A University Grammar of English: By: Quirk & Greenbaum
A University Grammar of English: By: Quirk & Greenbaum
BY:
Mr.Mohammed Hameed Rasheed
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An Introduction to English Grammar
Syntax
………………………………………
Set by:
2020-2021
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Chapter 2
Syntax
1) Subject and predicate
Old grammarians used to analyze the sentence into subject (the doer of the action) and
predicate (what is said about the subject).
subject predicate
2. Modals: {shall, should, will, would, can could, may, might , must …etc}
Note: All points mentioned above are called auxiliaries verbs in English.
A) In case of having more than one auxiliary; the first one will be used as an operator
S, V, O, C, A:
A) SV The child laughed
2) S, V, O, C, A
However, this way of analysis looks unfair because the predicate is too long as compared
with the subject. The modern way of analysis is to divide the sentence into its functional
elements such as S (subject), V, (verb), O (object) C (complement), and A (adverbial).
These five elements can be realized by different kinds of phrases. The subject can be
realized by a noun phrase, proper noun and clauses,the verb can be realized by the verb
phrase and main verb, the object can be realized by noun phrase and clauses, the subject
complement can be realized by the adjective, noun phrase, clauses and adverb of place
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the adverb can be realized by the adverbs of (place, manner, time & reason), and also all
prepositional phrases are considered as an adverb. These are the (while, when, after, as,
since, because are called conjunctions……. etc)
SUBJECT FORMS:
I am at home.
Note: Those that are underlined bold are in the position of subject. Almost they are applied
to other elements in different positions as well.
VERB:
Note: All auxiliaries are verbs. There are two kinds of verbs: First , primary verb (is ,
are , am ,was, were ) and modals ( can , could , shall , should , may , might……etc),
Second, main verbs: such as (go , writ , play , leave , see , ….etc)
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Note: There are two types of verbs: transitive verbs and intransitive verbs
OBJECTS ARE DIRECT AND INDIRECT
I eat an apple. O
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT:
She is a teacher. NP
He is happy. Adjective
ADVERBS:
She puts her ring in drawer. AdV
3) Types of elements:
Each one of the five elements can have different categories. The subject can be pronoun,
a proper noun or a noun phrase. The verb can be a stative and dynamic, intensive and
extensive or transitive or intransitive. The object can either be direct object or indirect
object. The complement can either be subject complement (Cs) or object complement
(Co). Finally, the adverb can either be an adverb of place, an adverb of time and an adverb
of process (manner).
4) Types of structures:
There are different types of verbs according to the different types of object and complement.
Categories of verbs can be divided into three items:
action .This term is used in some grammatical analysis referring to structure where this is no
SV she came
SVO she washed the house
SVOO I gave my friend a book
SVOCo He made me happy
SVOA She met her sister yesterday.
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Stative and dynamic:
Stative verbs cannot be used in the progressive aspect. They include verbs of sensation
such as ( see, small, taste, look, sound) , verbs of perception and cognition ( like, love, hate,
imagine, think, understand), relational verbs ( belong to, consist of, contain, deserve) ,
possession verbs ( own, have, possess).
Dynamic verbs can occur or be used in the progressive aspect. They are divided into
four groups:
1- Activity verbs: drink, read, play,
2- Process verbs: change, grow,
3- Sensational verbs: (with different meaning) ache, feel, hurt
4- Transitional event verbs: arrive, fall, die, leave
5- Momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick.
include these verbs (call, name, make, select, elect, regard, appoint, choose, find, drive,
paint, think, and keep). Or they are followed by an object and adverb. SVOCO/SVOA.
.
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5) Parts of speech:
Parts of speech means classes of words. There are TEN parts of speech in English which is
A) Open class items are those that have endless numbers. They include nouns, verbs,
B) Closed class items are those that have a limited number of elements. They include
preposition (at, of, on in), pronoun (he ,we ,me, her), articles (a, an ,the), demonstrative
(that this, these , those) , conjunctions (when, because, as, while ) and interjection
( wow,oh, ouch,)
6) Proforms:
Pro-form is a term which refers to the replacement of certain items in a sentence that substitute
e.g: Suha looked for Ali but she could not find him.
