9/19/22, 11:36 AM Module 4 - MATHEMATICS AS STATISTICAL TOOL

Module 4 - MATHEMATICS AS STATISTICAL TOOL

Site: New Era University Printed by: Mark Alvin S. Baterina

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Description

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Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Learning Outcomes

3. Basics of Science

4. Basic Statistical Concepts

5. Descriptive Statistics

6. Inferential Statistics

7. Normal Distribution

8. The Standard Normal Distribution

9. The Central Limit Theorem

10. Estimation

11. Sample Size Estimation

12. Assignment

13. Hypothesis Testing

14. Inference about Population Mean

15. Quiz 1 (Inference about Population Mean)

16. Analysis of Variance

17. Inference about Relationships

18. Forum

19. Quiz 2 (ANOVA and Inference About Relationships)

20. References

21. Student Feedback for Evaluation of Flexible Learning Experience

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1. Introduction

NEU's direction is towards becoming a research university. Henceforth, it is inevitable for all students not to do research. Doing
research is challenging because its quality must be high so that policymakers and society can use the result. The statistical method
employed by the researchers is a crucial determinant of the quality of the research. 

Henceforth, this module focuses on developing your solid understanding of how data are processed and analyzed. Understanding these
concepts will help you apply statistical methods correctly, transfer knowledge to new types of research problems, and interpret the
results appropriately. 

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2. Learning Outcomes

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

1.
Apply a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data

2. Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a variable given certain conditions 

3. Advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions

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3. Basics of Science

Many people make their decision and judgment based on science. For them, when the study is conducted not by scientific method, people
cannot trust on the reliability of its findings. Hence, it cannot be used as basis for any decision-making endeavor. Such misguided belief
can bring danger if not a disaster. Science cannot be discounted that it has brought about major contributions in the history of human
beings. 

Meimban and Terrago (2021) have operationally defined Science as just one of the many possible ways to acquire knowledge about the
nature or the world around us. They mentioned in their book that the method of Science to discover or unravel hidden knowledge about
the nature is called the scientific method. The scientific community has established the rules of this so called scientific method. Hence,
we must adhere to these rules if we don't want to be tagged as pseudoscientists. 

Science is empirical and objective. It is empirical because its knowledge is acquired through experience, observation, perception or
experiment. Science is described as objective as it allows other people to see the same things as the scientists have observed. In
scientific studies, repeatability or replication is a must in order to check on the veracity of  scientific claims and support the integrity
of the scientific discoveries. 

Being open-minded, skeptical, fallible, cautious and uncertain are some of the attitudes that a scientific researcher or scientific paper
reader must possess as mentioned by Meimban and Terrago in their book "Applied Statistics". 

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4. Basic Statistical Concepts

Definition of Statistics

 Statistics is a scientific study that deals with

 Collection of data which is the process of gathering data through interviews, questionnaires, experiments, observation, and
documentary analysis;

 Presentation of data, the organization of collected data in readable form using tables, graphs, or charts;

 Analysis of data, the activity of describing the properties or behavior of the data, the possible correlation of different quantities or
variables by calculating its descriptive measures; and

 Interpretation of data, the task of drawing conclusions from the analyzed data or formulation of forecasts or predictions about larger
groups based on the data collected from small groups.

Variable and Data

 A Variable is a characteristic or a property that varies or can have different values.

Example: Age, Gender, Weight, Zip code, Religion, Profession, College

 Data refer to measurements of one or more variables.

Example: 18 years old, Female, 64 kilograms, 1110, Church of Christ, Teacher, College of Arts and Sciences

Variable and data can be classified as quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (categorical). Age, weight, salary, and mortality rate are
classified as quantitative while religion, profession, gender, and department are classified as qualitative.

Quantitative variables/data can be classified as discrete (obtained by counting) or continuous (obtained by measuring). The number of
COVID patients, internet users, and products sold are classified as discrete while height, weight, wage, and gross domestic expenditure
are classified as continuous.

In an experiment or study, variables can be categorized as fixed when they are predetermined or as random when they are randomly
selected.  

Variables that can be manipulated are identified as active variables and those that you cannot manipulate are considered attribute
variables. 

Variables in a study may be classified as dependent and independent variables. Those variables that are being studied, observed, or
measured are categorized as the dependent variables. The dependent variable is also referred to as the response variable, the effect
or the presumed result or outcome. On the other hand, the variables that are being manipulated or controlled in a study are
the independent variables. The Independent variable is also called the explanatory variable, the treatment, the presumed cause, or the
predictor.

