ROOFS

Roof is the upper most portion of the building which protects the building from rain, wind and sun.
Roofs can be considered as:
▪ short span;
▪ medium span;
▪ long span.
i. Short span
These are roofs up to 7.0 m, generally of traditional timber construction with a flat or pitched
profile. Flat roofs are usually covered with a flexible sheet material, whereas pitched roofs are
generally covered with small units such as tiles or slates.
ii. Medium span
These are roofs of 7.0–24.0 m, except where reinforced concrete is used; the usual roof structure
for a medium span is a truss or lattice of standard steel sections supporting a deformed sheeting
such as corrugated asbestos cement or a structural decking system.
iii. Long span
These are roofs over 24.0 m; they are generally designed by a specialist using girder, space deck or
vaulting techniques, and are beyond the scope of a basic technology course.

TYPES
Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into three types:
▪ flat roofs;
▪ pitched roofs;
▪ shells and folded plates.
Brief description of these roofs is presented below:
i. Flat roofs
These roofs are nearly flat with a slight slope of not more than 10° given to drain out the rain water.
All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times, top of these roofs is treated
with water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing chemicals in concrete, providing coba
concrete.
ii. Pitched roofs
The term pitched roof includes any roof whose angle of slope to the horizontal lies between 10°
and 700. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned structures like workshops, factory
buildings ware houses etc. In all these roofs covering sheets like A.C. sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates
etc. are supported on suitable structures. The pitched roofs are classified into:
▪ single roofs;
▪ double or purlin roofs;
▪ trussed roofs.

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 a. Single Roof: If the span of roof is less than 5 m the following types of single roofs are used.
▪ Lean to roof
▪ Couple roof
▪ Closed couple roof
▪ Collar beam roof
In all these roofs rafters placed at 600 mm to 800 mm spacing are main members taking
load of the roof. Battens run over the rafters to support the roof covering. Fig. 1 shows
various types of single roofs.

a) Lean to roof

b) Couple roof

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 c) Closed couple roof

d) Collar roof

Fig. 1: Pitched roofs for small spans.

b. Double or Purlin Roofs: If span exceeds, the cost of rafters increases and single roof
becomes uneconomical. For spans more than 5 m double purlin roofs are preferred. The
intermediate support is given to rafters by purlins supported over collar beams. Fig. 2 shows
a typical double or purlin roof.

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Fig. 2: Typical double or purlin roof details for spans up to 7200 mm.

c. Trussed Roof: If span is more, a frame work of slender members are used to support sloping
roofs. These frames are known as trusses. A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to
get wall free longer halls. Purlins are provided over the trusses which in turn support roof
sheets. For spans up to 9 m wooden trusses may be used but for larger spans steel trusses
are a must. In case of wooden trusses suitable carpentry joints are made to connect various
members at a joint. Bolts and straps are also used. In case of steel trusses joints are made
using gusset plates and by providing bolts or rivets or welding.
Depending upon the span, trusses of different shapes are used. End of trusses are supported
on walls or on column. Fig. 3 shows different shapes of trusses used.

(a) King post spans up to 8 m (b) Queen post spans up to 10 m

(c) Howe truss with 4 and 8 panels spans 6 m to 30 m

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 (d) Pratt truss spans 6 m to 100 m Modified pratt truss

(e) Fink or French roof trusses spans up to 10 m

(f) Compound French truss Cambered French roof truss

span 20 m to 30 m span 20 m to 30 m

(g) Fan truss spans 10 m to 15 m (h) North light roof truss span 8 m to 10 m

(i) Quadrangular truss (j) Truss used for large span

(k) Truss used for large spans

Fig. 3. Types of trusses.

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 iii. Shells and Folded Plate Roofs:
Shell roof may be defined as a curved surface, the thickness of which is small compared to the
other dimensions. In these roofs lot of load is transferred by membrane compression instead of by
bending as in the case of conventional slab and beam constructions. Caves are having natural shell
roofs. An examination of places of worships built in India, Europe and Islamic nations show that
shell structures were in usage for the last 800 to 1000 years. However, the shells of middle ages
were massive masonry structures but nowadays thin R.C.C. shell roofs are built to cover large
column free areas. Fig.4 shows commonly used shell roofs.

(a) Cylindrical (b) Butterfly (c) North light (d) Spherical dome

(e) Paraboloid (f) Ellipsoidal (g) Elliptic paraboloid (h) Hyperbola of revolution

(i) Hyperbolic paraboloid (j) Conoid (k) Corrugated shells (l) Funicular shell
Fig. 4. Types of shell roofs.
Folded plate roofs may be looked as slab with a number of folds. These roofs are also known
as hipped plates, prismatic shells and faltwerke. In these structures also bending is reduced
and lot of load gets transferred as membrane compression. However folded plates are not
so efficient as shells. Fig. 5 shows typical folded plate roofs.

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 Prismatic V-Type Trough type

North light
Fig. 5: Types of folded plate roofs

PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
▪ Roof coverings to provide adequate weather exclusion,
▪ Roof coverings to have reasonable durability,
▪ Roof coverings to be aesthetically acceptable,
▪ Roof coverings to provide resistance to excessive heat loss,
▪ Roof structure to provide resistance to failure due to overstressing. It must be able to
support own self weight, wind loads and imposed loads such as snow,
▪ Provide adequate drainage of roof coverings,
▪ Roof to provide the required degree of sound insulation,
▪ Roof to be accessible for maintenance,
▪ Provide natural daylight if required.

FUNCTIONS
The functions of any roof are:
▪ to keep out rain, wind, snow and dust;
▪ to prevent excessive heat loss in winter;
▪ to keep the interior of the building cool in summer;
▪ to accommodate all stresses encountered;
▪ to accept movement due to changes in temperature and moisture content;
▪ to provide lateral restraint and stability to adjacent walls;
▪ to resist penetration of fire and spread of flame from external sources.

BASIC ROOF FORMS

Roofs can be designed in many different forms and in combinations of these forms some of which
would not be suitable and/or economic for domestic properties. These are shown in Fig.6.

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 a) Lean to roof b) Monopitch roof

c) Flat roofs

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 d) Hipped end roof

e) Gable end roof.

f) The mansard or gambrel roof.

