanical methods of cleaning 263
Jig boring operations 145 Mechanics of metal cutting 186
Jig boring systems of measurement 143 Mechanisms of rectilinear motions 7
Merchants theory 196
Keyway cutting 68 Metal cutting tools 199
Kinematics of machine tool drives 11
Metallic coatings 265
Lacquers 268 Metal cutting saws 21
Lapping 180 Metal spraying 267
Lathes 28 Methods of:
Lathe applying greases 233
apron 30 holding broaches 153
bed 28 locating centres 42
centres 31 producing powders 248
chucks 32 reaming 131
classification of 28 Milling cutters 94, 202
compound slide 30 Milling cutter material 98
feeding mechanism 31 Milling machines 87
head stock 28 Milling machine
parts of 28 attachments 93
saddle 30 mechanisms 90
specification 35 Milling operations 99
tailstock 28 Miscellaneous tool materials 220
thread cutting mechanism 21 Modern trends in machine tools 16
tool post 31 Mounted wheels 166
Leveling and aligning 242 Mounting of grinding wheels 165
Location of work on jig boring 145
Lubricants 231 Numerical controlled tunet 57
Lubrication of machine tools 235
Lubricators 234 Oblique cutting 187
1282----------------lndex----- -------- ----'-
Orthogonal cutting 187 Shaper 61

Omniversal milling machine 89 Shaper
Operation of a shaping machine 66 classification 62
Operations performed on a shaping machine 67 job holding devices 71
Organic coatings 268 parts of 63
quick return mechanism 64
Pantograph milling 107 safety precautions 73
Parkerizing 270 specification 64
Particle size 247 types 62
Parts handling automation 18 vices 71
Parts of a working principle 62
Capstan lathe 53 Shaping tools 70
drill 115 Sharpening of reamers 131
milling machine 87 Shellac bond 158
planer 80 Sherardising 267
turret lathe 83 Shot blasting 64
Phosphating 269 Silicate bond 158
Planer tools 82 Single point cutting tools 200
Single spindle automatic 35
Planer type milling machine 90
Sintering 253
Planing machines 78
Size of grinders 176
Planing operations 84
Plastic coatings 269 Slides and slideways 909
Slotted disc mechanism 75
Potable saws 24
Slotted link and gear mechanism 75
Powder metallurgy 246
Slotter 73
Power saw blades 22
Slotter devices 74
Power saws 24
Slatter specifications 73-74
Precautions in reaming 131
Special purpose lathe 34
Principles of foundation 239
Specification of
Principles of powder metallurgy 250
broaching machines 153
Process of powder metallurgy 251 drills 115
Properties of cutting tool materials 214
jig boring machines 145
Pulverization 249 speed lathe 33
Speed loss 14
Qualities of a good cutting fluid 223
Spindles and spindle bearing 9
Reaming 128 Standard marking system of grinding wheels 163
Steadies 32
Reaming terms 128
Stellite 217
Reciprocating saws 21
Stepped regulations 14
Remote controls 16
Structures 5
Resinoid bond 158
Superfinishing 182
Reversing mechanisms 7
Surface grinder
Rotary table milling machine 90
planer type 171
Rubber bond 158
rotary type 171
Surface textures and irregularities 183
Saw blade 23
Saw blade failure 22 Surface treatment of metals 261
Sawing procedure 22
Table drive mechanism of a planer 81
Secondary processes of powder metallurgy 255
Selection of drives 8 Taper turning 43
Selection of grinding wheels 159 Terminology of grinding wheels 'i59
Index ------ - -
----'--------2831
Thermal aspects of metal machining 198 Turret operations 56

Theory of grinding 174 Turret tool layout 59
Threading 41-45 Twist drill 115
Tinning 267 Types of
Tool and cutter grinder 172 broaches 149
Tool failure 190 chips 188
Tool geometry 189 materials handling equipments 244
Tool life 36, 191,210 reamers 129
Tool materials 210, 215 turret lathes 52
Tool room lathe 34
Tool signature 204 Ultrasonic cleaning 264
Tooling principle of a turret 56 Universal milling machine 89
Trepanning 145 Upmilling 102
Truing of grinding wheels 162
Tumbling 264 Vapour deposition 267
Turning operations Variables affecting machinability 211
boring 40 Varnishes 264
counter boring 40 Vertical milling machine 89
drilling 39 Vibrations 240
facing 39 Vitrified bond 258
grinding 39
knurling 40 Wear resistance of guides 09
milling 39 Welding of saw blades 25
reaming· 39 Wet grinding 176
roll forming 41 Work holding devices of a
spinning 41 Capstan lathe 54
spring winding 41 grinding machines 177
Turning tools 36 milling machine 91
Turret indexing 57 planer 82
Turret lathe 51-52 turret lathe 54

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Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata

lffll �ala McGraw-Hill

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

Published by the Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,

1.3 Functions of Machine T�ols 1

l.26 Remote Controls 16

5.19 Difference between a Shaper and a Slatter 76

7.28 Copying Milling Machine 110

10. Jig Boring 143

Multiple-choice Questions 177

16. Cutting Tool Materials 214

20. Powder Metallurgy 246

Feed rod Column

2. The natural.frequency In of a machine tool ,i = deformation in mm

1.13 FORCES ACTING ON LATHE where CP = a coefficient which depends upon

1.14 MECHANISMS FOR RECTILINEAR 2. Torques transmitted must be optimum in

Table 1.1 Individual drive versus group drive

S.No. Individual drive Group drive

(b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1.8 Spindle unit of a cylindrical grinder

IP 1.06 1.12 1.26 1.41 1.58

To. � 2� 19,Jw " 201},fw

According to the "Androin Progression Ra­ nP

output speed d2 170 =

output speed � 240 =

d{ = _k_ = 600 = 383.2 mm Remote controls are extensively applied these

Right Wrong Right Wrong

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g)

2.8 CIRCULAR SAWS As shown in Fig. 2.5(b), the blades used on

Fig. 2.6 Fixed circular saw

2.9 STEEL FRICTION DISC SAW

cutting ability of materials using the friction disc

3,1 INTRODUCTION (viii) Special purpose lathe

longitudinal· movement of the carriage and tool

Saddle. This is an H-shaped component bridged d

Geared scroll Jaw screw

3.8 SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHE 3,9 AUTOMATIC LATHE

7. Collet chuck _ tool is carried out on a grinding wheel. For this

Side cutting edge angle

Back rake angle

Table 3.1 Typical cutting speeds in rn/min

High-speed steel Tungsten carbide tools

the characteristics of the tool and workpiece,

accurate finish to the workpiece by removing a indentations or depressions on it is known as

Coun�er boring The process of boring a hole

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 3.22 Holding a job between centres

Divider method The surfaces whose centres

Centre line Centre line of

Fig. 3.28 Taper turning method by offsetting the

The formula used for finding the tailstock set

Total revolutions required

Fig. 3.30 Reversing gear mechanism with gears l, 2. 3

3.23 THREAD CUTTING OR SCREW

Example 3.4 3.25 COLLETS

3.27 MICROMETER CARRIAGE STOP

3.28 RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN A

According to the "Androin Progression Ra nP

4. By swivelling the vice to an angular set

Saddle The unit fitted to the ways of the cross

The various techniques used for imparting re

pushes the table in the other direction. Hydrau

Circular Angular Depending upon the type of operation, mill

cutters. These cutters can be classified accord Primary clearance angle

Stellite This is a very useful milling cutter ma

Since the numerator is unity, the circles se