B) Pro-verbs are auxiliaries used to replace verbs. The auxiliary Do is one form of pro-forms.
It can act as a substitution for the main verb or a whole verb phrase.
She speaks English much better than he does. (= than she speaks English)
The Chinese learned to make glass long before the Western nations did.
e.g: She hoped that they would clean the house carefully before her arrival , but
unfortunately they didn't do so. فعم ذنك
Negation:
Negation is denying what is really expressed by some items. It changes an affirmative
sentence into negation. To change a sentence from an affirmative sentence into negative
sentence should be on the following :
1) If there is an auxiliary verb in the sentence, the particle ( NOT) is placed after it.
These are auxiliaries { is , are, am, was, were, shall, should, can , could, may, might,
Note: There are some changes occurred in the sentence while converting to a negation:
Assertive non-assertive
Some any
Too either
A lot of /plenty of many/ much
Sometimes rarely, never
already/ just yet
too many very many
still now / any longer
someone anyone
somewhere anywhere
something nothing
somehow in any way
some extend at all.
a long way far
a great deal much.
e.g) She buys a lot of pens
She doesn’t have many pens
2. If there is an auxiliary verb such as {{is , are , am ,was, were & can , could ,
will , would , shall , should , may , might ……etc} precede the auxiliary verb in
the position of subject then place the question mark at the end of sentence
e.g: He is a boy ……..Is he a boy ?
They will play the piano at the concert…….Will they……………..?
She can cook well…………….Can she cook well?
2. If there is no operator (auxiliaries) , (Do) can be used according to tense and the
subject of the sentence
e.g: Ali reads a story…………….Does Ali read a story?
Tom studied hard ……….…..Did he study hard?
They play tennis …………….Do they play tennis?
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7) Types of sentences:
Sentence
Assertive non_assertive
Negative interrogative
positive negative
Chapter 3
Types of verbs:
Verbs can be classified into two main groups according to its function in the verb phrase.
Therefore, we have to know the distinction between lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs.
Lexical verbs have five forms:
Base -s. form past -ing. Participle -ed.participle
Play plays played playing played
Write writes wrote writing written
There are TWO main types of lexical verbs, Regular verbs and Irregular verbs:
Regular verbs are those that have the same –ed inflection for both past form and the –ed
participle.
Irregular verbs are those that differ in two forms.
Phonological rules:
A) The (-s) or (-es) can be pronounced (iz), (z), ( a) as follows:
1- It is pronounced /iz/ after /s, d3,sh,ch,x : dish….dishes , watch..…watches /iz/
2- It is pronounced /z/ after vowels or /b, d, g, l, m, n, v …etc : design…..designs
3- It is pronounced /s/ after / p, t, k, f, gh, th : help…helps , book…books
Exception:
a) Bases ending in certain consonants are doubled also after single unstressed vowels:
{g…gg , c…ck}:
Humbug humbugging humbugged
Traffic Trafficking Trafficked
b) BrE , as distinct from AmE, breaks the rule with respect to certain other consonants also:
{l……ll , m…….mm , p…….pp}
Signal Signaling Signaled (BrE)
Signal Signalling Signalled (AmE)
Program Programming Programmed (BrE)
Program Programing Programed (AmE)
Stop Stopping Stopped (BrE)
Stop Stoping Stoped (AmE)
B) The final (e) :
1- The final (e) is removed if the suffix begins with a vowel:
Write..…writing , take…taking
2- The final (e) remains if the suffix begins with double (ee):
agree…agreeing, Flee…fleeing
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Note: These are exception with remaining (e):
ye: dye……..dyeing
oe: hoe……...hoeing
ge: singe…..singeing.