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 g) A combination of basic forms.

Fig. 6: Basic roof forms.

BUILDING REGULATIONS
1. Any building work shall be carried out with proper materials and in a workmanlike manner.
2. The roof should offer adequate resistance to the spread of fire over the roof.
3. The roof of a building shall adequately resist the passage of moisture to the inside of the
building.
4. Reasonable provision should be made for the conservation of fuel and power in buildings.
To satisfy this requirement the roof construction is enhanced with suitable insulation
material.

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 TIMBER PITCHED ROOFS
The term pitched roof includes any roof whose angle of slope to the horizontal lies between 10°
and 70°; below this range it would be called a flat roof and above 70° it would be classified as a
wall.
The pitch is generally determined by the covering that is to be placed over the timber carcass,
whereas the basic form is governed by the load and span.
The cost of constructing a pitched roof is greater than for a flat roof, but the pitch will create a
useful void for locating cold water storage cisterns and for general storage. The timber used in roof
work is structural softwood, the members being joined together with nails. The sloping components
or rafters are used to transfer the covering, wind, rain and snow loads to the loadbearing walls on
which they rest. The rafters are sometimes assisted in this function by struts and purlins in what is
called a purlin or double roof (see Fig. 2). As with other forms of roof the spacing of the rafters and
consequently the ceiling joists is determined by the module size of the ceiling boards that are to be
fixed on the underside of the joists.
Pitched roofs for small spans include:
▪ Lean to roof
▪ Couple roof
▪ Closed couple roof
▪ Collar beam roof
▪ Double or purlin roof

ROOF MEMBERS
▪ Ridge: This is the spine of a roof and is essentially a pitching plate for the rafters that are
nailed to each other through the ridge board. The depth of ridge board is governed by the
pitch of the roof: the steeper the pitch, the deeper will be the vertical or plumb cuts on the
rafters abutting the ridge.
▪ Common rafters: The main loadbearing members of a roof; they span between a wall plate at
eaves level and the ridge. Rafters have a tendency to thrust out the walls on which they rest,
and this must be resisted by the walls and the ceiling joists. Rafters are notched over and
nailed to a wall plate situated on top of a loadbearing wall; the depth of the notch should not
exceed one-third the depth of the rafter.
▪ Jack/cripple rafters: These fulfil the same function as common rafters but span from ridge to
valley rafter or from hip rafter to wall plate.
▪ Hip rafters: Similar to a ridge but forming the spine of an external angle and similar to a rafter
spanning from ridge to wall plate.
▪ Valley rafters: Similar to hip rafters but forming an internal angle.
▪ Wall plates: These provide the bearing and fixing medium for the various roof members, and
distribute the loads evenly over the supporting walls; they are bedded in cement mortar on
top of the loadbearing walls.
▪ Dragon ties: Ties placed across the corners and over the wall plates to help provide resistance
to the thrust of a hip rafter.

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 ▪ Ceiling joists: These fulfil the dual function of acting as ties to the feet of pairs rafters and
providing support for the ceiling boards on the underside and any cisterns housed within the
roof void.
▪ Struts: These are compression members that transfer the load of a purlin to a suitable
loadbearing support within the span of the roof.
▪ Collars: These are extra ties to give additional strength, and are placed at purlin level.
▪ Binders: These are beams used to give support to ceiling joists and counteract excessive
deflections, and are used if the span of the ceiling joist exceeds 2400 mm.
▪ Hangers: Vertical members used to give support to the binders and allow an economic section
to be used; they are included in the design if the span of the binder exceeds 3600 mm.
▪ Valley: Internal angle of a roof.
▪ Roof covering Provides resistance to penetration of elements and conveys surface water to
gutter at eaves.
▪ Ridge tile/cap: Capping to roof covering.
▪ Ridge board: Spine of roof carcass.
▪ Verge: Termination of a gable. Directs surface water back onto main roof area.
▪ Hip: External angle of a roof.
▪ Battens: Fixing medium for roof coverings and underlay which acts as secondary barrier to
elements.
▪ Purlins: These act as beams, reducing the span of the rafters and enabling an economic
section to be used. If the roof has a gable end, they can be supported on a corbel or built in,
but in a hipped roof they are mitred at the corners and act as a ring beam.
[Note: The arrangement of struts, collars and hangers occurs only on every fourth or fifth pair
of rafters.]

Fig. 7: Component parts of a pitched roof.

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Fig. 8: Typical plan of a pitched roof.

PITCHED ROOF COMPONENT SIZING

The size of the principal timber members constituting a roof structure can be determined by
calculation or from design tables as referred to under ‘flat roof joist sizing’. Tables are extensive, to
include the various roof components, grades of timber, different roof pitches and loadings. As an
example, Table 1 is provided for guidance on selection of rafters for pitches between 30° and 45°
with an imposed loading of 0.75 kN/m2.

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Table 1: Guide to span and loading potential for GS grade softwood timber rafters

Note: Clear span is measured between wallplate and purlin and between purlin and ridge board.

EAVES
The eaves of a roof is the lowest edge that overhangs the wall.

Functions
▪ To give the wall a degree of protection.
▪ Provides the fixing medium for the rainwater gutter.
The amount of projection from the wall of the eaves is a matter of choice but is generally in the
region of 300–450 mm. There are two basic types of eaves finish:
i. Open eaves
They are less expensive, with rafters left exposed on the underside and treated with preservative. A
continuous triangular tilting fillet is fixed over the backs of the rafters to provide support for the
bottom course of slates or tiles.

Fig. 9: Open eaves.

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 ii. Closed eaves
A closed eave is one in which the feet of the rafters are boxed in using a vertical fascia board, with
the space between the fascia and the wall containing a ventilated soffit board. In a cheaper variant,
the rafters are cut marginally beyond the wall face to leave space for ventilation and only a fascia
board fixed to the rafter ends. This is called a flush eaves.

Fig. 10: Closed eaves.

