Introduction of computer:

The 20th century saw the birth of one of the most important tools widely in use today called a
computer. Today, computers are used for communication, management, research, drawing and
design as well as entertainment.

This 21st century is being referred to as the digital age

A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and processes it under
the influence of a set of instructions referred to as programs to produce the desired output
generally referred to as information.
The word ‘Computer’ was used before the device was developed. At that time computer was a
job title whose role was to perform repetitive calculation to compute such as navigational tables,
tide charts, planetary position for astronomical calendar etc. To accomplish task they had to do
nothing else but sit and compute constantly for hours and days , that leading to carelessness and
mistakes.
Therefore human being have been searching for hundreds of years to mechanize these task. The
development of computer is not a one day’s invention . In fact, it began with the civilization and
computing instructions on devices. The word “Computer” comes from Latin word
“Computare” which means to calculate . The word “calculate” mean to find out the result of
some operation on numeric and non-numeric values.
Definition of computer:
Computer is a Man-made, Programmable Electronic device
that operates under the control Of a set of Instructions that
are stored in its Memory. A Computer Accepts data from an
Input device, processes it into useful information which it
displays on its OUTPUT device and store information on its
memory and storage device.
A Computer is a collection Of Hardware and Software
components that help you accomplish many different tasks
Information processing cycle (working principle of computer)
Steps followed to process data.
1.Input
2.processing
3.Output
4. Storage.
Input:
Input is data and instruction entered into computer for processing or storing.
Examples:
▪Words, symbols ,numbers ,picture given to the computer.
▪Audio signals from a microphone.
▪Signals from another computer
▪Temperature ,speed, pressure etc. from sensors
Processing:
Processing is the manipulation of data within a computer system under the control of the
instruction given by the user and system. Processing is the actual task of the computer
for which it has been designed.

Examples
▪ Arithmetic calculation
▪ Sorting a list
▪ Modifying pictures
▪ Drawing graph

Output:
It is the processed data which we get from computer after processing in the form we desire so it is
very meaningful and useful to us .it is also called result or information.
Example
▪ Image on a monitor
▪ Printed documents
▪ Sounds
▪ Signals to device controllers.
Memory and Storage:
Memory: The area of a computer that temporarily holds data that is being processed or waiting to
be processed, stored, or output.

Storage: The area where data can be left on a permanent basis while it is not needed for processing.

Characteristics (features/capabilities) of Computer:

As we all know that today the computer has become a part of our life. We are surrounded by
computers as we use computers in our school, at home, in the office and even in our daily lives.
Following are the major characteristics of Computer:
1. Speed

Computers are much faster to perform mathematical calculations than human. The computer is capable of
performing millions of tasks per second. It takes an hour or a day for a person to do a mathematical
calculation or any work, to do the same calculation or work to a computer do in microseconds or
nanoseconds.

2. Accuracy

A computer is very accurate. It does not make any kind of mistake in calculating. Sometimes we get some
error but these are because of the mistake performed by us.
The Accuracy Of the computer is constantly high and it can perform hundred of operation with the carry-
out calculation and analysis accurately and speedily.
3. Diligence

A person gets tired of doing some work in a few hours and a computer has the ability to do
any work continuously for many hours, days, months . Even after the computer has worked
for such a long time, there is no decrease in its ability to work and the accuracy of the result.
The computer does work without any discrimination. A computer is free from monetary and
tiredness.
4. Versatility
Versatility is the Characteristics of a computer. Its means is that the computer is
capable of working in almost every field.

Today computers are being used almost everywhere like schools, colleges, hospitals,
offices, railway stations, hotels etc.
A computer system is multitasking so that you can do two tasks very easily at the
same time.
5. Reliability

Reliability is a very big characteristics of computer. Today almost all the big industries or
big e-Commerce companies like Amazon and Flipkart, and big search engine companies like
- Google and Bing, all these companies are dependent on computers.

Today every major industry and companies in the world have full confidence in their
computers, and their entire business is running from computers.

Today the work of all companies is being done through computers. These companies store
all their data in the computer, the data of these companies are many types of data such as the
amount to be paid, the date of payment and many other types of data, which will be used in
future when the time comes for that data use.

