Geoid, Ellipsoid

& Chart Projections

Prelim Week 3(A)
NAV-1 (Terrestrial and Coastal Navigation 1)
 Function Competence

Navigation at the Plan and conduct a

Operational Level passage and determine
position
Learning Outcomes
1 Explain basic geodesic concepts in relation to chart projection and
construction and the establishment of chart datum.

2 Compare and contrast the different types of chart projections in

relation to their practical uses and features.

Topics
Charts Chart Datum Chart Projections
Maps
A map is a representation of some part of the Earth's surface that
shows:

1. Political boundaries
2. Physical features
3. Cities and towns
4. Tourist spots
5. Churches
6. Other geographic information
Political Map of
the Philippines
Elevation Map
of Russia
Charts

Charts are a representation of the Earth's surface.

It is printed for the use of navigators.

Charts provide essential information for the safe navigation of a vessel

in navigable waters.
Nautical Chart
A Nautical chart is a representation of the earth's surface and is
designed for use in navigation.
Nautical Chart
It is primarily concerned with navigable water ares and provides info
like:

Trend of coastline Rocks

Position of lights Shoals
Important headlands Coastline and harbors
Direction of tidal streams Prominent mountain peaks
Channels & obstructions Aids to navigation
Chart Makers
BA = British Admiralty (UK)

DMAHTC = Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center (USA)

NOS = National Ocean Service (USA)

Canadian Hydrographic Service (Canada)

NAMRIA = National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (Philippines)

What is a Datum?

To put it simply, a Datum is a set of points from which we can measure

the size, position or area of something.

In other words, it is a reference point for spatial measurements.

Spatial (adjective) = occupying space

Things a sailor should know:

1. Chart datum

2. Geodesic datum
Chart Datum
It is a reference point from which CHARTED DEPTHS are measured from.

Charted depths means the depths or soundings that are displayed on

charts. But the depth of water at sea varies constantly with tides, and
therefore the actual depths might be different from what is being shown
on chart.

These depth on charts refer to an "imaginary level" known as Chart Datum.

Chart Datum
As a general rule, Chart Datum is normally the lowest you would expect
the tide to fall at any given location.

Common Chart Datum are lowest astronomical tide and mean lower
low water.

Lowest Astronomical Tide is defined as the lowest tide level which can
be predicted to occur under average meteorological conditions.
Geodetic Datum
It is a set of reference points to measure location on earth.

A geodetic datum is an abstract coordinate system with a reference

surface (such as sea level) that serves to provide known locations to
begin surveys and create maps.

To understand Geodetic datum, we first need to understand that earth

is not a perfect sphere, it is an ellipse, bulged at the equator, with a
highly irregular surface.
The irregular surface of earth is called a Geoid.
Chart Projection
It is a method of representing all or part of the surface of a sphere or
spheroid (earth) upon a plane surface.

It is a process of transferring points on the surface of the

sphere/spheroid onto a plane or onto a developable surface such as a
cylinder or a cone.
Chart Projection
Chart Projection
The process of transferring information from the earth to a chart causes
every projection to distort at least either of the aspects in the real
world:

1. Shape
2. Area
3. Distance
4. Direction
Types of Chart Projection
Mercator Projection
Polyconic Projection
Lambert Conformal Projection
Simple Conic Projection
Rectangular Projection
Stereographic Projection
Orthographic Projection
Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
Perspective Projection
Transverse Orthomorphic Projection
Let's define some terms first..

Conformal - the angles are correctly represented and the scale is the same in all
directions from any point.
- the angles at each point are preserved (shapes of small areas are
maintained accurately but size of most areas are distorted).
Let's define some terms first..

Rhumbline - the straight line drawn between two points wherein we can sail
that course by determining the true direction between them.
- cuts all the meridians at the same angle.
Let's define some terms first..

Waypoint - points along the determined track.

Let's define some terms first..

Conic - a map projection where the earth's surface is projected onto a tangent
or secant cone, which is the cut from apex to base and laid flat.
Let's define some terms first..

Cylindrical - a map projection where the earth's surface is projected onto a

tangent or secant cylinder, which is then cut lengthwise and laid flat.
Let's define some terms first..

Graticule - a network of lines representing a selection of the earth's parallels

and meridians.
Let's define some terms first..

Developable Surface - a simple geometric form capable of being flattened

without stretching. Map projections can be grouped by the developable surface
they use (cylinder, plane, or cone).
Let's define some terms first..

Grid - two sets of parallel lines intersecting at right angles, forming a

rectangular Cartesian coordinate system superimposed on a map projection.
Sometimes the term "grid" is used loosely to mean the projection system itself
rather than the rectangular system superimposed on the projection.
Let's define some terms first..
Standard Parallel - a parallel along which there is no distortion.
Let's define some terms first..
Antipodes - places diametrically opposite each other on the globe.
Let's define some terms first..
Azimuthal - a map projection in
which the direction from a
given central point to any other
point is shown correctly (also
called 'Zenithal Projection' or
'Planar Projection').
Let's define some terms first..
Equal Area - a map projection where every part, as well as the whole, has the
same area as the corresponding part on the earth, at the same reduced scale.
Desirable properties of Chart Projection
True shape of physical features (shape and size of land and water areas)

Correct angular relationship (conformal/orthomorphic)

Equal area or the representation of areas in their correct relative

proportions

Constant scale values for measuring values for measuring distances

(distances between points)

Great circles represented in straight lines

Rhumb lines represented as straight lines

Mercator Projection

It is a conformal projection in which angles are correctly represented and

the scale is the same in all directions from any point.

It is simply a projection onto a cylinder and it is parallel to the polar axis

and tangent to the equator.