TIMBER ROOF TRUSSES

These are triangulated plane roof frames designed to give clear spans between the external
supporting walls. They are usually prefabricated or partially prefabricated off site.These can be
used on the larger spans in domestic work to give an area below the ceiling level free from
loadbearing walls.
Trusses are structurally designed frames based on the principles of triangulation, and serve to carry
the purlins; they are spaced at 1800 mm centres with the space between being infilled with
common rafters. It is essential that the members of a roof truss are rigidly connected together, as
light sections are generally used. To make a suitable rigid joint, bolts and timber connectors are
used. These are square- or circular-toothed plates; the teeth are pointed up and down and, when
clamped between two members, bite into the surface, forming a strong connection and spreading
the stresses over a greater surface area. A typical roof truss detail is shown in Fig. 11.

Typical timber connector

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 Trusses are symmetrical about the centre
Fig. 11: Typical truss details for spans up to 8000 mm and a connector.

TRUSSED RAFTERS
These are triangulated plane roof frames designed to give clear spans between the external
supporting walls.
This is another approach to the formation of a domestic timber roof giving a clear span; as with roof
trusses it is based upon a triangulated frame, but in this case the members are butt jointed and
secured with truss plates. All members in a trussed rafter are machined on all faces so that they are
of identical thickness, ensuring a strong connection on both faces. The trussed rafters are placed at
600 mm centres and tied together over their backs with 38 mm × 25 mm tiling battens; no purlin or
ridge is required. Stability is achieved from the tile battens and 100 mm × 25 mm diagonal wind
braces from the bottom corner to a top corner. Also, two 100 mm × 25 mm longitudinal ties should
run horizontally along the ceiling ties.
Truss manufacturers will design and prefabricate to the client’s specification. This should include
span, loading (type of tile), degree of exposure, pitch, spacing (if not 600 mm), and details of any
special loadings such as water cistern location.
Truss or nail plates are generally of one or two forms:
▪ those in which holes are punched to take nails; suitable for site assembly using a nailing gun;

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Fig. 12: Typical truss plate.

▪ those in which teeth are punched and bent from the plate; used in factory assembly using
heavy presses.

Fig. 12: Alternative truss plate.

In all cases truss plates are fixed to both faces of the butt joint. Trussed rafters are also produced
using gusset plates of plywood at the butt joints instead of truss plates; typical details of both forms
are shown in Fig. 13 .

Fig. 13: Typical trussed rafter details for spans up to 11 000 mm.

GAMBREL OR MANSARD ROOFS

Gambrel roofs are double pitched with a break in the roof slope. The pitch angle above the break is
less than 450 relative to the horizontal, whilst the pitch angle below the break is greater. Generally,
these angles are 300 and 600.

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Gambrels are useful in providing more attic headroom and frequently incorporate dormers and
rooflights. They have a variety of constructional forms.

a) Typical gambrel details.

b) Alternative for clear span and headroom.

Fig. 14: Typical gambrel roof details.

Intermediate support can be provided in various ways as shownabove. To create headroom for
accommodation in what wouldotherwise be attic space, a double head plate and partition
studdingvis usual. The collar beam and rafters can conveniently be located onvthe head plates or
prefabricated trusses can span betweenvpartitions.

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VALLEY CONSTRUCTION
Valley construction and associated pitched roofing is used:
▪ to visually enhance an otherwise plain roof structure.
▪ where the roof plan turns through an angle (usually 900) to follow the building layout or a
later extension.
▪ at the intersection of main and projecting roofs above a bay window or a dormer window.
Construction may be by forming a framework of cut rafters trimmed to valley rafters as shown in
the roof plan in Fig. 4. Alternatively, and as favoured with building extensions, by locating a valley
or lay board over the main rafters to provide a fixing for each of the jack rafters.

Fig. 15: Valley construction.

SPROCKET ROOF
Sprockets may be provided at the eaves to reduce the slope of a pitched roof. Sprockets are
generally most suitable for use on wide steeply pitched roofs to:
▪ enhance the roof profile by creating a feature,
▪ to slow the velocity of rainwater running off the roof and prevent it over-shooting the
gutter.
Where the rafters overhang the external wall, taper cut timber sprockets can be attached to the
top of the rafters. Alternatively, the ends of rafters can be birds-mouthed onto the wall plate and
short lengths of timber the same size as the rafters secured to the rafter feet. In reducing the pitch

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angle, albeit for only a short distance, it should not be less than the minimum angle recommended
for specific roof coverings.

Fig. 16: Types of sprocket eaves.

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 TIMBER FLAT ROOFS
A flat roof is essentially a low-pitched roof, and is defined in BS 6100: Glossary of building and civil
engineering terms as a pitch of 10° or less to the horizontal. Generally, the angle of pitch is
governed by the type of finish that is to be applied to the roof.
The simplest form of roof construction to fulfil these functions is a timber flat roof covered with an
impervious material to prevent rain penetration. This form of roof is suitable for spans up to 4000
mm; spans over this are usually covered with a reinforced concrete slab or a patent form of
decking.
The disadvantages of timber flat roofs are as follows:
▪ They have limited capacity for insulation.
▪ They may contrast in style with other buildings in the vicinity and, if an extension, the
building to which it is attached.
▪ Unless they are properly designed and constructed, pools of water will collect on the surface
causing local variations in temperature. This results in deterioration of the covering and,
consequently, high maintenance costs.
▪ They have little or no space to accommodate services.

CONSTRUCTION
The construction of a timber flat roof follows the same methods as those employed for the
construction of timber upper floors. Suitable joist sizes can be obtained by design or by reference to
tables in publications recommended in the Building Regulations, Approved Document A. The
spacing of roof joists is controlled by the width of decking material to be used and/or the width of
ceiling board on the underside. Strutting between joists should be used if the span exceeds
2400mm to restrict joist movements and twisting. Timber flat roofs are usually constructed to fall in
one direction towards a gutter or outlet. The materials used in timber flat roof construction are
generally poor thermal insulators, and therefore some form of non-structural material can be
incorporated into the roof.
Typical Eave Details

Fig. 1: Typical eaves details - Cold deck.

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Fig. 2: Typical eaves details - Warm deck.

Typical Verge Details

Fig. 3: Typical verge details – warm deck.

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Typical Abutment Details

Fig. 4: Typical abutment details – warm deck.

Methods of Obtaining Falls

i. Joists cut to falls

Simple to fix but could be wasteful in terms of timber unless two joists are cut from one piece of
timber.

