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Chapter Three

CHEMICAL BONDS

Inert gases are stable in nature as mono-atomic gases, except these gases the atoms of
other elements cannot exist independently in nature. Molecules of fundamental gases are di-
atomic like O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2 etc. Again, molecules of some elements consist of more than two
atoms. For example, O3, P4, S8. Again, compounds are formed by the combination of atoms of
different elements like NaCl, H2O, HCl, CH4 etc.
In all molecules atoms remain attached together by a special kind of attraction force; this
force is called the binding force. Generally, at the bond formation every atom wants to achieve
the electronic configuration of its nearest inert gas at its last energy level. Generally metal and
nonmetal form ionic bonds while nonmetal and nonmetal form covalent bond. In metallic pieces
metal atoms attached with one another by metallic bond.

Figure: Chemical bonds formation of elements

Chemical Bonds and Causes of Chemical Bond formation

Valence electron: The number of total electrons at the principle outermost energy level of an
element is called the valence electron of that element.
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Atom Electronic Configuration Valence Electrons

Hydrogen 1s1 1

Sodium 1s22s22p63s1 1

Magnesium 1s22s22p63s2 2

Sulphur 1s22s22p63s23p4 6

Valency: The number of electrons in the outermost energy level or the number of unpaired
electrons at the electronic configuration of an element is called the valency of that element. In
the case of metal atoms, the number of electrons in the outermost energy level and in the case of
non-metals atom the number of unpaired electrons in the outermost energy level indicates the
valency.

Atom Electronic Configuration Valence Electrons Valency

Hydrogen 1s1 1 1

Nitrogen (7) 1s22s2 2px1 2py1 2Pz1

Oxygen (8) 1s22s2 2px2 2py1 2Pz1 6 2

Florine (9) 1s22s2 2px2 2py2 2Pz1

Sodium 1s22s22p63s1 1 1

Sulphur 1s22s22p63s23px23py1 3Pz1 6 2

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Inert gas and its stability: The elements of group-18 in the periodic table are called the inert
gases. The electronic configurations of the inert gases are given below.

It is seen from the above electronic configurations that all inert elements except helium
have eight electrons at their valency shell. Atomic number of He is 2. Due to the existence of one
sublevel(s) at the 1st principal energy level, its valency shell is filled with two electrons, which is
the stable configuration for He. The two 2 electrons of He and 8 electrons of the other inert gases
at the valency shell provide the stable conditions.

Octet and Duet rules

Atoms of different elements obtain electron configuration of 2 or in most cases 8
electrons at their outermost shell by exchanging and of electrons among themselves. Obtaining
the arrangement of He in this way is called the rule of duplet or duet and obtaining 8 electron
arrangements at valency shell is called the Octet rule

Chemical Bond Formation

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So, we have to remember some necessary information regarding the formation of chemical
bonds-
1. The electrons of outermost energy level i.e., the valency electrons of an element take part in
bond formation.
2. Every atom has the intention to gain the electronic configuration of its nearest inert element.
Atoms form bonds following the facts described above and that is attraction or affinity is created
between one another. So, it may be said that-
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical
substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electromagnetic force
attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a
dipole attraction. In simple words, the force of attraction between two atoms or ions that holds
them together is known as chemical bond.

How is it formed?
A chemical bond may be formed either by sharing of electrons or by transfer of electrons
between atoms i.e., by reorganization of electrons between atoms. 

Why a chemical bond is formed?

A chemical bond is formed by an atom to get more stability. Every atom tries to get more
stability by lowering its potential energy. This can be achieved by making a bond. The potential
energy decreases when two atoms attract each other. Hence energy is liberated during the
formation of a chemical bond i.e., it is an exothermic process.

Classification of Chemical Bond

There are two major bond classifications, each with identifiable sub-groups
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Ionic Bond
The attraction force by which cation (positively charged ion) or anion (negatively
charged ion) formed by exchanges of electrons are held together within the atoms of a compound
is called ionic bond.
An ionic bond is formed between two atoms when their electro negativity difference is
greater than 1.7 on Pauling's scale. In general, an ionic bond is formed between a metal atom and
a nonmetal atom. 
Example as NaCl, LiF, MgCl2 etc. Ionic bonds are formed by two different kinds of
atoms.
Bond formation of NaCl
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Steps involved in the formation of an ionic compound

1. Formation of positive ions
Each sodium atom (Na) loses its single valence electron to form a positively charged
sodium ion (Na+)
Na Na+ + e-

2. Formation of negative ions

Each chlorine atom gains an electron from a sodium atom to form a negatively charged
chloride ion.

Cl + e- Cl -

3. Formation of ionic bonds

Positive sodium ions and negative chloride ions are attracted to one another by
electrostatic attraction to form sodium chloride.