C) The final (y):
1.The final (y) is changed into (i) if preceded by a consonant:
Study…..studied
Except with (-ing) remains (y), cry….crying
2. The final (y) remains if preceded by a vowel:
buy …buying
3. The verb ends with (ie) ,it is changed into (y) when (-Ing) is added
Tie….tying, die……dying.
Regular verbs:
Irregular verbs can be classified into groups according to the way of inflection.
1. Class 1: in this class, (ed1) and (ed2) are the same suffixation and the same vowel.
ed1 ed2
burn burnt burnt
dwell dwelt dwelt
smell smelt smelt
2. Class 2: in the class, (ed1) and (ed2) are also the same suffixation but with one
vowel changed
6. Class 6: in this class, (ed1) and (ed2) are different with vowel change and with
suffixation on (ed2)
Break broke broken
Choose chose chosen
7. Class 7: in this class, (ed1) and (ed2) are also different but there is no suffixation
and there is a vowel change: {I - a - u }
Begin began begun
Drink drank drunk
8. Class 8 : in this class , the last letter (d) turns into (t) :
Can, could, may , might , shall, should, will. Would, must, ought to, used to, need, dare.
Modal auxiliaries are used to transfer such meanings as possibility, certainty, ability
,request, permission, offer. They are used as auxiliary verbs only except marginal
auxiliary (used to, need, dare) which are treated as lexical verbs as well.
aux.
Aux.
Lex.v
Lex.v
Lex.v.
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Finite and non-finite verbs
Finite verbs have tense, aspect, time, voice and mood.it includes all tenses in English. In
a finite verb, there is a person and number concord between the subject and the predicate.
In addition, they have mood (declarative and imperative).
e.g: He reads the article every day
Non-finite verbs have no mood, time , tense ,aspect, voice. It doesn’t include tenses
generally. They are of three kinds:
1) To- infinitive VP e.g) To drive fast is dangerous
2) Ing participle VP e.g) I found them fighting
3) Ed participle VP e.g) Hurt, I could not walk back.
Aspect concerns the manner in which the verbal action is regarded or experienced whether
it is in the progressive or perfective manner. Finally, mood relates the verbal action to such
condition as orders, request, declaration, interrogation, possibility, certainty, and obligation.
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Time:
Present: It is of three types of (timeless, limited m instantaneous):
1. Timeless present: It is expressed with simple present form, and it is used to indicate
facts, repeated action, universal statement and habits
past tense.
2) An action that occurred over a period of time. This is action may be of two types:
b) An action occurring over a period: this action may be either completed as in,
Or not completed as in
Aspect:
The aspect of the English sentence may be either perfective or progressive. The choice of the
perfective aspect is associate with time orientation and such indicators as ' lately, since, so far
….etc . The perfective aspect may be manifested by the present perfect tense and the past
tense.
A) The present perfect tense is used to express an action that began in the past and
extended up to the present and finished
e.g ) I have finished the report
It has rained
B) The past perfect tense is used to express an action that began in the past before a point in
the past also.
e.g) She had done the work before we came.
Concerning the progressive aspect. It is expressed by several tenses. The past continuous
tense for example is used to specify a limited duration of an action that happed in the past
e.g) I have been reading this book (I did not finish it).
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Future in the past:
The future in the past can be expressed by one of the following ways:
1) would
e.g) She would finish the job
2) Be + going to + infinitive
e.g) You were going to help me
3) past continuous:
e.g ) I was meeting him in Paris
4) Be + to + infinitve:
e.g) The meeting was to be held in Iraq
5) Be + about t + infinitive:
e.g) We are about to start doing it.
Mood:
Mood in English is expressed by the subjunctive the past tense and the modal auxiliaries:
1.The subjunctive: there are three types of the subjunctive:
A) The mandative: it is expressed in that clause by the base form of the verb:.