Fig. 5: Joists cut to falls.

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 ii. Joists laid to falls

Fig. 6: Joists laid to falls.

Economic and simple but sloping soffit may not be acceptable but this could be hidden by a flat
suspended ceiling.

iii. Firrings with joist runs

Fig. 7: Firrings with joist runs.

Simple and effective but does not provide a means of natural cross ventilation.

iv. Firrings against joist run

Fig. 8: Firrings against joist run.

Simple and effective but uses more timber than 3 but does provide a means of natural cross
ventilation.
Wherever possible joists should span the shortest distance of the roof plan.

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Decking Materials

i. Timber

This can be in the form of softwood boarding, chipboard, oriented strand board or plywood. Plain-
edge sawn softwood boards or tongued and grooved boards are suitable for joists spaced at centres
up to 450 mm. Exterior grade water- and boil-proof (WBP) plywood is available in sheet form,
which requires fixing on all four edges. This means noggins will be required between joists to
provide the bearing for end fixings. Chipboard is also a suitable sheet material and is fixed in a
similar manner to plywood.

Flat roofs must have the void between ceiling and decking ventilated to prevent condensation
occurring. It is also advisable to use structural timbers that have been treated against fungal and
insect attack. In certain areas treatment to prevent softwood infestation by the house longhorn
beetle is a requirement under the Building Regulations.

ii. Compressed straw slabs

These are made from selected straw by a patent method of heat and pressure to a standard width
of 1200 mm × 2400 mm length, the standard thickness being 58 mm, which gives sufficient strength
for the slabs to span 600 mm. All edges of the slabs must be supported and fixed. Ventilation is of
the utmost importance, and it is common practice to fix cross-bearers at right angles to and over
the joists to give cross-ventilation. A bitumen scrim should be placed over the joints before the
weathering membrane is applied.

iii. Wood wool slabs

These are 610 mm wide slabs of various lengths, which can span up to 1200 mm. Thickness varies;
for roof decking 51 mm is normally specified. The slabs are made of shredded wood fibres that have
been chemically treated and are bound together with cement. The fixing and laying is similar to
compressed straw slabs.

Thermal Insulation

Conservation of energy can be achieved in two ways:

1. Cold Deck: insulation is placed on the ceiling lining, between joists. See Fig. 1 for details. A
metallized polyester lined plasterboard ceiling functions as a vapour control layer, with a
minimum 50mm air circulation space between insulation and decking. The air space
corresponds with eaves vents and both provisions will prevent moisture build-up,
condensation and possible decay of timber.
2. (a) Warm Deck: rigid* insulation is placed below the waterproof covering and above the roof
decking. The insulation must be sufficient to maintain the vapour control layer and roof
members at a temperature above dewpoint, as this type of roof does not require ventilation.
(b) Inverted Warm Deck: rigid* insulation is positioned above the waterproof covering. The
insulation must be unaffected by water and capable of receiving a stone dressing or ceramic
pavings.

* Resin bonded mineral fibre roof boards, expanded polystyrene or polyurethane slabs.

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Fig. 9: Typical warm deck details.

Insulating Materials

There are many types of insulating material available, usually in the form of boards or quilts.
Insulation boards laid over the decking create a warm deck roof, whereas quilted materials draped
over the joists or placed between them, make a cold deck.

i. Boards

These originated from lightly compressed vegetable fibres, bonded with natural glues or resins.
Compressed straw and wood wool slabs have been particularly successful as decking materials with
the benefit of in-built insulation.

For insulation-only purposes, the most popular materials for roofing boards are high-density
mineral wool with a tissue membrane bonded to one surface, expanded polystyrene, or
polyurethane slabs. A warm deck roof has insulation board placed over the decking, but below the
waterproof membrane. Conversely, an inverted warm deck has the insulation board above the
waterproof membrane. The inverted warm deck insulation board must be unaffected by water and
be capable of receiving a surface treatment of stone granules or ceramic paving’s. With this

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technique, the waterproof membrane is protected from the stresses caused by exposure to
weather extremes. Examples of the various forms of construction are shown in Fig. 9.

ii. Quilts

These are made from mineral or glass wool that is loosely rolled, with the option of a Kraft paper
facing. The paper facing is useful as the wool is in fine shreds, which give rise to irritating scratches
if handled. Quilts rely on the loose way in which the core is packed for their effectiveness, and
therefore the best results are obtained when they are laid between joists.

A variety of loose fills are also available for placing between the joists and over the ceiling to act as
thermal insulators. Existing flat roofs can have their resistance to heat loss improved by applying
thermal insulation laminated plasterboard to the ceiling.

Weatherproof Finishes

Suitable materials are asphalt, lead, copper, zinc, aluminium and built-up roofing felt; only the
latter will be considered at this stage.

i. Built-up roofing felt

Most roofing felts consist essentially of a base sheet of glass fibre or polyester reinforcement,
impregnated with hot bitumen during manufacture. This is coated on both sides with a stabilised
weatherproof bitumen compound. The outer coating is dusted with sand while still hot and tacky.
The under layer may receive a thin layer of polythene to prevent the sheet from sticking to itself
when rolled. After cooling the felt is cut to form rolls 1 m wide and 10 or 20 m long before being
wrapped for dispatch.

BS 747: Reinforced bitumen sheets for roofing. Specification contains two types:
▪ Type 3: glass fibre reinforced;
▪ Type 5: polyester reinforced.

Both types have subdivisions relating to the surface finish. Other bituminous sheet materials are
available that incorporate polymer modifications to the bitumen. These are:
▪ Styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) – SBS improves the physical properties
▪ Atactic–polypropylene (APP) - APP has a higher melting point, most suited to torch-on
applications.
▪ Rag-fibre-reinforced bituminous felts are still available, but are no longer recommended for
roofing habitable accommodation.