For example,  a researcher would like to determine if there is a significant difference in the mean satisfaction rating of the male and
female students about blended learning, the dependent variable is the mean satisfaction rating and the independent variable is gender.
Another example is a study investigating if there is a significant correlation between the company's advertising expenses and sales, the
dependent variable is the sales and the independent variable is the advertising expenses. 

Lastly, variables and data can also be

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5. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are measures used to describe or summarize data on hand numerically. 

Measures of central tendency refer to descriptive measures used to indicate where the center, the middlemost or the most typical
value of a set of data lies. The most common measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode. 

1. Mean is the simplest and the most efficient measure because all values are considered. It always exist and is unique. It is denoted by
 (x-bar) for sample mean and µ (mu) for population mean. Mean is determined by simply getting the average of the values in a sample or
in a population. To compute the mean for ungrouped data, simply add the values then divide the sum by the number of values added as
denoted by the following formula

where Σxi is the sum of the individual values

               n is the number of individual values in the sample

 where Σxi is the sum of the individual values

              N is the number of individual values in the population

2. Median is defined as the middlemost value in the distribution that divides a given set of data into two equal parts. It is not as reliable
as the mean because it does not take into account all the values in the distribution. 

For ungrouped data, arrange the values from smallest to largest then identify the middlemost value or    value for odd number

of values or the average of the 2 middle values for even number of values. 

3. Mode is the most frequent value in a given set of data. 

Measures of Dispersion 

To describe the variability of a given set of data or how spread the data is, measures of dispersion such as range, variance, standard
deviation and coefficient of variation are commonly used. 

 1.  Range is the difference between the largest (maximum) and the smallest (minimum) values. 

     Range = Maximum Value - Minimum Value

2. Variance is computed by getting the average of the squared deviations of each value from the mean. 

Population variance, 

Sample variance, 

3. Standard Deviation is simply the square root of the variance.  

    Population Standard Deviation, 

    Sample Standard Deviation,  

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4. The Coefficient of Variation measures the dispersion in the data relative to the mean. It allows comparison of the two or more sets
of data that are measured in the different units. It is computed by simply dividing the standard deviation by the mean of the
distribution multiplied by 100%.

Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)

The process of analyzing the data to reveal patterns and relationship among variables is referred to as Exploratory Data Analysis.
Outliers must be identified. These values might be caused by error in measurement or recording. To perform EDA, the following charts
or graphs are used. 

1.     Bar chart is used to display visually the distribution of a qualitative or categorical variable. It uses the height or length of the bar
to display the amount in a particular category. with gap between bars. 

To compare levels of nominal variables, vertical graph is commonly used while horizontal graph is used for comparing levels of ordinal
variables. 

2.    When one wishes to picture proportions in a striking way, pie chart is commonly used .  It displays how the total quantity is
distributed among the categories.

3.   Line chart is most appropriate when showing value of variables over time. 

4.  Histogram also utilizes bars but without gap. It is used to graph distribution of continuous variables. 

5. Stem-and-leaf plot displays the shape and distribution of data using the actual numerical values. It is also used to graph distribution
of continuous variables. 

6. Another graph that can be used to show distribution of continuous variables is box plot. This plot displays the five-number summary
of a distribution namely the minimum value, the first quartile, the median, the third quartile and the maximum value. Outliers are easily
identified using boxplot. 

To learn how to use SPSS, 

1. Download SPSS Free Trial 

2. Visit https://www.youtube.com/c/ResearchByDesign/about ;

3. Type  How to Use SPSS for Beginners - Online Statistics in the Search Box

4. Watch and practice 

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6. Inferential Statistics

Inferential Statistics is the field of statistics used to make inferences about the population of interest based on the sample data
collected. 

Population, Sample and Census

A population refers to the totality of all the individuals or objects of interest to which a researcher desires to generalize the result of
his research study. 

A sample is a subset of a population which is used to represent the population. 

A census is done when a researcher takes data from all the members of the population. 

Statistic and Parameter

A statistic is a measure taken from a sample which is used to estimate a parameter. 

Examples  Sample Mean, Sample Variance, Sample Standard Deviation, Sample Proportion

A parameter is a measure taken from a population. 

Examples  Population Mean, Population Variance, Population Standard Deviation, Population Proportion

Sampling

Sampling refers to the way in which sample data are collected. This activity is very crucial in making inferences about the population
based on sample data collected. 

