CIV0221-3 – Geology for Civil Engineers

Civil Engineering Department

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES: FOLDS

Kirsty A. Lorenzo1, Jehn Krischelle Y. Nabisa2 | CIV0221-3

GENERAL OVERVIEW

Structure is the main feature that allows geology to broaden the knowledge and understanding about
how the solid Earth change position, orientation, size, shape, and aspects over time. One of these is the folded
structure which brings wonderful sight to the ground and even to mountains but difficulties in design and
construction of underground structures as it is a sign of ductile rock layers. Folds may be caused by tectonic or
non-tectonic mechanisms and it may be linear or non-linear. This geological structure can be classified through
its geometry and theoretically, it may be described using differential geometry.

FOLDS the tectonic folding, which is of main concern in all

geological investigations.
Folds or folded structures are warps in The tectonic folding may be due to any
rock layers and occur bent upwards, downwards, or one or more of the following mechanisms:
sideways.[1]
1. Folding due to Tangential Compression
Parts of a Fold Lateral Compression is believed to be the
main cause for throwing the rocks of the crust into
different types of folds depending upon the types of
rocks involved in the process and also the direction
and magnitude of the compression affecting those
rocks. In general, this primary force is believed to act
at right angles to the trend of folds.

Under the influence of the tangential stresses, folding

may develop in any of the three ways:
A. Flexural Folding - It is that process of
folding in which the competent or stronger
Fig. 1 Bent layers of rock
rocks are thrown into folds due to their sliding
against each other under the influence of
 Hinge - A point where curvature is maximum
lateral compression.
and one limb ends and the other limb starts from
B. Flowage Folding - It is the principal
that point.
process of folding in incompetent or weaker,
 Crest - The line running through the highest
plastic types of rocks such as clays, shales,
points in an uparched fold.
gypsum and rock salt etc.
 Limbs or Flanks - Limbs or a flank of the fold is
C. Shear Folding - In many cases, folding is
sloping side from the crest to the trough.
attributed to shearing stresses rather than
 Axial plane - An imaginary plane bisecting the
simple compression. It is assumed that in such
vertical angle between equal slopes on either
a process, numerous closely spaced fractures
sides of the crest line.
develop in the rock at the first stage of the
 Axis of the fold - The line that divides the
process. This is followed by displacement of
section of the fold.
the blocks so developed by different amounts
 Trough - The lowest part of a down flexure
so that ultimately the rocks take up folded or
fold[2]
bent configuration. The folded outline
becomes more conspicuous when the minor
fractures get sealed up due to subsequent
CAUSE OF FOLDS
recrystallization.
Folding may be either due to tectonic causes
2. Folding due to Intrusions
or due to non-tectonic causes. By tectonic causes,
Intrusion of magma or even rock salt
folding takes place as a response of the rocks to
bodies from beneath has been found to be the cause
various forces originating from within the body of the
of uparching of the overlying strata. In magmatic
Earth. The non-tectonic folding is bending or warping
intrusions, highly viscous magma may be forced up
of rocks due very conspicuously to superficial
very gradually and with considerable force so that the
processes. It must be mentioned, however, that it is
overlying sedimentary host rocks are bodily lifted up

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to provide space for the rising magma. In extreme top (plan) view as the fold axis--an eroded
cases, the magma may even rupture the overlying surface indicates the rocks become
strata to flow out as lava. progressively younger away from the fold axis.

3. Folding due to Differential Compression

Strata that are being compacted under
load in a basin of sedimentation develop, with
passage of time, downward bending especially in the
zones of maximum loading. If the strata in question
are not homogeneous, the bending may not be
uniform in character and results in warping or folding
of different types.[3]