For flat roofs three layers of felt should be used, the first being laid at right angles to the fall,
commencing at the eaves. If the decking is timber the first layer is secured with large flat-head felt
nails, and the subsequent layers are bonded to it with a hot bitumen compound by a roll and pour
method. This involves pouring molten bitumen on the decking or under layer and unrolling the
sheet over it. Torch-on is for specially made sheets which are heated to the underside to produce a
wave of molten bitumen while the sheet is unrolled. If the decking is of a material other than
timber, all three layers are bonded with hot bitumen compound. It is usually recommended that a
vented first layer be used in case moisture is trapped during construction; this recommendation

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does not normally apply to roofs with a timber deck, as timber has the ability to ‘breathe’. The
minimum fall recommended for built-up roofing felt is 17 mm in 1000 mm or 1°.

In general, the Building Regulations require a flat roof with a weatherproofing that has a surface
finish of asbestos-based bituminous felt or is covered with a layer of stone chippings. The chippings
protect the underlying felt, provide additional fire resistance, and give increased solar reflection. A
typical application would be 12.5 mm stone chippings at approximately 50 kg to each 2.5 m2 of roof
area. Chippings of limestone, granite and light-coloured gravel would be suitable. (See Figs. 1,2, 3 &
4).

ii. Mastic Asphalt

This consists of two layers of mastic asphalt laid breaking joints and built up to a minimum
thickness of 20mm. The mastic asphalt is laid over an isolating membrane of black sheathing felt
which should be laid loose with 50mm minimum overlaps.

Fig. 10: Abutment detail – cold deck.

Fig. 11: Eaves detail – cold deck.

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 STEEL ROOF TRUSSES
A steel roof truss is a plane frame consisting of a series of rigid triangles composed of compression
and tension members. Steel is stronger than timber and will not spread fire over its surface and for
these reasons it is often preferred to timber for medium and long span roofs. The compression
members are called rafters and struts, and the tension members are termed ties. Standard mild
steel angles are usually employed as the structural members, and these are connected together,
where the centre lines converge, with flat-shaped plates called gussets. They can be riveted, bolted
or welded together to form a rigid triangulated truss; typical arrangements are shown in Fig. 12.
The internal arrangement of the struts and ties will be governed by the span. The principal or rafter
is divided into a number of equal divisions, which locates the intersection point for the centreline of
the internal strut or tie.

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Fig.12: Typical steel roof truss formats.

Angle purlins are used longitudinally to connect the trusses together, and to provide the fixing
medium for the roof covering. It is the type of covering chosen that will determine the purlin
spacing and the pitch of the truss; ideally the purlins should be positioned over the strut or tie
intersection points to avoid setting up local bending stresses in the rafters. Purlins are connected to
cleats attached to the backs of the rafters; alternatively, a zed section can be used, thus dispensing
with the need for a fixing cleat. Steel roof trusses are positioned at 3.0 - 7.5 m centres and
supported by capped universal columns or bolted to padstones bedded onto brick walls or piers.
Typical steel roof truss details are shown in Fig. 13.
Suitable truss and girder arrangements can be fabricated from welded steel tubes, which are lighter
in weight, cleaner in appearance, have less surface area on which to collect dust and therefore less
surface area to protect with paint.
Another variation on traditional steel angle assembly combines cold-rolled outward-lipped channels
or chord sections of high-yield steel with interlacing of steel bars, welded tubes or hollow square
sections. This provides considerable design opportunities for different forms of lightweight lattice
truss. Fig. 14 shows standard chord sections with the possible inclusion of a timber insert to provide
a simple means of attaching fixtures. Fig. 15 shows profiles and details.

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 Trusses spaced at 3.0 m centres

Fig. 13: Typical medium span mild steel roof truss.

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 Dimensions are in mm
Fig. 14: Standard outward lipped channels or chord sections.

N-type truss

Warren truss

Warren truss with

verticals

Parallel pitch
beam truss

Curved truss

Curved beam truss

Fig. 15: Chord section roof truss profiles

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DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL ROOFING
1. They have large and virtually unusable roof space.
2. The frequent necessity of painting the members to inhibit rust.
3. The fact that the flanges of the angles provide an ideal ledge on which dust can accumulate.

COVERINGS
The basic functions of sheet coverings used in conjunction with steel roof trusses are to:
1. Provide resistance to penetration by the elements.
2. Provide restraint to wind and snow loads.
3. Provide a degree of thermal insulation.
4. Provide resistance to surface spread of flame.
5. Provide any natural daylight required through the roof.
6. Be of low self-weight to give overall design economy.
7. Be durable to keep maintenance needs to a minimum.
The basic requirements for covering materials to steel roof trusses are:
1. sufficient strength to support imposed wind and snow loadings;
2. resistance to the penetration of rain, wind and snow;
3. low self-weight, so that supporting members of an economic size can be used;
4. acceptable standard of thermal insulation if habitable or occupational accommodation
requiring space heating;
5. acceptable fire resistance and resistance to spread of flame;
6. durability to reduce the maintenance required during the anticipated life of the roof.
Suitable materials include:
▪ galvanised corrugated steel sheets
▪ fibre cement profiled sheets
▪ aluminium sheeting
▪ aluminium and coated steel (profiled sheeting and tiles or slate coverings)

i. Galvanised corrugated steel sheets

These sheets are often referred to as ‘corrugated iron’ and have been widely used for many years
for small industrial and agricultural buildings; they can also be used as a cladding to post and rail
fencing.
The pitch of the corrugations, which is the distance between centres of adjacent corrugations, is 75
mm with 7, 8, 9, or 10 corrugations per sheet width with lengths ranging from 1.500 to 3.600 m.

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 Class 1: min. pitch 100; max. purlin spacing 900; length 1.225 to 3.050

Class 2: min. pitch 100; max. purlin spacing 1400; length 1.525 to 3.050

Class 2: min. pitch 100; max. purlin spacing 1400; length 1.525 to 3.050

Class 3: min. pitch 40; max. purlin spacing 1680; length 1.675 to 3.050

Class 4: min. pitch 40; max. purlin spacing 1980; length 1.825 to 3.050
Fig. 16: Typical corrugated sheet profiles.

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A wide range of fittings for ridge, eaves and verge treatments are available.

Close fitting ridge piece Eaves filler piece

Barge or verge board Eaves closure piece

Fig. 17: Typical fittings for sheeting.