Na+ + Cl - NaCl

Properties of Ionic compound

1. They have high melting and boiling points due to presence of strong intermolecular force of
attraction.
2. They are non- volatile, they do not easily turn into gas.
3. Generally soluble in water because they generally ionize in water.
4. Solids do not conduct electricity because the ions are held together by strong electrostatic
force of attraction.
5. Aqueous solution conducts electricity because the ions are mobile in solutions.
6. They are generally insoluble in organic solvents, because organic solvents are covalent
compounds.

Covalent Bond
The bond formed by sharing of electrons to obtain stable electronic configuration at the
outermost energy level of atoms is called covalent bond.
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Covalent bonds are usually formed between two non-metals. The atoms taking part in
bond formation create one or more electron pairs by donating the equal number of electrons that
is equally shared by both the atoms.
The fundamental molecules formed by covalent bond (e.g., O 2) are called covalent
molecules and the compound (e.g. CO2) is called covalent compounds.
Usually, two nonmetal atoms form a covalent bond. E.g., H2, F2, HCl, H2O etc.

Figure: Covalent bond formation

Conditions for formation of covalent bond

1. The combining atoms should be short by 1, 2 or 3 electrons in the valency shell in

comparison to stable noble gas configuration.
2. Electronegativity difference between the two atoms should be zero or very small.
3. The approach of the atoms towards one another should be accompanied by decrease of
energy.

Types of Covalent Bonds

Single Covalent Bonds
When only one pair of electrons is shared, the result is a single covalent bond. The figure shows
two hydrogen atoms forming a hydrogen molecule with a single covalent bond, resulting in an
electron configuration like helium.
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Multiple Covalent Bonds

Double bonds form when two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.

Triple bonds form when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.

A multiple covalent bond consists of one sigma bond and at least one pi bond. The sigma bond
is formed by the end-to-end overlap of atomic orbitals. The pi bond is formed when parallel
orbitals overlap and share electrons.

Sigma (σ) bond

The covalent bond formed due to overlapping of atomic orbital along the inter nucleus
axis is called σ-bond. It is a stronger bond and cylindrically symmetrical.

Figure: Sigma bond formation

Pi (π) bond: The covalent bond formed by sidewise overlapping of atomic orbitals is
called π- bond. In this bond, the electron density is present above and below the inter-nuclear
axis. It is relatively a weaker bond since the electrons are not strongly attracted by the nuclei of
bonding atoms.
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Figure: Pi bond formation

Distinguish between sigma bond and Pi bond

Sigma bond Pi bond

It is formed by end-to-end overlapping of It is formed by the sidewise overlapping of

half-filled atomic orbitals. half-filled p orbitals.

Overlapping takes place along the inter- Overlapping takes place perpendicular to
nuclear axis. the inter-nuclear axis.

The extent of overlapping is large and the The extent of overlapping is smaller and
bond formed is stronger. the bond formed is weaker.

Both s and p orbitals can participate in Only p orbitals participates in the

sigma bond formation. formation of Pi bonds.

Two sigma bond between two atoms Two pi bonds between two atoms can
cannot from at a time. from at a time.

Metallic Bond
Metallic bonding is found in metal elements. This is the electrostatic force of attraction
between positively charged ions and delocalized outer electrons. Atoms of metals are tightly
packed together in a giant lattice similar to the lattice in ionic compounds. The outer electrons
separate from their atoms and become delocalized, creating a ‘sea of electrons’. The atoms
become positive ions and are attracted to these electrons. This attraction is called metallic
bonding.
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The metallic bond is weaker than the ionic and the covalent bonds. A metal may be described as
a low-density cloud of free electrons. Therefore, metals have high electrical and thermal
conductivity.

Figure: Metallic bonds

Key Properties Metals

Lustre –due to mobile electrons within the lattice being able to reflect light causing the metal to
shine
Conduction of heat – electrons are able to gain kinetic energy in hotter areas of the metal and
are able to quickly transfer it to other parts of the metal lattice because of their freedom of
movement. Heat causes the electrons to move faster and the ‘bumping’ of these electrons with
each other and the protons transfers the heat.
Conduction of electricity – When an electric field is applied to a metal, one end of the metal
becomes positive and the other becomes negative. All the electrons experience a force toward
the positive end. The movement of electrons is an electric current.
Malleability and ductility – metals are malleable and ductile, rather than brittle, as a result of
the non-directional nature of metallic bonds.
The melting point and hardness – The generally high melting points and hardness of metals
indicate that metallic bonding is quite strong. Melting points and hardness increase with an
increase in the number of outer shell electrons, since there is a greater attractive force between
the cations and the electrons.
Density – most metals have relatively high densities because metallic lattices are close-packed.
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Coordinate Covalent Bonds

A covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons is called a
coordinate covalent bond. This is signified by showing coordinate covalent bonds as arrows that
point from the atom donating the pair of electrons to the atom receiving the bond. Many
polyatomic cations and anions contain both covalent and coordinate bonds. NH4+ is an example.