Probability and Nonprobability Sampling

Probability sampling refers to the process of selecting a sample randomly from a population. The members of the target population are
given equal and independent chance of being selected. 

The following are probability sampling techniques. 

a. Simple random sampling involves choosing samples at random through lottery or use of random numbers. 

b. Systematic sampling involves selecting every kth (N/n) member of the population and a random start. 

c. Stratified random sampling chooses sample size per subgroups or stratum proportional to the sizes of the different subgroups or
strata. 

d. Cluster sampling draws sample groups or clusters and then select a sample from each group or cluster individually.

Nonprobability sampling is the opposite of probability sampling, not all the members of the target population are given equal and
independent chance of being selected. Convenience sampling, purposive sampling and quota sampling are nonprobability sampling
techniques. Results of studies using these sampling techniques are only applicable to the individuals or objects involved in the study. 

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7. Normal Distribution

Normal Distribution is one of the widely utilized and the most important among continuous probability distribution. It is sometimes
called the Gaussian distribution in honor of Karl Freidrich Gauss for its development. It is a theoretical concept that aims to explain for
some variables the relation between the intervals of its values and their corresponding probabilities.

 Properties of the Graph of a Normally Distributed Set of Data

1. It is bell-shaped.
2. It is symmetric around a vertical line created at the center, mean μ.
3. Its mean, median and mode are equal.
4. Its curve is unimodal.
5. The curve has 2 tails on both sides that extend indefinitely in opposite direction and do not intersect with the horizontal axis.

To learn more about this topic, you may watch the following YouTube videos (copy and paste the title of the videos in the search box)

 The Normal Distribution and the 68-95-99.7 Rule (5.2) by Simple Learning Pro, May 31, 2019
Normality Test Using SPSS by Kent Lofgren, August 5, 2013 - How to check if data are normally distributed

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8. The Standard Normal Distribution

Many inferential statistical tests assume that data are normally distributed. Empirical rule states that for any normally distributed set
of data, we can say that

1. at least 68% of the values in the given set of data fall within + 1 standard deviation from the mean
2. at least 95% of the values in the given set of data fall within + 2 standard deviation from the mean
3. at least 99.7% of the values in the given set of data fall within + 3 standard deviation from the mean

Since the values of x and s are generally expressed in different units of measure, it is imperative, therefore that the units of
measurement be transformed from the original variable, say variable x to another scale which we shall call the standard score or z-
score.

             A z-score represents the standard deviation units of a given raw score from the mean.   A positive z score denotes it is above
or higher than the mean while a negative z score means it is below or lower than the mean.

where  = sample mean   and s = sample standard deviation

             = population mean and   = population standard deviation

To learn more about this topic, you may  watch this YouTube video - Z-Scores, Standardization, and the Standard Normal
Distribution (5.3) by Simple Learning Pro, June 19, 2019 (copy and paste the title of the video in the YouTube search box)

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9. The Central Limit Theorem

A sampling distribution is the distribution of sample statistics for different samples of the same sizes from the same population. It
shows us how the sample statistic varies from sample to sample. 

If samples are randomly selected and the sample size is large enough, the sampling distribution will be symmetric, bell-shaped and
centered at the value of the parameter. 

The standard deviation of the sample statistics in a sampling distribution is the standard error of the statistic, denoted as SE. It is
computed by dividing the sample standard deviation ( s ) by the square root of the sample size ( n ). 

Central Limit Theorem states the sampling distribution of a statistic is approximately normally distributed. This statement is true
whether the samples came from a population that is normally or not normally distributed.  

You may watch the YouTube video Central Limit Theorem by 365 Data Science, August 11, 2017 and learn more about this topic. 

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10. Estimation

Inferential statistics can be categorized into estimation and hypothesis testing. 

Sample statistic as single or point estimate can be used to estimate a parameter. Because sample statistics vary from sample to sample,
we usually consider a range of plausible values or interval estimate. 

To construct the interval estimate, we need some measure of accuracy associated with our estimate. We need to find the margin of
error for the estimate. Interval estimate is computed as shown below

                              Interval estimate = sample statistic     margin of error

To refresh your memory about this topic, you may watch this YouTube video - Estimation and Confidence Intervals by Rahul Patwari,
August 22, 2013  (copy and paste the title of the video in the YouTube search box). 