The computer does all its work very honestly. Night or day, the computer continues its work
without being tired. Today this is the reason why big e-commerce companies and industries
blindly trust computers.
6.Automation
A computer is an automatic machine because once started on a
job they carry on until the job is finished without any human
assistance.
7. Storage Capacity
Computer systems have a very large capacity to store any type of data.
A computer can store and resell any information due to its storage
capacity.

Computers have the ability to store all types of data such as data,
pictures, files, programs, games, and sound for many years and later we can
get any data in a few seconds at any time for taking that information and for
future retrieval.
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy,
reliability, or versatility which has made it an integrated part in all
business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −
• Payroll calculations
• Budgeting
• Sales analysis
• Financial forecasting
• Managing employee database
• Maintenance of stocks, etc
Banking
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
Banks provide the following facilities −
• Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance,
making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and
trustee records.
• ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even
easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance:
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are
widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with
information showing −
• Procedure to continue with policies
• Starting date of the policies
• Next due installment of a policy
• Maturity date
• Interests due
• Survival benefits
• Bonus
Education:
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

• The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
• CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
• Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
• There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to educate
the students.
• It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and
• Analysis is carried out on this basis.
Marketing:
In marketing, uses of the computer are following:
• Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write
and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
• Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Healthcare:
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to
keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG,
EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
• Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.
• Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG, etc.
• Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
• Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design:
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −

Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis

for design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
• Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement
of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
• Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military:
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc.
Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where
a computer has been used are −
• Missile Control
• Military Communication
• Military Operation and Planning
• Smart Weapons.
Communication:
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech
that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom
it is meant. Some main areas in this category are −
• E-mail
• Chatting
• Usenet
• FTP
• Telnet
• Video-conferencing
Government:
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this
category are
• Budgets
• Sales tax department
• Income tax department
• Computation of male/female ratio
• Computerization of voters lists
• Computerization of PAN card
• Weather forecasting
Processing speed of computer:
Computers use an internal clock to synchronize all of their calculations. The
clock ensures that the various circuits inside a computer work together at the same time.
Clock speed is measured by how many ticks per second the clock makes. The unit of
measurement called a hertz (Hz), which is technically one cycle per second, is used to
measure clock speed. In the case of computer clock speed, one hertz equals one tick per
second. The clock speed of computers is usually measured in megahertz (MHz) or
gigahertz (GHz). One megahertz equals one million ticks per second, and one gigahertz
equals one billion ticks per second.
You can use clock speed as a rough measurement of how fast a computer is. A 2.0GHz
computer will run faster than a 1.4GHz computer with the same processor and the same
amount of memory.
 Measuring units for processing speed in terms of frequency and
time
Measuring Units in Frequency Measuring Unit in Time
1 Hz (Hertz or 1 x 10 0 Hz) 1 second (1 x 100 sec )
1 KHz (kilo Hertz or 1 x 10 3 Hz) 1 milli second (1 x 10-3 sec )
1 MHz (Mega Hertz or 1 x 10 6 Hz) 1 micro second (1 x 10-6 sec )
1 GHz (Giga Hertz or 1 x 10 9 Hz) 1 nano second (1 x 10-9 sec )
1 THz (Tera Hertz or 1 x 10 12 Hz) 1 pico second (1 x 10-12sec )
1 PHz (Peta Hertz or 1 x 10 15 Hz) 1 femto second (1 x 10-15 sec )
1 Ehz (Exa Hertz or 1 x 10 18 Hz) 1 atto second (1 x 10-18 sec )
1 ZHz (Zetta Hertz or 1 x 10 21 Hz) 1 zepto second (1 x 10-21 sec )
1 YHz (Yotta Hertz or 1 x 10 24 Hz) 1 yocto second (1 x 10-24 sec )
1 BHz (Bronto Hertz or 1 x 10 27 Hz) 1 bronto second (1 x 10-27 sec )
1 YHz (Geop Hertz or 1 x 10 30 Hz) 1 geop second (1 x 10-30 sec )
Measuring unit of Storage in computer
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is expressed in
terms of Bytes . The following table explains the memory storage units