While the non-tectonic folding may be

due to any of the following mechanisms:
Fig. 3 Synclinal folds exposed by a roadcut
1. Landsliding
Large parts of the rock beds sliding down  Syncline is a series of down-arched strata with
the slopes may get buckled up or folded because of limbs dipping inwards in opposite directions
the compression produced as they come to rest. towards the fold axis--an eroded surface
2. Creeping indicates the rocks become progressively older
Slow movement along the hill slopes away from the fold axis.
comprising weak, incompetent, and soft rocks results
in bending of the beds. Rocks like shale, which are
highly weak and plastic in nature are subjected to
folding.
3. Differential Compaction
During the formation of sedimentary
rocks, if the underlying substratum of an undulating
relief, the sediments deposited acquire similar
undulations or folds on compaction.
4. Glaciation
The glaciers, which are the huge moving masses of
ice, exert enormous pressures n the rock formations Fig. 4 Steepening dip of the strata
coming across their way. The dragging effect of ice,
sometimes, causes folding in the weak and  Monocline is a bend in the strata resulting in a
incompetent rocks.[4] local steepening in dip of the strata which is
almost flat lying on both sides away from the
TYPES OF FOLDS bend and there is only one direction of dip in the
monocline.[1]
Linear Folds

Fig. 5 Other linear types of folds

 Symmetrical Folds formed by equal pressure

from both sides the angle of dip on each of the
limbs is the same the axial plane will be vertical
they can be either an antiform or synform fold
an anticline has the dip arrows pointing out from
the axial plane trace and will have the oldest
Fig. 2 Anticlinal fold in Rainbow Gap, Virginia rocks in the centre a syncline has the dip arrows
pointing into the axial plane trace and will have
 Anticline is a series of up-arched strata with side the youngest rocks in the centre of the fold.
portions (limbs) dipping in opposite directions  Asymmetrical Folds formed by more pressure
away from the central portion of fold split by a on one limb than the other they can be either
plane called the axial plane and observed in the anticline or syncline folds one limb with a
higher angle of dip than the other the limb will a
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low angle of dip will have a wider outcrop than major types of deformations: ductile and brittle.
the limb with the higher angle of dip the axial Under differential compressional stress, formations
plane will be inclined. that are brittle will undergo faulting; usually normal
 Overfolds formed by a lot more pressure on one faults while formations that are ductile will most
side than the other both limbs dip in the same likely undergo folding.
direction but at different angles overfolds can be
either anticlinal or synclinal the axial plane is 1. Amplitude
inclined from the vertical One limb of the fold The amplitude can be measured if there
has been inverted to that the older rocks overlie is a visible complete anticline-syncline pair.
the younger. Otherwise it could be a difficult task since each limb
 Recumbent Folds are formed from very high of a fold could extend further down into the
pressure on one side the axial plane must be subsurface making it difficult to identify the period.
sub-horizontal both the limbs and the axial The amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of
plane will be at very low angles one limb of the its change over a single period. But we could use the
recumbent fold is inverted rocks are usually inflection point on each limb to measure the
incompetent or plastic in order to absorb such amplitude. The inflection is the point on which the
high levels of stress. slope of the limb changes its direction.
 Isocline folds are formed by large amounts of
pressure equally from both sides they can be 2. Cylindrical
recognised by parallel limbs at angles of over 70 The classification cylindrical and non-
forming closed and tight folds the axial plane is cylindrical folds is based on the geometry of the
usually vertical they can be recognised on maps hinge line or fold axis. Folds with straight hinge lines
by outcrops of repeated and parallel beds. are known as cylindrical folds while the folds with
 Nappes form some of the world's largest curved hinge lines are known as non-cylindrical folds.
tectonic features these are huge recumbent fold The cylindricity varies depend on the stress
that have broken along thrust planes movement experienced by the fold. In nature, non-cylindrical
is horizontal along thrust planes which are lines folds are very common. However, even cylindrical
along which a recumbent fold breaks many folds on large scales are often classified as non-
nappes travel tens of kilometres over the cylindrical folds. This is expected since the
underlying rocks and form some of the largest cylindricity is actually a mathematical model rather
fold structures in the world.[5] than an observational one. It is very difficult to
observe perfect symmetry in nature.
Non-Linear Folds
3. Conical
Conical folds have similar axial
geometry to cylindrical folds. However, conical folds
narrow the areas as they move along the hinge. In
other words, conical folds reduce the structure to a
point, just like a cone, when move along
perpendicular to the maximum fold surface.