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11. Sample Size Estimation

Sample size does matter because as the sample increases, the variability of the sample statistic decreases, and the sample statistic
gets closer to the actual value of the population parameter. 

It is also important that samples are randomly selected. Findings of a study where researchers gathered data biased could lead to a
false conclusion about the population. 

Researchers should determine the appropriate sample size considering the significance level, effect size, and power. 

Researchers should set the level of significance (alpha, α) before conducting a study, often set at 5%. The significance level is the risk
or chance they will commit a Type I error, rejecting a true null hypothesis. 

Effect size refers to the degree or strength of difference or relationship. Cohen (1988) proposed that researchers use small effect
size, medium effect size, or large effect size. 

Power is the probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis. It is referred to also as the probability of detecting an effect, commonly
set at 80%. 

β is the probability of committing a Type II error (accepting a false null hypothesis). With power set at 80%, we allow up to 20%
probability of committing Type II error.

Estimating the appropriate sample size with consideration to the interaction of the factors is called power analysis.

To learn how to estimate the appropriate sample size using G*Power (a freeware program), you may watch 

G*Power Sample Size Calculations: 5 Min Demo by Stuart McErlain-Naylor March 16, 2021 (included how to download G*Power)

Please copy and paste the video's title into the YouTube search box. 

To know more about this topic, you may watch 

1) Power Analysis Using G*Power Software: An Applied Guide by Methodology Related Presentations - TCSPP, December 7, 2016

 2)G*Power: Estimating Required Sample Size for a t-Test – Part 1 by Maths and Stats, September 30, 2019

 3)G*Power: Estimating Required Sample Size for a t-Test – Part 2 by Maths and Stats, September 30, 2019

 4)Power Analysis - Pearson r Correlation Coefficient Using G Power by Quantitative Specialists, March 27, 

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12. Assignment

This is a group activity. 

Sample Size Estimation Using G*Power

Learning Objectives

At the end of this activity, students should be able to 

1. demonstrate understanding of the importance of considering the level of significance (alpha), desired power, effect size, and the
statistical tests when computing the appropriate sample size for a study and

2. use G*power to compute the appropriate sample size

Instruction

1. Please watch the suggested video and download G*Power 

2. Determine the appropriate sample size using G*power for a study that will employ an independent sample t-test, level of significance
(alpha)= 0.05, power =0.80, and using the three levels of effect size 

a) for a small effect size, use 0.20 

b) for medium effect size, use 0.50

c) for a large effect size, use 0.80

Take screenshots of the result for each effect size. Then answer the following questions

1.) Which of the obtained values would you recommend? Explain why

2.) Why is it important that researchers determine the appropriate sample size with consideration of the level of significance, effect
size, and power?

Please follow the format for the collaborative report shown below 

Mathematics in the Modern World

Module 4 Group Activity - Sample Size Estimation Using G*Power

Leader: Last Name, First Name

Members: 

1. LN, FN (indicate their participation in the activity and rating - 60 to 100)

2. LN, FN

3. LN, FN

4. LN, FN

Documentation of Collaboration (Pieces of evidence may be attendance tracker report, chat messages, a screenshot of an exchange of
messages, or a picture of google meet)

G*Power Screenshots of the result for each effect size.

 Answers to Questions 

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 1. Which effect size should you use? Explain Why

2. What factors must researchers consider in determining the appropriate sample size?

 Only the leader will click the icon below to submit the PDF copy of this assignment. 

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13. Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis is a tentative statement about one or more parameters of a population or populations.

Types of Statistical Hypotheses

 1. Null hypothesis (Ho) refers to the statement about the absence of any effect claimed for a certain action. As such it is expressed in
terms of equality or no difference.

 Examples       

            Ho: µ = µo   ( The population mean µ is equal to a particular mean µo. )

            Ho: µ1 = µ2   (The two populations have equal means.)

                                  (There is no significant difference between their means)

 2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha) refers to the assertion contradicting the null hypothesis. It is usually what the research claims or would
like to prove.

 Examples       

            Ha: µ ≠ µo        (The population mean µ is not equal to a particular mean µ.)

             Ha: µ1 ≠ µ2      (The means of the two populations are not equal.)

                                      (There is significant difference between their means)

Hypothesis testing is a procedure whose major objective is to be able to make a decision whether to reject or not the null hypothesis
based on the data gathered.