Conditions for the formation of a coordinate bond

1) The atom acting as a donor should have a lone pair of electrons.
2) The atom acting as an acceptor should have a vacant orbital to accept the electron pair
donated by the donor.

Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are interactions that exist between molecules. Functional groups
determine the type and strength of these interactions. The nature of the forces between molecules
depends on the functional group present. There are three different types of interactions, shown
below in order of increasing strength.
 Dipole-dipole interactions
 Van der Waals forces
 Hydrogen bonding

Dipole-dipole Interaction
To create a covalent bond, though both the atoms supply and share the same number of
electrons, normally this sharing between the two atoms is not done equally. Both the atoms
attract the shared electron to their own side. The density of electron cloud increases around the
element which has the greater electro negativity. As a result partial positive charge is created in
that atom and partial negative charge is created in another atom. In this way, different charges or
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poles are created at the ends of the molecules. This charge or pole is called Dipole and the
molecule is called polar molecule. HCl, H2O and NH3 are permanent dipole molecules.

Van der Waals forces

Van der Waals forces are also known as London forces. They are weak interactions
caused by momentary changes in electron density in a molecule. They are the only attractive
forces present in non-polar compounds.

Even through non polar has no net dipole, at any one instant its electron density may not
be completely symmetrical, resulting in a temporary dipole; this can induce a temporary dipole
in another molecule. The weak interaction of these temporary dipoles constitutes van der waals
forces.
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Hydrogen Bond
When Hydrogen atom is bonded with the atoms of more electronegative elements such as
fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, the hydrogen bond is forms a weak bond with the electronegative
atom of the other molecule. This weak bond is called hydrogen bond. The hydrogen bond is
represented by dotted line (………) while the covalent bond is represented by solid line ( ).

Figure: Hydrogen bonding of H2O and HF

Essential requirements for formation of hydrogen bond:
A hydrogen atom must be directly bonded to a highly electronegative atom (e.g. F, O and
N). So, an unbonded pair of electrons (lone pair electrons) is presented on the electronegative
atom.
Example of Hydrogen bond:

Why do NH3, H2O and HF have abnormally high Boiling Point

N, O and F are highly electronegative atoms which can form of intermolecular hydrogen
bonds in their hydrides. Intermolecular hydrogen bonds are much stronger than van der Waals’
forces. More energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds in NH 3, H2O and HF. That’s why
NH3, H2O and HF have abnormally high boiling point.
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Comparison between ionic compound and covalent compound

Ionic Compound Covalent compound

Non- metal + Metal Non- Metal + Non- metal

Transfer of electron (metal to non- metal) Sharing of electron

Positive and negative charges No charges

Solid at room temperature (250◦C) Solid liquid or gases at room temperature.

High melting and boiling point Low melting and boiling point

High attraction between particles Weak attraction between particles.

Naming with Greek Prefixes Naming with Roman Numerals

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Valence Bond Theory (VBT)

Valence bond theory describes bonding as a consequence of the overlap of two separate atomic
orbitals on different atoms that creates a region with one pair of electrons shared between the two
atoms.
When the orbitals overlap along an axis containing the nuclei, they form a σ bond.
When they overlap in side by side, they form a π bond.
Two unpaired electron containing atomic orbital overlap to form a covalent bond. If the spin of
the two electrons is the same, then the spin changing will be occurred at first. The formed bond
containing two electrons spin will be opposite according to the Pauli’s exclusion principle.

Figure: Formation of H2 Molecule

The overlap of orbitals may be between the pure orbitals or between hybridized orbitals.

The three conditions necessary for the formation of covalent molecules are

1. Covalent bond is formed when the combining atoms come from the electronegative
elements.
2. A covalent bond is formed when the atoms contribute one electron each to form an
electron pair
3. Covalent bond is formed, when each of the two participating atoms should have 5,6 or 7
electrons in their valence shells or the outermost shells.
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Hybridization
Valence bond theory predicts that the number of unpaired electrons in an atom indicates its
valency. The electronic configuration of Be, B and C as follows-
Be (4) - 1s2 2s2
B (5) - 1s2 2s2 2px1
C (6) – 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
The above electronic configuration suggest that Be is inert, B is monovalent and carbon is
divalent. But experimental evidence show that Be is divalent (BeCl 2), B is trivalent (BF3) and
carbon is tetravalent (CH4).
This can be explained on the basis of promotion of electron concept that paired electrons of
valence shell become excited to get energy during reaction and transfer to another orbital. As a
result, more unpaired electron is formed which are given below-