Fig. 6 Strata of a dome and a basin

 Dome is an up-arched series of strata with beds

on all sides dipping away from the center
throughout 360 degrees--an eroded surface
indicates the rocks become progressively
younger away from the center of the structure.
 Basin is a down-arched series of strata with beds
on all sides dipping in towards the center
throughout 360 degrees--an eroded surface
indicates the rocks become progressively older
away from the center of the structure.[1]

Fig. 7 Additionally, due to the variation in stresses

and the variation in material strength, ductility, etc.,
GEOMETRY OF FOLDS folds can be observed in several different shapes
such as kink, chevron, concentric and box.
Rocks undergo deformation as a
response to regional differential stress. There are two
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4. Orientation of Hinge Line and Axial Plane folds into three classes. Imaginary lines between fold
Plunging folds are folded structures that plains are used for analysis of geometry.[6]
have a “dip” along the hinge line. The term “plunging
fold” is used to describe what happens when the Class 1 The dip isogons converge toward the
entire fold is plunging up or down. It should not be inner arc, which is tighter than the outer
used to describe change in orientation of a single arc.
layer of the fold. The axial surface along with the Class 1A The dip isogons have the same
hinge line changes orientation in plunging folds. characteristics as the Class 1, but the
limbs have a larger thickness (thicker)
than the hinge.
Class 1B The dip isogons have the same
characteristics as the Class 1, but the
thickness remain consistent (same) hence
it is a parallel fold.
Class 1C The dip isogons have the same
characteristics as the Class 1, but the
limbs have smaller thicknesses (thinner)
than the hinge.
Class 2 The dip isogons are parallel hence the
inner and outer arc curvatures are the
same. It is known as a “similar fold”.
Class 3 Is characterized by parallel dip isogons
with no convergence on either side. The
Class 3 type has the isogons converging
toward the outer core

Fig. 8 Michael John Fleuty (1964) has classified the

folds based on this concept as Upright, Plunging; APPLICATION TO CE PROFESSION
Upright, Vertical; Reclined; Plunging Inclined;
Horizontal Inclined and Recumbent based on the 1. For a major project like a dam, tunnel, railway
orientation of the hinge line. station, etc., a site which is highly folded should be
avoided because the engineer may have to face much
troubles sooner or later as folds are easily fractured
even due to a slight disturbance.
2. If the project is of a scattered nature like electric
or telephonic poles the work can be carried out
without much of a risk.
3. Folds are also important to a water supply
engineer specially when he has to select a suitable
site for digging wells for water supply purpose. It has
been observed that if the excavation of a well is done
through impervious strata it will not yield any amount
of water. If another well is excavated through
previous strata it will yield abundance of water.
4. If these structures are not thoroughly
investigated and properly interpreted, any civil
engineering project standing on or driven through the
folded rocks may prove not only uneconomical in the
ultimate analysis but also, unsafe.[2]
5. Due consideration is, therefore, always to be
Fig. 9 The Hudleston (1973) classification relies on given to the presence of folds in deciding about the
the shape and the amplitude categorization. designing and construction of such structures as
driving of traffic and hydropower tunnels, selection
5. Dip Isogons of sites for dams and reservoirs and in fixing the
Dip isogons are imaginary lines that can alignments of roads, bridges and highways.[3]
be drawn between two points of equal dip within the
fold structure. They are straight lines that can be used
to connect inner and outer boundaries of folded layers.
The orientation of dip isogons can be used to classify

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TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE

To further explore the geological folds,

here are some available and supporting technology,
fact, and theory.

Technology
With programs like Google Maps and
Google Earth, you can study folds without leaving
your room.[6] Here is a folded structure we have
searched.

Fig. 12 Participants of Thematic Interdisciplinary

Experiential Semester (TIES) observing folds in a
rock face at Baños De Telecosta, Ecuador

The Andes are the world’s longest

mountain chain. They stretch along the entire west
coast of South America, from Colombia in the north
and through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and
Argentina to the south. Here, the dense oceanic crust
of the Nazca plate is subducting beneath the less-
dense continental crust of the South American plate.
Fig. 10 A synclinal fold in Rainbow Basin Natural The Andes are mostly being folded and uplifted from
Area, Barstow, California as seen from Google the thicker, less-dense rocks of the South American
Earth plate. The sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the
Andes are dotted by active and dormant volcanoes.
Fact
Fold mountains are the most common
type of mountain in the world. The rugged, soaring
heights of the Himalayas, Andes, and Alps are all
active fold mountains.