Storage Unit Conversion Table

Unit Abbreviation Capacity (Size)
1 Byte B 8 bits
1 kilo Byte KB 1024 Bytes
1 Mega Byte MB 1024 KB
1 Giga Byte GB 1024 MB
1 Tera Byte TB 1024 GB
1 Peta Byte PB 1024 TB
1 Exa Byte EB 1024 PB
1 Zetta Byte ZB 1024 EB
1 Yotta Byte YB 1024 ZB
1 Bronto Byte BB 1024 YB
Evolution of computer
Earliest Computer
• Originally calculations were computed by humans, whose job title was
computers.
• These human computers were typically engaged in the calculation of a
mathematical expression.
• The calculations of this period were specialized and expensive,
requiring years of training in mathematics.
• The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring
to a person who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word
continued to be used in that sense until the the middle of the 20th
century.
Abacus :
The word Abacus comes from a Greek word ‘abax’ or ‘abakon’ meaning ‘tabular form’. It is the most
primitive form of calculating device, invented somewhere between 300 and 500 BC. Abacus has
traveled a long way and had transitions as it traveled through different countries. The Suanpan, one of
the modern age Chinese abacus had 2/5 decks, but due to its complexity was replaced by Soroban
abacus, a Japanese abacus, that was modified by a famous mathematician Seki Kowa. He removed
one bead each from upper and lower decks to make it 1/4 decks, i.e., the abacus we use today, the
Soroban abacus.
Napier’s Bones
• In 1614, Edinburgh-born Renaissance scholar John Napier invented logarithms. A means of simplifying
complex calculations, they remain one of the most important advances in the study and practical
application of mathematics. Napier’s ‘bones’ or ‘rods’ are just one of the methods this brilliant
mathematician invented to speed up arithmetic.
• Calculation supported: Division, Square root, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction
• Purpose: Calculation of products and quotients of numbers
• Made of material option: Wood, Metal, Heavy cardboard
• Component: Multiplication table, Bone, Rod, Base board
• Inventor: John Napier
Slide Rule:
Slide rule, a device consisting of graduated scales capable of relative movement, by means of which
simple calculations may be carried out mechanically. Typical slide rules contain scales for multiplying,
dividing, and extracting square roots, and some also contain scales for calculating trigonometric functions
and logarithms. The slide rule remained an essential tool in science and engineering and was widely used
in business and industry until it was superseded by the portable electronic calculator late in the 20th
century.
• Calculation supported: Logarithm, Trigonometry, Multiplication, Division, Exponentiation, nth root
• Purpose: To serve as a mechanical analog computer
• Made of material option: Wood, Aluminium, MORE
• Component: Scale ruler, Cursor
• Application: Finance, Science, Engineering, Aviation
• Inventor: William Oughtred in 1620 AD.
Pascaline:
• The Pascaline was designed and built by the French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal between
1642 and 1644. It could only do addition and subtraction, with numbers being entered by manipulating its
dials. Pascal invented the machine for his father, a tax collector, so it was the first business machine too .
• Calculation supported: Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction.
• Purpose: Adding and subtracting two numbers directly and to perform multiplication and division
through repeated addition or subtraction
• Component: Gear, Stylus, Display bar, Sautoir
• Inventor: Blaise Pascal in 1642 AD.
Stepped Reckoner
Gottfried Leibnitz, a German mathematician, extended Blaise Pascal’s ideas and constructed a new
machine called Stepped Reckoner in 1671 A.D. It consisted of additional sets of wheels that could
perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and evaluate square roots by series of stepped
additions. Leibnitz’s machine used stepped cylinders, each with nine teeth of varying lengths. Pascal’s
and Leibniz’s devices were the forebears of today’s desktop computers.
Jacquard’s Loom
Joseph-Marie Jacquard, a French silk-weaver, invented a mechanical loom in 1801, which used
the holes punched in pasteboard punch cards to control the weaving of patterns in fabric. Intricate
patterns could be created by arranging a large number of cards in the loom, and the cards could be
used repeatedly. The Jacquard loom started a technological revolution in the textile industry, and
the system of punched cards used in its operation became a prototype for the first mechanical
computers.
Difference Engine
Charles Babbage, an English mathematician, designed and built an automatic, mechanical calculator
called Difference Engine in 1823 A.D. designed to tabulate polynomial functions. This machine was
based on the principle that the difference between certain values of the expression at a certain stage
becomes constant. It was intended to be steam-powered. It was created to calculate a series of values
automatically. It was controlled by a fixed instruction program.
Analytical Engine