The sheets are secured to purlins with hook bolts, drive screws or nuts and bolts in a similar
manner to that detailed for fibre cement sheets in Fig. 18. The purlins are spaced at centres from
1.5 to 3.0 m according to the thickness of the sheeting being used. To form a weathertight covering
the sheets are lapped at their ends and sides according to the pitch and exposure conditions:
▪ End laps: Up to 20° pitch 150 mm minimum and sealed with a butyl or silicon sealant.
▪ Side laps: Formed on edge away from the prevailing wind with a 1 1⁄2 corrugation lap for
conditions of normal exposure and two-corrugation lap for conditions of severe exposure.
On exposure the galvanised coating oxidises, forming a thin protective film that is easily broken
down by acids in the atmosphere. To extend the life of the sheeting it should be regularly coated
with paint containing a pigment of zinc dust, zinc oxide, calcium plumbate or zinc chromate. When
laying new sheeting it is advisable to paint under the laps before fixing, because the overlap is very
vulnerable to early corrosion.

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 Angle purlin

Zed beam purlin

Tubular purlin

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 Steel channel purlin Timber purlin

Fig. 18: Typical roof sheeting fixings.

Typical Corrugated Sheet Roofing Details

Ridge or Apex Details

Fig. 19: Typical ridge details.

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Eaves and Abutment

Fig: 20: Typical eaves details using filler piece and abutment details.

Fig. 21: Typical eaves details using closure piece.

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Advantages
1. They form a roof that is easy to construct.
2. They form a strong and rigid roof.
3. The roof is non-porous.

Disadvantages
1. Poor thermal insulation properties which can be reduced by using a 12 mm insulation fibre
board in conjunction with a 25 mm cavity.
2. Although a non-combustible material, galvanised corrugated steel sheets tend to buckle
under typical fire conditions.
3. Inclined to be noisy during rain, which produces a ‘drumming’ sound.

ii. Fibre cement profiled sheets

Fibre cement sheets are made by combining natural and synthetic non-toxic fibres and fillers with
Portland cement and, unlike asbestos cement sheets, which are rolled to form the required profile,
these sheets are pressed over templates. The finished product has a natural grey colour, but sheets
with factory-applied surface coatings are available.
Fixing guidelines:
▪ the sheets and fittings are fixed through the crown of the corrugation using either shaped
bolts to steel purlins or drive screws to timber purlins;
▪ at least six fixings should be used for each sheet, and to ensure that a weathertight seal is
achieved at the fixing positions a suitable felt or lead pad with a diamond-shaped curved
washer can be used. alternatively, a plastic sealing washer can be employed (see figs 18, 19
and 20);
▪ drilled holes for fixings should be 2 mm larger in diameter than the fixing and sited at least
40 mm from the edge of the sheet;
▪ side laps should be positioned away from the prevailing wind;
▪ end laps on low pitches should be sealed with a mastic or suitable preformed compressible
strip.
iii. Aluminium sheeting
This form of roof covering is available in a corrugated or troughed profile. The sheets are
normally made from an aluminium–manganese alloy resulting in a non-corrosive, non-
combustible lightweight sheet (2.4–5.0 kg/m2). Aluminium sheeting oxidises on the surface
to form a protective film upon exposure to the atmosphere, and therefore protective
treatments are not normally necessary. The general application in design and construction
of an aluminium covering is similar to that described and detailed for fibre cement sheeting.
Fixing guidelines:
▪ fixings of copper or brass should not be used, because the electrolytic action
between the dissimilar materials could cause harmful corrosion;

ROOFS .KE 39
 ▪ where the sheets are in contact with steelwork the steel members should be painted
with at least two coats of zinc chromate or bituminous paint;
▪ a wide range of fittings are available and, like the asbestos cement, sheets can be
fixed with hook bolts, bolts and clips or special shot fasteners;
▪ the sheets are intended for a 15° pitched roof with purlins at 1.2 m centres for the 75
mm corrugated profile and at 2.7 m centres for the trough profiles;
▪ laps should be 11⁄2 corrugations for the side lap or 45 - 57 mm for trough sheets
▪ end lap should be 150 mm minimum for all profiles.

iv. Aluminium and coated steel

a. Profiled sheeting
These are produced in a trapezoidal profile in varying depth and pitch dimensions
depending on the source of manufacture. Surface treatment may be galvanised for steel,
painted or more commonly plastic coated. Various types of plastic coating are possible,
including acrylic, polyester and resins. All can be colour pigmented to provide a wide
range of choice to suit all types of building, including schools, hospitals, workshops,
warehousing and offices.

Fig. 22: Profiled sheet.

Fixings can be through the valley for direct connection to the purlin with self-drilling and
tapping screws as shown in Fig. 23. Crown fixing, also shown, has self-tapping screws in
pre-drilled holes with a butyl mastic (or equivalent) sealant to prevent ingress of
rainwater.

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 Self-drilling and tapping screw Self-tapping screw
Fig. 23: Profiled sheet metal roof covering.

The single skin corrugated/profiled systems of roof covering shown in this above are limited to
unheated structures such as warehousing, workshops, garages and loading bays.
b. Tiles or slate coverings
The traditional tile or slate roof is not limited to dwellings. Many industrial and commercial
premises with medium/large-span steel roof trusses are finished in these materials. Fig. 24
shows a method of fixing to standard T- or L-shaped steel rafters.

Fig. 24: Slate covering.

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 LARGE SPAN ROOFS
These can be defined as those exceeding 12.0 m in span i.e. medium and long span roofs. They can
be fabricated in steel, aluminium alloy, timber, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete. Long
span roofs can be used for buildings such as factories, large public halls and gymnasiums which
require a large floor area free of roof support columns.

BASIC ROOF FORMS

i. Pitched Trusses
These are two-dimensional triangulated designed frames spaced at 4.5 to 6.0 m centres with spans
up to 30.0 m. The pitch should have a depth to span ratio of 1:5 or steeper and be chosen to suit
roof coverings. They carry purlins to which the roof coverings can be fixed. They have good
rainwater run-off, reasonable daylight spread from rooflights and high roof volume due to the
triangulated format.

Typical Howe truss

Typical Fink or Belgian truss

Typical French truss

Fig. 25: Typical large-span trusses.