Types of Hypothesis Tests

 1. One-tailed test (directional test) is the hypothesis test to be applied when the alternative hypothesis, Ha, uses the < or > symbol.
One-tailed test can be further classified as

     a. left-tailed test when Ha uses the < (less than) symbol

             Examples

             Ha: µ < µo       (The population mean µ is less than a particular mean µ.)

             Ha: µ1 < µ2      (The mean of the first group is lower than the mean of the second group.)

             Implication

                        The rejection region lies on the left tail

    b. right -tailed test when Ha uses the > (greater than) symbol

             Examples

            Ha: µ > µo        (The population mean µ is greater than a particular mean µo.)

            Ha: µ1 > µ2        (The mean of the first group is higher than the mean of the second group.)

             Implication

                        The rejection region lies on the right tail

 2. Two-tailed test (non-directional test) is the hypothesis test to be applied when the alternative hypothesis, Ha, uses the ≠ symbol.

          Examples

            Ha: µ ≠ µo        (The population mean µ is not equal to a particular mean µ.)

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            Ha: µ1 ≠ µ2        (The means of the two populations are not equal.)

                                       (There is significant difference between their means)

            Implication

                        The rejection region lies on both tails

As shown above there are four possible outcomes in testing a statistical hypothesis:

 1. The decision is correct when a true null hypothesis has been accepted.

2. A type I error (denoted by α ) is committed when a true null hypothesis has been rejected.

3. A type II error (denoted by β ) is committed when a false null hypothesis has been accepted.

4. The decision is correct when a false null hypothesis has been rejected.

You may watch this YouTube video - Intro to Hypothesis Testing in Statistics - Hypothesis Testing Statistics Problems &
Examples by Math & Science, August 21, 2014 if you need more explanation about this topic. 

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14. Inference about Population Mean

One sample t-test is a parametric test used to determine if a sample mean is statistically significantly different from the present or
known value of the population mean. This test is used to make inferences about the population mean using the sample mean. 

One sample t-test is used when the population standard deviation is unknown. The t statistic is computed using the formula below

where     =  sample mean

         =   population mean

                  s   = sample standard deviation

                  n   = sample size

Moreover, one sample t-test can be used if you have 

1. randomly selected sample and its size is sufficient for the desired level of significance, effect size and power

2. sample data is measured in interval or ratio scale and normally distributed. 

To learn more about one sample t-test you may click this link  https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/one-sample-t-test-using-spss-
statistics.php

If the conditions for normality for One-sample t-test is not met, One-Sample Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test (Nonparametric Equivalent)
can be used. 

Independent t-test is a parametric test used to determine whether the means of two unrelated groups are significantly different. 

Null hypothesis   Ho: µ1 = µ2 (The population means from the two unrelated groups are equal.)

Alternative hypothesis Ha: µ1 ≠ µ2 (The population means from the two unrelated groups are not equal.)

In order to perform an independent t-test, the following must be satisfied

1. randomly selected samples

2. independent or unrelated data 

3. equal variances of the groups

3. interval or ratio scale for dependent variable and normally distributed

4. two categories for independent variable

5. sufficient sample size for a desired level of significance, effect size and power

6. no outliers

 To learn more about independent t-test please click this link  https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/independent-t-test-
statistical-guide.php

Suggested YouTube videos to watch 

1. Independent Samples t-Test by statslectures, August 9, 2010

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2. Independent t-test - Explained Simply by how2stats, March 24, 2014

3. 07 Independent Samples t-Test in SPSS - SPSS for Beginners by Research by Design, December 10, 2017

Mann-Whitney U test is the nonparametric equivalent that you can use in lieu of the Independent T-test. 

Please watch the following YouTube videos

1. Mann-Whitney U-Test by statslectures, October 4, 2010

2. Mann-Whitney U Test - SPSS (UPDATED) by statslectures, October 25, 2016 

Dependent sample t-Test is a parametric test used for comparing the mean scores of two related or dependent samples.

To perform dependent sample t-test, you must  have the following

1. randomly selected samples

2. interval or ratio scaled variables 

3. normally distributed difference between pairs of values 

To extend your knowledge about dependent sample t-test, please click this link  https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-
guides/dependent-t-test-statistical-guide.php

Suggested YouTube videos to watch 

1. Dependent Sample t-Test by statslectures, August 20, 2010

2. SPSS - Dependent Sample t-Test by statslectures, September 12, 2011

3. 06 Paired Samples t-Tests in SPSS - SPSS for Beginners by Research by Design, December 9, 2017

Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test is  the nonparametric equivalent in lieu of dependent sample t-test. 