Analytical engine was the first fully-automatic calculating machine constructed by British computing
pioneer, Charles Babbage in 1833 A.D. The Analytical Engine incorporated an arithmetical unit,
control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the
first Turing-complete design for a general-purpose computer. The basic plan proposed for the
Analytical Engine by Charles Babbage completely matches with the input, process and output
concept of the modern computers. That is why Charles Babbage is called the “Father of Computing”.
His engines were not actually completed, largely because of funding problems and personality issues.
Lady Augusta Ada
Lady Augusta was the admirer and follower of Charles Babbage. She was
fascinated by Babbage ideas. Through letters and meetings with Babbage,
she learned enough about the design of the Analytic Engine. She suggested
Babbage to use binary number system for computer program and data. She
gave the concept of computer programming for the first time, so she is
considered as „First Computer Programmer‟. She invented subroutine and
importance of looping. Later, a computer programming language was called
„Ada‟ to honor her for her great contribution in computer programming.
Tabulating Machine
Herman Hollerith, an American census statistician, developed a mechanical tabulating machine in
1887. The purpose of the tabulating machine was to speed up the process of assimilating census data
into a usable form that would meet the needs of a country that was experiencing a significant growth
in population from one decade to the next. Hollerith established the Tabulating Machine Company in
1896 AD to manufacture his inventions. This company later merged with other companies to form the
giant IBM Corporation. Hollerith's technique was successful and the 1890 census was completed in
only 3 years at a savings of 5 million dollars. He established his own company called Tabulating
Machine Company (TMC). Later, TMC was joined with other company and IBM Company in 1923
A.D. IBM is the largest computer manufacturing company in the world even today.
Mark I :
The first electro-mechanical computer Mark I was built in early 1940s and became operable in May
1944. The operational mode of this machine was based on the principle of Charles Babbage. The
machine was designed by Howard Aiken. This project was a joint partnership between IBM and
Harvard University. It was also called IBMASCC (International Business Machine Automatic
Sequence Control Calculator). This was the first programmable digital computer. This machine works
on decimal not in binary format. Mark I was constructed by using switches, relays, rotating shafts, and
clutches. It was very much complex in design as it contained about 750,000 parts and about 500 miles
of wire was used to connect them.
Continue…….
The machine was very heavy and its dimension was 51 feet long, 8 feet tall and 3
feet wide. It had a 50 feet rotating shaft running its length, turned by a 5
horsepower electric motor. It consumed a lot of electricity and emitted a lot of
heat. Later, the successor of Mark I was designed and implemented by Howard
Aiken. The last series Harvard Mark IV was built in 1952 for United States Air
Force.
Grace Hoper is one of the programmers for the Mark I. She found the first
computer "bug": A dead moth that had gotten into the paper tape and whose
wings were blocking the reading of the holes.
ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer)
J. V. Atanasoff was a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University. With the
help of his graduate student Clifford Berry, he built a machine that could solve different types of
mathematical problems successfully tested in 1942. This machine was the first to store data as a
charge on a capacitor, which is how today's computers store information in their main memory
(RAM). It also used vacuum tubes and capacitors for the storage of electric charge.
ENIAC
ENIAC stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator which is the first electronic
digital computer. ENIAC was built at the University of Pennsylvania between 1943 and 1946 by two
professors, John W. Mauchly and the 24 year old J. Presper Eckert, who got funding from the war
department of USA after promising they could build a machine that would replace all the
"computers" (the women who were employed calculating the firing tables for the army's artillery
guns). It was built for United States military to calculate the paths of artillery shells. Mauchly and
Eckert saw the first small piece of ENIAC work then they ran to show their progress to some of
these female computers. One of woman remarked, "I was astounded that it took all this equipment to
multiply 5 by 1000". ENIAC filled a 20 by 40 foot room, weighed 30 tons, and used more than
18,000 vacuum tubes. Like the Mark I, ENIAC employed paper card readers obtained from IBM.
When operating, the ENIAC was silent but had 18,000 vacuum tubes
Continue…..
Each generated waste heat like a light bulb. This computer could only be
operated in a specially designed room with its own heavy duty air
conditioning system. Even with 18,000 vacuum tubes, ENIAC could only