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 ii. Flat Top Girders
Basically, these are lattice beams of low pitch spaced at 4.500 to 6.000 m centres and can be
economically used for spans up to 45.000 m with a depth to span ratio of 1:8 to 1:10. They carry
purlins to which roof coverings are fixed. The main advantage of this form of roof structure is the
reduction in volume of the building, which should result in savings in the heating installation
required and in the running costs.

Typical ‘N’ or Pratt truss

Typical Warren girder

Fig. 26: Typical girder types.

iii. Bowstring trusses

These trusses are basically a lattice girder with a curved upper chord, and are spaced at 4.500 to
6.000 m centres with an economic span range of up to 75.000 m. The depth-to-span ratio is usually
1:6 to 1:8 with the top chord radius approximately equal to the span. The older form of bowstring
truss, known as a belfast truss, which has interlacing struts and ties, is not very often specified
because it is difficult to analyse fully the stresses involved, and although relatively small-section
timbers can be used they are very expensive in labour costs.

Fig. 27: Typical bowstring truss details.

ROOFS .KE 43
 iv. Northlight
Spaced at suitable centres to carry purlins to which the roof sheeting is fixed. They have good
rainwater run-off and if correctly oriented solar glare is eliminated. Long spans can be covered by a
series of short span frames.

Fig. 28: Typical northlight details.

v. Monitor
Girders or cranked beams at centres to suit low decking are used. They have good daylight spread
from the monitor lights which is not affected by orientation of the building.

Fig. 29: Monitor roof.

The basic construction of large-span timber roofs follows that of an ordinary domestic small-span
roof truss, as shown in Fig. 11, except that the arrangement and number of struts and ties will vary
according to the type of truss being used.
Large-span steel roofs are designed and fabricated using standard structural steel sections.
Connections can be of traditional gusset plates to which the struts and ties would be bolted or
welded; alternatively, an all-welded construction is possible, especially if steel tubes are used
to form the struts and ties. Large-span steel roofs can also take the form of space decks and space
frames.

ROOFS .KE 44
 ROOF COVERINGS FOR PITCHED ROOFS
Various types of covering materials are available for pitched roofs and their selection depends upon
the:
▪ climatic conditions;
▪ fabrication facility;
▪ availability of materials;
▪ affordability of the owner.
Commonly used pitched roof covering materials are:
▪ Thatch
▪ Shingle
▪ Tiles
▪ Slates
▪ Asbestos cement (A.C.) sheets
▪ Galvanised iron (G.I.) sheets

Thatch Covering
These coverings are provided for small spans. Thatch is a roof covering of straw, reeds rye and oat
straws and sedge. The thatch is well-soaked in water or fire resisting solution and packed bundles
are laid with their butt ends pointing towards eves. Thickness varies from 150 mm to 300 mm. They
are tied with ropes or twines to supporting structures. The supporting structure consists of round
bamboo rafters spaced at 200 mm to 300 mm over which split bamboos laid at right angles at close
spacing. It is claimed that reed thatch can last 50 to 60 years while straw thatch may last for 20–25
years.
The advantage of thatch roof is they are cheap and do not need skilled workers to build them. The
disadvantages are they are very poor fire resistant and harbour rats and other insects.
Shingles
Wood shingles are nothing but the split or sawn thin pieces of wood. Their size varies from 300 mm
to 400 mm and length from 60 mm to 250 mm. Their thickness varies from 10 mm at one end to 3
mm at the other end. They are nailed to supporting structures. They are commonly used in hilly
areas for low cost housing. They have very poor fire and termite resistance.
Tiles
Various clay tiles are manufactured in different localities. They serve as good covering materials.
Tiles are supported over battens which are in turn supported by rafters/trusses etc. They give good
appearance.
Slates
A slate is a sedimentary rock. Its colour is grey. It can be easily split into thin sheets. Slates of size
450 mm to 600 mm wide, 300 mm long and 4 to 8 mm thick are used as covering materials of
pitched roofs in the areas where slate quarries are nearby. A good slate is hard, tough, durable.
They are having rough texture and they give ringing bell like sound when struck. They do not absorb
water.

ROOFS .KE 45
A.C. Sheets
Asbestos cement is a material which consists of 15 per cent of asbestos fibres evenly distributed
and pressed with cement. They are manufactured in sufficiently large size. The width of a A.C. sheet
varies from 1.0 to 1.2 m and length from 1.75 to 3.0 m. To get sufficient strength with thin sections
they are manufactured with corrugation or with traffords [Fig. 30]. They are fixed to the steel
purlins using J-bolts.

Corrugated sheet covers Trafford sheet covers

Fig.30: A.C. sheet roofing.
The roofing is quite economical, waterproof. However not very good thermal resistant. They are
commonly used as covering materials in ware houses, godowns or for larger halls. In auditorium
etc., if these sheets are used, false ceilings are provided to get good thermal resistance.
G.I. Sheets
Galvanised iron corrugated sheets are manufactured in the sizes 1.0 to 1.2 m wide and lengths of
1.5 to 3.6 m. Galvanisation of iron makes them rust proof. They are fixed to steel purlins using J-
bolts and washers. They are durable, fire proof, light in weight and need no maintenance. They are
commonly used as covering materials for ware houses, godowns, sheds etc. Table 2 gives
comparison between GI and AC sheets for roof covering.
Table 2: Comparison between GI and AC sheets.
GI Sheets A.C. Sheets
1. Sheets are thin. Not as thin as GI sheets.
2. Light in weight. Slightly heavier.
3. Do not break while handling. Chances of breaking are there during
handling.
4. Chances of corrosion cannot be ruled No problem of corrosion.
out.
5. Noisier, if something falls over them. Less noisy, if something falls over them.
6. Less fire resistant. More fire resistant.
7. Less resistance to acids and fumes. More resistant to acids and fumes.
8. Cost is more. Less costly.