Suggested YouTube Videos to watch

1. Testing the Assumptions for the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test in SPSS by Todd Grande, June 21, 2017

2. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test by Todd Grande, March 26, 2015

3. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test in SPSS with Effect Size Calculation in Excel, by Todd Grande, September 30, 2015

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15. Quiz 1 (Inference about Population Mean)

Please click the icon below to take this learning assessment. 

This is a timed activity, the clock starts when you click attempt. You are limited to only 1 attempt to answer 20 items for 1 hour or 60
minutes. 

Please ensure your internet connection is stable prior to starting a timed assignment so that you will not be unexpectedly timed-out and
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16. Analysis of Variance

One-Way ANOVA is a parametric test primarily used to determine whether the means of the three or more independent groups are
significantly different. It can also be used to compare the means of the two independent groups to obtain results identical to that of
the independent t-test. 

To know more about this, please click the following  links

https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/one-way-anova-statistical-guide.php

https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/one-way-anova-statistical-guide-2.php

https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/one-way-anova-statistical-guide-3.php

https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/one-way-anova-statistical-guide-4.php

Suggested YouTube Videos to watch

1. One Way ANOVA - SPSS (Part1)  by how2stats, September 7, 2011

2. OneWay ANOVA - SPSS (Part2)  by how2stats, September 7, 2011

If assumptions are not met, Kruskal-Wallis H Test may be used in lieu of ANOVA. 

Please click this link  https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/kruskal-wallis-h-test-using-spss-statistics.php to know more

Suggested YouTube Videos to watch 

1. Kruskal-Wallis - SPSS (Part 1) by how2stats, November 7, 2011

2. Kruskal-Wallis - SPSS (Part 2) by how2stats, November 7, 2011

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9/19/22, 11:36 AM Module 4 - MATHEMATICS AS STATISTICAL TOOL

17. Inference about Relationships

A chi-square test is used when you want to see if there is a relationship between two categorical variables.

Reference: https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/spss/whatstat/what-statistical-analysis-should-i-usestatistical-analyses-using-spss/

To learn more about the chi-square test, please click the link above or this link https://libguides.library.kent.edu/spss/chisquare 

You may also watch this YouTube video - Chi-square test in SPSS + interpretation by BrunelASK, August 13, 2013 (copy and paste the
title of the video in the YouTube search box)

Correlation is used to determine the relationship between two (or more) normally distributed interval variables.

Reference: https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/spss/whatstat/what-statistical-analysis-should-i-usestatistical-analyses-using-spss/

To learn more about Correlation, please click the reference link above or this link https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/spss/modules/an-overview-
of-statistical-tests-in-spss/  

Simple linear regression or simple regression is a parametric method used to predict one continuous DV (criterion or outcome
variable) using one continuous IV (predictor or explanatory variable).

Reference: Meimban, J. J., III., and Terrago, J. D. (2020). Applied Statistics (Step-by-Step Approach Using SPSS).

For your assigned readings, please click the link below

https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/linear-regression-using-spss-statistics.php

You may also watch the YouTube video - How to do Simple Linear Regression in SPSS by Research by Design, April 27, 2017 (copy and
paste the title of the video in the YouTube search box)

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9/19/22, 11:36 AM Module 4 - MATHEMATICS AS STATISTICAL TOOL

18. Forum

What can you do to help promote the use of statistical data in making important decisions? Please click the icon below to
participate in the discussion forum. 

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9/19/22, 11:36 AM Module 4 - MATHEMATICS AS STATISTICAL TOOL

19. Quiz 2 (ANOVA and Inference About Relationships)

Please click the icon below to take this learning assessment. 

This is a timed activity, the clock starts when you click attempt. You are limited to only 1 attempt to answer 20 items for 1 hour or 60
minutes. 

Please ensure your internet connection is stable prior to starting a timed assignment so that you will not be unexpectedly timed-out and
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9/19/22, 11:36 AM Module 4 - MATHEMATICS AS STATISTICAL TOOL

20. References

Meimban, J. J., III., and Terrago, J. D. (2020). Applied Statistics (Step-by-Step Approach Using SPSS)

URC Research Project Proposal Form

https://statistics.laerd.com/

https://www.youtube.com/

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9/19/22, 11:36 AM Module 4 - MATHEMATICS AS STATISTICAL TOOL

21. Student Feedback for Evaluation of Flexible Learning Experience

Please click the icon below to send feedback about your flexible learning experience for this module. 

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