hold 20 numbers at a time. A multiplication that required 6 seconds on the
Mark I could be performed on ENIAC in 2.8 thousandths of a second.
ENIAC's basic clock speed was 100,000 cycles per second. Today's home
computers have clock speeds of more than 1,000,000,000 cycles per
second. ENIAC first task was to compute whether or not it was possible to
build a hydrogen bomb. Reprogramming the ENIAC required a physical
modification of all the punch cards and switches. It takes days to change
ENIAC program.
John Von Neumann
J.V. Neumann was a great mathematician and he discovered the principle of stored program
concept in 1945 A.D. All the modern computers are based on his stored program technique. He is
also called the „Father of Stored Program Technique‟. Before his principle, program required for
computers were integrated and written permanently in paper tapes, mechanical devices and in the
circuit of vacuum tubes so modification of program was not possible. But after his discovery of
stored program technique, such programs were stored inside the computer in some storage media,
so that modification will be easy and flexible.
EDSAC:
EDSAC stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer which was made by Maurice
Wilkes in 1949 A.D. by applying the Neumann stored program technique. It also used vacuum
tubes. It was an early British Computer. This machine was constructed at the University of
Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory. EDSAC ran its first program on May 6, 1949. This
machine was used to calculate a table of squares and a list of prime numbers.
EDVAC:
EDVAC stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer which was made by John
W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert in 1952 A.D. by applying the principle of stored program
technique. It also had vacuum tubes and some internal storage. EDVAC was built for US Army's
Ballistics Research Laboratory by University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical
Engineering. The computer had almost 6000 vacuum tubes, 12000 diodes and consumed 56 KW
of power. It covered 490 square foot space and weighted 7850 KG. The machine requires 30
personnel to operate. This machine ran until 1961 at research laboratory.
UNIVAC:
By the 1950's, computers were no longer owned only by universities and government research
labs. J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly left the University of Pennsylvania over a dispute
about who owned the patents for their invention. They decided to set up their own company.
Their first product was the famous UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer) computer. This
computer was the first commercial computer produced in large quantity. The machine was 25
feet by 50 feet in length, contained 5,600 tubes, 18,000 crystal diodes, and 300 relays. It utilized
serial circuitry, 2.25 MHz bit rate, and had an internal storage capacity 1,000 words or 12,000
characters. It utilized a Mercury delay line, magnetic tape and typewriter output.
Continue……
The UNIVAC was used for general purpose computing with large amounts of
input and output. Power consumption was about 120 KVA. It's reported
processing speed was 0.525 milliseconds for arithmetic functions, 2.15
milliseconds for multiplication and 3.9 Milliseconds for division. The UNIVAC
was also the first computer to come equipped with a magnetic tape unit and was
the first computer to use buffer memory.
Generation of Computers
If we see the computer of the past, then we find that they were not in similar shape, size, cost,
functionality, technology, hardware and software to the modern digital computers. Computer generation
is the classification of computers into different groups according to their manufacturing date, memory
device, other hardware and software technology used inside those computers. Generation of computer is
a step in advancing technology. It provides the framework for the growth and development of the more
powerful and useful computer system.
When computer generation goes higher i.e. from 1st to 2nd, 2nd to 3rd and so on, then we find that
processing speed, storage capacity and accuracy are increasing but size, cost, weight, power
consumption and heat emission are decreasing gradually which is further clarified in the table below:
S.N Characteristics Effects
1 Size Decreased
2 Weight Decreased
3 Power Consumption Decreased
4 Heat Emission Decreased
5 Price of Computer Decreased
6 Processing speed Increased
7 Storage and memory capacity Increased
8 Use of user friendly Software Increased
9 Hardware Complexity Increased
10 Reliability and accuracy Increased
There are 5 generation of computer which are as follows:
1. First Generation Computer
The computers which were made approximately between 1941 and 1955 A.D. are
classified as the first generation computer. All the computers which were made during
the first generation had vacuum tubes as their memory and processing devices. Vacuum
tube was developed by Lee De Forest in 1908 A. D. and used later in computer system.
The first generation computer had the following features:
1 Technology: Vacuum tube was used as its main components.