Be* (4) - 1s22s12px1

B*(5) - 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1
C*(6) – 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
The above configurations can be explaining the valency of the elements. But the above
configuration reveals that all the four bonds formed by carbon will not be identical. For example,
in the formation of CH4 molecule, one C-H bond will be formed by the overlap of 2s orbital of C
and 1s orbital of H. Therefore, all the bonds will not be equivalent.
But experimental evidence shows that all the four bonds of carbon atom in methane (CH 4)
are equivalent. The equivalent character of the bonds of CH 4 and other related compounds can be
explained with the help of a new concept known as hybridization

“The process by which two or more orbitals of nearly same energy in the valence shell of an
atom are mixed up to produce same number of identical (same energy and same shape) orbitals is
called hybridization”.

Types of Hybridization 
There are many types of hybridization like Sp, Sp2, Sp3, sp2d, sp3d, sp3d2 etc. However, in
this chapter we shall discuss only the three main types of hybridizations namely sp, sp2, and sp3
types.
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sp Hybridization
The process by which one s-orbital and one p-orbital in the valence shell of an atom are mixed
up to produce two identical hybrid orbitals is known as sp hybridization. These sp-hybrid orbitals
are arranged linearly at by making 180o of angle. They possess 50% 's' and 50% 'p' character.
Example: BeCl2, CO2, CH ≡ CH

The electronic configuration of 'Be' in ground state is 1s2 2s2. Since there are no unpaired
electrons, it undergoes excitation by promoting one of its 2s electron into empty 2p orbital. Thus,
in the excited state, the electronic configuration of Be is 1s2 2s1 2p1.

If the beryllium atom forms bonds using these pure orbital’s, the molecule might be
angular. However, the observed shape of BeCl2 is linear. To account for this, following sp
hybridization was proposed.
In the excited state, the beryllium atom undergoes 'sp' hybridization by mixing a 2s and
one 2p orbitals. Thus, two half filled 'sp' hybrid orbitals are formed, which are arranged linearly. 
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Figure: sp hybridization of BeCl2

In the excited state, the beryllium atom undergoes 'sp' hybridization by mixing a 2s and one
2p orbitals. Thus, two halves filled 'sp' hybrid orbitals are formed, which are arranged linearly.
These half-filled sp-orbitals form two σ bonds with two Cl (17) - 1s2 2s22p63s23px23py23pz1
atoms. Thus, BeCl2 is linear in shape with the bond angle of 180o.

sp2 Hybridization
The process by which one s-orbital and two p-orbital in the valence shell of an atom are mixed
up to produce three identical hybrid orbitals is known as sp2 hybridization.
The three sp2 hybrid orbitals are oriented in trigonal planar symmetry at angles of 120o to each
other. The sp2 hybrid orbitals have 33.3% s' character and 66.6% 'p' character. Example:
Ethylene (C2H4), BF3, AlCl3
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The electronic configuration of 'B' in ground state is 1s2 2s2 2p1 with only one unpaired
electron. Since the formation of three bonds with chlorine atoms require three unpaired electrons,
there is promotion of one of 2s electron into the 2p sublevel by absorbing energy.

B*- 1s2 2s12px12py1

In the excited state, Boron undergoes sp2 hybridization by using a 2s and two 2p orbitals to
give three half-filled sp2 hybrid orbitals which are oriented in trigonal planar symmetry.

Boron forms three σ bonds with three chlorine (1s2 2s22p63s23px23py23pz1) atoms by using
its half-filled sp2 hybrid orbitals. Each chlorine atom uses it's half-filled p-orbital for the σ-bond
formation. Thus, the shape of BCl3 is trigonal planar with bond angles equal to 120o.
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sp3Hybridization
The process by which one s-orbital and three p-orbital in the valence shell of an atom are mixed
up to produce four identical hybrid orbitals is known as sp 3 hybridization. These four sp3 hybrid
orbitals are oriented in tetrahedral symmetry with 109o28' angle with each other. The sp3 hybrid
orbitals have 25%‘s’ character and 75% 'p' character. Example: H2O, CH4, CCl4, C2H6.

During the formation of methane molecule, the carbon atom undergoes sp3 hybridization in the
excited state by mixing one ‘2s’ and three 2p orbitals to furnish four half-filled sp 3 hybrid
orbitals, which are oriented in tetrahedral symmetry in space around the carbon atom. 

C (6) – 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1

C*(6) – 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1

Each of these sp3 hybrid orbitals forms a σ bond with one hydrogen (1s1) atom. Thus, carbon
forms four σ bonds with four hydrogen atoms. Methane molecule is tetrahedral in shape and it’s
having 109o28' bond angle.