In this projection, the meridians appear to be vertical lines and parallels

appear to be horizontal lines.
Mercator Projection

In this projection, latitude scale increases as we move farther from the

equator (correct relationship between latitude and longitude scales at any
point is maintained).

In this projection, longitude scale is constant.

Rhumb lines appear as straight lines.

Mercator Projection
A few things about Mercator Projection
Its first distortion are the MERIDIANS (due to the 'stretching out' process),
wherein:

they are no longer converging towards poles

parallel to each other

Shows up to 70° and very rarely beyond 80° on both hemispheres (North or
South).

Great circles would appear as curved lines except meridians and

the equator.
Kinds of Mercator Projection

Transverse Mercator Chart Projection, also referred to as Transverse

Orthomorphic Projection. This is the type of projection if the cylinder is
tangent along a meridian.

It is an Oblique Mercator Chart Projection if the cylinder is tangent along an

oblique great circle.
Kinds of Mercator Projection
Polyconic Projection
This is a conic projection wherein the surface of a sphere/spheroid (earth)
is conceived as developed on a series of tangent cones, then spread out to
form a plane.

A separate cone is used for each small zone or each parallel of latitude.

Widely used for maps but seldom used for charts except for survey
purposes.

This is not conformal.

Polyconic Projection
In this projection, there is less distortion in shape.

Relative sizes are more preserved compared to Mercator Projection.

The scale is correct along any parallel and in the central meridian of the
projection.

Along other meridians, the scale increases with increased difference

of longitude from the central meridian.
Polyconic Projection
Parallels appear as non-concentric arcs of circles.

Meridians appear as curved lines converging towards the pole, concave

towards the central meridian.
Polyconic Projection
Lambert Conformal Projection
This is also referred to as Single Conic Projection.

It uses a single cone tangent to the earth at a single parallel of latitude.

This is a poor projection in terms of:

1. Scale (not correct except along the standard parallel)

2. Areas (not equally projected)
3. Angular relationships (not preserved)
Lambert Conformal Projection
Becomes conformal (the spacing of the parallels is altered so that the
distortion is the same along the meridians).

Most widely used conic projection especially for Aviators (Aeronautical

chart) and Polar Charts.

Radio bearing from signals that travel great circle paths can be plotted on
this without corrections.
Lambert Conformal Projection
Gnomonic Projection

Referred to as a Great Circle Sailing Chart.

Uses a plane placed on the surface tangent to the earth.

Neither conformal nor equal area.

Distortion is great (shapes and distances are very poorly represented

except near the point of tangency).
Gnomonic Projection

Great circles are projected as straight lines.

Used for planning great circle track between waypoints (points along the
determined track).

Became obsolete due to computers.

Gnomonic Projection
Why are Mercator Charts widely used by navigators?

Fulfills two main requirements of a navigational chart:

1. Rhumb lines are presented as straight lines

2. Angles such as courses are not distorted

This type of projection is more popular to navigators and in schools.

Advantages of Mercator Chart

Same ratio of expansion in all directions (meridians and parallels).

If the latitude is small, distances can be measured directly on the chart.

Small areas near the equator appear in their true size and shape except in
higher latitude (islands look larger on the chart).

The scale of longitude is constant whereas the scale of latitude increases

towards the poles.
Disadvantages of Mercator Chart

Can't be used in the Polar Regions (70° to 80° both in North and South
Hemispheres.

Every latitude has a different scale of distance.

Great circle arcs are drawn as curved lines except the equator and
meridians.
Comparison between Mercator and Gnomonic Charts

Mercator Gnomonic

Straight lines converging towards the

Meridians Vertical straight lines
nearer pole

Parallels Horizontal straight lines Curve lines except the equator

Great Circle of Curve lines except meridians and the

Straight lines
Tracks equator

Distance Scale Varies with distance from the equator Changes too rapidly, no constant scale

Rhumb lines Straight lines Curve lines

Simple Conic Projection

A conic projection in which a surface of a sphere/spheroid is conceived or

developed on a tangent cone which is then spread to form a plane.

The height of the cone increases as the latitude of the tangent parallel
decreases:
At the equator, the cone's height reaches infinity and becomes cylinder.
At the pole, its height is zero and becomes a plane.
Rectangular Projection

A cylindrical projection that is similar to the Mercator Projection.

It has uniform spacing of the parallels.

Convenient for graphically depicting information where distortion is not

important.

Its principle use for the Star Chart of the Air Almanac.
Stereographic Projection
A perspective, conformal, azimuthal projection.

Points on the surface of the sphere are conceived as projected by radial

lines from any point on the surface to a plane tangent to the antipode of
the point of projection.

Circles project as circles except for great circles through the point of
tangency, which great circles project as straight lines.

Used for chart of the Polar Regions.

Orthographic Projection
A perspective azimuthal projection on which the projecting lines,
emanating from a point of infinity are perpendicular to a tangent plane.

Used chiefly in Navigational Astronomy, for inter-converting coordinates of

the Celestial Equator and horizon systems.
Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
An azimuthal projection.

Straight lines radiating from the center or pole of projection represent

great circles in their true azimuth for that center, and lengths along those
lines are of exact scale.

Neither conformal nor equal area.

If a geographic pole is the pole of projection: meridians appear

as radial lines; parallels are equally spaced concentric circles.
Perspective Projection

The representation of a figure on a surface, either plane or curved, by

means of projecting lines emanating from a single point, which may be
infinity.
POP
QUIZ Is this a Chart or a Map?
POP
QUIZ Is this a Chart or a Map?
POP
QUIZ Is this a Chart or a Map?
POP
QUIZ Is this a Chart or a Map?
Lesson
Completed