2. Processing Speed: Processing speed was measured in Millisecond.

3. Input/Output Devices: Punch Card was used as input / output devices.
4. Computer Type: Computers were electro-mechanical.
5. Memory: Vacuum tube was used as memory device.
6. Storage Device: First punch cards and later Magnetic drum were used as storage device.
7. Operation Mode: Computers should be set up manually as there was no operating system invented.
8. Reliability and Accuracy: The computers were not fully reliable and accurate.
9. Programming Language: Machine Level Language was used for computer programming.
10. Size and Cost: The size of computer was very large and its cost was also very expensive.
11. Availability: The computers were only available to the military purpose and university research.
12. Power Consumption and Heat Emission: Computers consumed a lot of electricity power and
emitted a lot of heat.
13. Portability: Computers were not portable because of its huge size.
14. Examples: Mark I, ABC, ENIAC etc. are the few examples of First Generation Computers.
Second Generation Computer
• The computers which were made approximately between 1955 to 1964 and having the transistor
and diodes as memory device are classified as the second generation computer. Transistor is
derived from two device „transfer‟ and „register‟. It is the device which is made of 3 terminal
semi-conductor materials that amplifies the electric signal and open or closes the electric circuit.
Transistor was invented by three scientists John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain in
1947 A.D. and won the Nobel Prize in 1956 for it.

The main features of second generation computers are as follows:

1. Technology: Transistor was used as its main components.
2. Processing Speed: Faster processing speed as it was measured in Microsecond.
3. Input / Output Devices: Punch Card was used as input/output devices.
4. Computer Type: Computers were electro-mechanical.
5. Memory: Magnetic Core (Ferrite) memory was used as internal memory.
6. Storage Device: Magnetic tape was used as secondary storage device.
7. Operation Mode: Computers should be set up manually as there was no operating system
invented.
8. Reliability and Accuracy: These were more reliable and accurate than first generation
computers.
9. Programming Language: Assembly and High Level Language such as FORTRAN,
ALGOL, COBOL etc. were used for computer programming.
10. Size and Cost: The Computers were in smaller in size and less expensive than first
generation computer.
11. Availability: The computers were available for general purpose too.
12. Power Consumption and Heat Emission: Power consumption and Heat emission was
less than first generation computers.
13. Portable: Computers were not portable.
14. Examples: IBM1401 (First Computer brought in Nepal on hire for National Census
2028 B.S.), ICL2950/10 (Second computer brought in Nepal from England on 20 lakhs
US dollar for National Census 2038), IBM1620 etc.
Third Generation Computer
The computers which were made approximately between 1964 to 1975 and having ICs
technology as memory and processing devices are classified as third generation computer. ICs
are the semiconductor device which consists of many interconnected transistor and other
components. They are constructed on a silicon chip. The first IC was developed by John Kilby
and Robert Noyce in 1958. Later Robert Noyce established Intel company.
Some of main features of third generation computers are as follows.
1. Technology: IC was used for the electronic circuit in computer.
2. Processing Speed: Faster than previous generation computer as processing speed was increased into
Nanosecond.
3. Input/Output Devices: Keyboard and Monitor were introduced as input and output devices for the first
time respectively.
4. Computer Type: Computers were electronic.
5. Memory: Semiconductor memory was used as primary memory.
6. Storage Device: Magnetic disk was used as secondary storage device.
7. Operation Mode: operating system was introduced for the automatic and multiprogramming.
8. Reliability and Accuracy: Computers became fully reliable and accurate.
9. Programming Language: Further development of High Level Language for computer programming.
10. Size and Cost: The Computers were smaller in size and less expensive than previous generation computers.
11. Availability: The computers were available for general purpose as well as for personal purpose.
12. Power Consumption and Heat Emission: Power consumption and Heat emission was less than previous
generation computers.
13. Portable: Computers became portable for the first time because of the development of Personal or Desktop
Computer.
14. Examples: IBM360 Series, UNIVAC 9000, ICL1900 etc.
Fourth Generation Computer
The computers which were made approximately between 1975 to till now and having microprocessor
as CPU and VLSI & ULSI technology in IC as memory device are classified as fourth generation
computers. Microprocessor is a chip in which millions of components are integrated together in
different layers. The first commercial microprocessor was Intel 4004 which was made by Intel
Corporation in 1971. It was a 4 bit processor because it could process only 4 bits of data at a time. It
is one of the most important generation because many achievement in the hardware and software
technology took place during this generation.
The main features are as follows:
1.Technology: ICs and microprocessors are used as main components with VLSI and ULSI technology.
2. Processing Speed: Faster than previous generation computer as processing speed was increased into
Picoseconds.
3. Input / Output Devices: Input/Output devices have been further refined and invented various devices
such as scanner, touch screen, printer etc.
4. Computer Type: Computers were electronic.
5. Memory: Semiconductor memory with huge capacity has been used as primary memory.
6. Storage Device: Use of magnetic and optical disk with large storage capacity for secondary storage
device.
7. Operation Mode: Multiprogramming, multiprocessing, multimedia and distributed operating system
become possible.
8. Reliability and Accuracy: Computers have become fully reliable and accurate.
9. Programming Language: Advanced HLL and 4GL for application and database programming have
been used.
10. Size and Cost: The Computers were smaller in size and less expensive than previous generation
computers.
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11. Availability: The computers are available for general purpose as well as for special purpose.
12. Power Consumption and Heat Emission: Power consumption and Heat emission has been less
than previous generation computers.
13. Portable: Computers have become portable because of the development of Personal or Desktop
Computer, Laptop, Notebook and PDA.
14. Examples: Acer ASPIRE 5741, Apple MacBook Air, Dell Inspiron 1440 etc.
Fifth Generation Computer:
Although the computer of this generation have not come yet in reality, but computers scientist
are trying since 1990 A.D. It is said that the computer of this generation will use AI and bio-
chips as memory device so that they can think and decide like a human being. Bio-chips will be
made of biological organism and protein fibers obtained from the living organism. So this
computer will have power of sense, logic and decision making capacity.
The features will be as follows.
1. They will be capable of fully parallel processing.
2. Computers will use super conductor memory like bio-chips so that the speed will be very fast.
3. The computers will be intelligent and knowledge base because of AI.
4. Instead of HLL, natural language like English, Nepali, Hindi etc. will be used for giving
instruction and making computer program.
5. They will be large scale data processing on the basis of knowledge processing.
6. The computers are not available in the market. These are still in development phase or in
testing phase or exists somewhere in the world as failed project.
Long Answer Questions
1. List the application areas of computer and describe any 10 of them.
2. What do you mean by Generation of Computer? Describe each generation of computer with the main technology
used.
Short Answer Questions
1. Compare and contrast between 3rd and 4th generation of computer.
2. What are the features of 5th generation computer with possible features?
3. Why Charles Babbage is called „Father of Computer‟?
4. What is the role of Blaise Pascal in the development of computer?
5. Write short notes on the following:
a. Mark I
b. UNIVAC
c. ABC
d. Tabulating Machine
e. Slide Rule
f. Abacus
6. Write short notes on the achievement of the following computer scientists:
a. Josepsh Marie Jacquard
b. Lady Augusta Ada
c. Dr. Herman Hollerith
d. Jon von Neumann
Green Computing:
It is a study or practice of designing, manufacturing, using and disposing computing devices or
resources with no or minimum impact on environment. So it is the efficient and eco-friendly use
of computing resources.
Green computing is the environmentally responsible and eco-friendly use of computers and their
resources. Green computing can encompass new or modified computing practices, policies, and
procedures. Strategies include the reduction of energy consumption of computers and other
devices; reduction in use of paper, ink, and toner; and reuse, recycling, or proper disposal of
electronic waste (referred to as e-waste or e-trash). Green computing is also known as green
information technology (green IT).
Five Ways to Go Green
1. Make sure you use Energy Star certified devices. The Energy Star label on a device
means the manufacturer has reached or exceeded the minimum federal standards for
reduced energy consumption.
2. Turn of devices when you are better-use smart power strips that automatically reduce the
power to devices when not in use.
3. Reduce printing to only those documents, messages, or photos that absolutely must be in
paper copy and make sure what you print uses that least amount of paper.
4. Modify the default power options on your computer to conserve more energy.
5. Consider reselling or donating equipment you no longer need.
Cloud Computing
Individuals and businesses are increasingly turning to providers of software and computing
services that are accessed entirely on the Internet. This delivery model of software and services
is called cloud computing. With cloud computing, all you need is a computer with a web browser
in order to get your work done since all of the software and the documents you need to access
are stored online. Could computing got its name because the Internet has always been identified
with a cloud in technology documentation. Cloud computing places the processing and storage
operations of the Information Processing cycle at an online service provider’s server and/ or data
center rather than using the hardware and software on your own PC mobile device. In some
cases you can use up to 5 GB of cloud storage for free (with an option to pay a fee for more
storage space). The delivery of software applications using the Internet is referred to as software-
as-a service (SaaS)