Fig. 13 The uplifted folds of Wildhauser Schafberg,

Switzerland that are part of the Alps.

The Alps roughly mark the top of the “boot” of the

Fig. 11 Himalayan folded rock
Italian Peninsula. The Alps stretch across Italy,
Slovenia, Austria, Germany, Switzerland,
The Himalayas stretch through the borders of China,
Lichtenstein, Monaco, and France. Here, the tiny
Bhutan, Nepal, India, and Pakistan. The crust beneath
Adriatic microplate is colliding with the much larger
the Himalaya, the most towering mountain range on
Eurasian plate to the north. The J-shaped Adriatic
Earth, is still the process of being compressed. Here,
microplate is a remnant of the African plate to the
the Indian plate is colliding northward with the
south, and today it carries the eastern Italian
Eurasian plate. The sedimentary rocks of the
Peninsula as well as the entire Adriatic Sea. Alpine
Himalayas include shale and limestone. Metamorphic
geology includes sedimentary and metamorphic rock,
rocks of the region include schist and gneiss. Dikes of
as well as igneous rocks that once were part of the
igneous rock also intrude throughout the rock
ocean floor and were later uplifted in the process of
formations of the Himalayas.
folding.[7]

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Theory
Theoretical folds can be described using
differential geometry. Through theoretical models of
folded viscous layers, the effects of various loading
conditions on fold geometry can be examined. We
create models under both pure and simple shear
loading conditions and quantify the resulting fold
surface shapes using differential geometry. After
calculating the absolute maximum and geologic
curvature distributions across many modeled surfaces,
it is shown that no difference in fold geometry based
on loading conditions may be determined from the
absolute maximum curvature distributions. However,
distinct differences in the ratio of cylindrical to
noncylindrical points are evident between the simple
and pure shear loading conditions and can be
determined from the calculated geologic curvature of
the surfaces. This application supplements and is
based on the material found in Mynatt et al.(2007). [8]

REFERENCES

You can find the full details by looking

up the corresponding number in the reference list
below. These are sentences with reference to a book
[1]; G. Parul, R. Malik, S. Quirk, and S. Senanayake
wrote geology notes [2], [3], [5], [6]; Civil Inside on
YouTube made a video report about Folds in
Engineering Geology [4]; A trivial fact from National
Geographic Encyclopedia with their editor, J. Evers
[7]; and a research study from Standford students [8].

[1] P.C. Varghese, “Engineering Geology for Civil

Engineers”. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd
[2] G. Parul, “Folds: Definition, Parts and Types”,
https://www.geographynotes.com/geology-
2/structural-geology/folds-definition-parts-and-
types-structural-geology-geology/1313
[3] R Malik, “”Folds: Meaning, Parts and Causes”,
https://www.geographynotes.com/rocks/folds/fol
ds-meaning-parts-and-causes-rocks-
geology/5654
[4] Civil Inside, “Folds in Engineering Geology|
Hindi | Structural Geology | Folds & Faults |
Civil Engineering”, 9 March 2020,
https://youtu.be/RZufKh1s7vc
[5] S. Quirk, “Undergraduate Geology - Part 1
(Geological Structures) Note on Fold Types”, 5
December 2013,
https://www.goconqr.com/note/85174/fold-types
[6] S. Senanayake, “Geometry of folds”, 21 April
2013, https://sanuja.com/blog/geometry-of-folds
[7] J. Evers, “Fold Mountain”, 22 June 2015
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedi
a/fold-mountain/12th-grade/
[8] I. Mynatt, R. Fletcher, D. Pollard, “Description
of theoretical folds using differential geometry”,
https://structuralgeology.sites.stanford.edu/sites/
g/files/sbiybj10271/f/viscous_ol.pdf