ROOFS .KE 46
 ROOF TILING
Tiles are manufactured from clay and concrete to a wide range of designs and colours suitable for
pitches from 15° to 45°, and work upon the principle of either double or single lap. The vital factor
for the efficient performance of any tile or slate is the pitch, and it should be noted that the pitch of
a tile is always less than the pitch of the rafters owing to the overlapping technique.
Tiles are laid in overlapping courses and rely upon the water being shed off the surface of one tile
onto the exposed surface of the tile in the next course. The problem of water entering by capillary
action between the tiles is overcome by:
▪ the camber of the tile;
▪ the method of laying;
▪ overlapping side joints.
In all methods of tiling a wide range of fittings are produced to enable all roof shapes to be
adequately protected.
PLAIN TILING
This is a common method of tiling and works on the principle of double lap tiling. The tiles can be of
handmade or machine-pressed clay, the process of manufacture being similar to that of
brickmaking. They include:
i. Handmade tiles
These are used mainly where a rustic or distinctive roof character is required, because they have a
wide variation in colour, texture and shape. They should not be laid on a roof of less than 45° pitch
because they tend to absorb water, and if allowed to become saturated they may freeze, expand
and spall or fracture in cold weather.
ii. Machine-pressed tiles
These are harder, denser and more uniform in shape than handmade varieties and can be laid to a
minimum pitch of 35°.
iii. Concrete plain tiles
A suitable substitute for plain clay tiles is the concrete plain tile. These are produced in a range of
colours to the same size specifications as the clay tiles and with the same range of fittings. The main
advantage of concrete tiles is their lower costs; the main disadvantage is the extra weight.

Standard plain tile Eaves or top course tile Tile and a half tile
Fig.31: Typical plain tiles.

ROOFS .KE 47
LAYING GUIDELINES
▪ A barrier in the form of boarding or sheeting is placed over the roof carcass before the
battens on which the tiles are to be hung and fixed so as to prevent the penetration of wind
into the building through the gaps between the tiling units
▪ There must always be at least two thicknesses of tiles covering any part of the roof, and
bonded so that no ‘vertical’ joint is immediately over a ‘vertical’ joint in the course below. To
enable this rule to be maintained shorter-length tiles are required at the eaves and the ridge;
each alternate course is commenced with a wider tile of one-and-a-half tile widths.
▪ The apex or ridge is capped with a special tile bedded in cement mortar over the general tile
surface.

Angle section Segmental section Hog back section

Half-round ridge tile

Fig. 32: Typical ridge tiles.

Fig. 33: Typical ridge laying details.

ROOFS .KE 48
 ▪ The hips can be covered with a ridge tile, in which case the plain tiling is laid underneath and
mitred on top of the hip; alternatively, a special bonnet tile can be used where the plain tiles
bond with the edges of the bonnet tiles.

Bonnet hip tile Angular hip tile

Fig. 33: Typical hip tiles.

Fig. 34: Hip treatments.

▪ Valleys can be formed by using special tiles or mitred plain tiles, or by forming an open gutter
with a durable material such as lead.

ROOFS .KE 49
 Curved valley tile Angular valley tile
Fig. 35: Typical special valley tiles.

Valley formed by using special tiles

Valley formed by using mitred plain tiles

ROOFS .KE 50
 Valley formed by using an open gutter
Fig. 36: Valley treatments.
▪ The verge at the gable end can be formed by bedding plain tiles face down on the gable wall
as an undercloak and bedding the plain tiles in cement mortar on the upper surface of the
undercloak. The verge tiling should overhang its support by at least 50 mm.

Fig. 37: Typical verge details.

▪ Abutments are made watertight by dressing a flashing over the upper surface of tiling,
between which is sandwiched a soaker. The soaker in effect forms a gutter. An alternative
method is to form a cement fillet on top of the tiled surface, but this method sometimes fails
by the cement shrinking away from the surface of the wall.

ROOFS .KE 51
Fig. 38: Typical abutment detail.
▪ The support or fixing battens are of softwood extended over and fixed to at least three
rafters, the spacing or gauge being determined by the lap given to the tiles thus:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑙𝑎𝑝
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 =
2
265 − 65
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = = 100𝑚𝑚.
2
▪ Plain tiles are fixed with two galvanised nails to each tile in every fourth or fifth course.
▪ Eaves details

Fig. 39: Typical eaves details.

ROOFS .KE 52
SINGLE-LAP TILING
Single-lap tiles are laid with overlapping side joints. Most of the single lap tiles produced in clay and
concrete have a tongue and groove joint along their side edges and in some patterns on all four
edges which forms a series of interlocking joints and therefore these tiles are called single lap
interlocking tiles. Generally, there will be an overall reduction in the weight of the roof covering
when compared with double lap tiling but the batten size is larger than that used for plain tiles and
as a minimum every tile in alternate courses should be twice nailed, although a good specification
will require every tile to be twice nailed. The gauge or batten spacing for single lap tiling is found by
subtracting the head lap from the length of the tile.

ROLL TYPE TILE TROUGH TYPE TILE

Minimum pitch – 300 Minimum pitch – 150
Head lap – 75 mm Head lap – 75 mm
Side lap – 30 mm Side lap – 38 mm
Gauge – 343 mm Gauge – 338 mm

Fig. 40: Typical single lap tiles.

Typical Details
▪ Ridge

Fig. 41: Ridge detail.

ROOFS .KE 53
 ▪ Eaves

Fig. 42: Eaves detail.

▪ Hips: Can be finished with a half round tile as a capping.
▪ Valleys: These can be finished by using special valley trough tiles or with a lead lined gutter.

Fig. 43: Hip and valley details.

SLATING
Slate is a naturally dense material, which can be split into thin sheets and used to provide a suitable
covering to a pitched roof. Slates are laid to the same basic principles as double-lap roofing tiles
except that every slate should be twice nailed. Slates can be laid to a minimum pitch of 25° and are
fixed by head nailing or centre nailing.
i. Centre nailing
Used to overcome the problem of vibration caused by the wind and tending to snap the slate at the
fixing.

ROOFS .KE 54
Fig. 44: Head nailed slating using 500 x 250 slates.
The gauge of the battens is calculated thus:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 − (𝑙𝑎𝑝 + 25 𝑚𝑚)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 =
2
ii. Head nailing
It is used mainly on the long slates and pitches below 35°.

Fig. 45: Centre nailed slating using 600 x 300 slates.

The gauge of the battens is calculated thus:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝑙𝑎𝑝
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 =
2

ROOFS .KE 55
 ▪ Ridge

Fig. 46: Typical ridge detail.

ROOFS .KE 56