These verbs are included ( demand, suggest, require, recommend)
e.g) it is necessary that he teach himself .
B) The formulaic subjunctive: it is used in expressions that should be learned as wholes,
here the base form of the verb is used :
e.g) God save you
C) The subjunctive were (instead of was): It is used with conditional and concessive
clauses and in subordinate clause after optative verbs like 'wash' :
e.g) If she were there, I would not come
I wish I were dead
2) The modal past: In unreal conditions, involving verbs like ' wonder, the past tense
conveys the possibility
e.g) I wondered if you would like a drink.
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3) The modal auxiliaries:
Can, could: they convey the following meanings:
a) ability: e.g) He can speak English
b) permission: e.g) Can I smoke here?
c) Theoretical possibility: e.g) we could go to the zoo
d) Conditional possibility: e.g) if he had money, we could buy a car.
May, Might:
a) Permission: e,g) you may come in
b) possibility: e.g) you might take tomorrow
Shall, Will:
a) willingness: e.g) she shall get the result
b) polite request: e.g) will we help you?
c) intention: e.g) we shall win the prize
d) Insistence: e,g) you will do it
e) predication: e.g) the game will be finished by now.
Should:
a) obligation: e.g) you should clean the room
b) putative use: e.g) Iam sorry that this should have got it
c) Conditional use: e,g) we should love to go if we had the chance.
Would:
a) willingness: e.g) would you come
b) insistence: e.g) you would do it
c) characteristic activity in the past: e.g) Tom would make a mess of it.
d) conditional use: e.g) we would do it, if we didn’t stop them.
e) probability: e.g) that would be his friend
Must:
a) obligation: e.g) you must come early
b) necessity: e.g) she must solve it now
c) conclusion: e.g) he must be sad.
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Ought to:
a) obligation: e.g) you ought to work harder
b) necessity: e.g) you ought to be here by now .
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Chapter Four
We have to distinguish between two types of nouns {Proper nouns} and {common nouns}.
Proper nouns include : personal names and names of cities, states……etc.
Common nouns include are non- personal names: count-nouns (those that can be counted ) or
non-nouns (those that cannot be counted.
Old linguists also distinguished between abstract nouns like (love , warmth , , speed) and
concrete noun like (book , room , watch).
Abstract nouns can be countable like (idea----ideas) or non-countable like (speed). Besides ,
there are some nouns that uncountable in English but countable in other languages like (
anger, chess , courage , light…..etc). Moreover , there are some nouns that are considered
both non-count and count , but with a slight deference in meaning.
Count Nou-count
Paper….papers paper
Lamb….lambs lamb
Determiners
Determiners are the elements that occur the head of the non-phrase. There are six classes of
determiners:
1. Quantifiers: (all ,both , half , some , any , many …..etc)
They are called pre-determiners because they occur before articles, demonstratives and other
types of determiners.
e.g.) all the boys both those pens
However , sometimes ‘ all and both ‘ occur after the head of the noun-phrase
e.g) The students all passed the exam.
The determiners (both , either , neither) are used with dual nouns, i.e they refer only to two
e.g.) both men
The determiners (double , twice , three times …..etc) occur with non-count and plural count
nouns as well
e.g.) Double his salary
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Three times this amount
Twice his strength.
The fraction determiners (one-third , two fifth ,….etc) are used with non-count nouns (singular
and plural)
e.g.) one third the time
Phrasal quantifiers called partitives can impose count ability on non-count nouns. They are of
three types:
a) General partitives:
e.g.) Two pieces of news
an item of furniture
b) Typical partitives:
e.g.) A slice of cake
Two loaves of bread.
Three bottle of milk.
c) Measures:
e.g.) A kilo of rice
A pound of butter
2. Numerals: There are two types numerals:
Cardinal numerals ( one , two , three , ….etc) and ordinal numerals ( first , second ,
third……etc).
The cardinal ‘ one’ is used with singular count nouns. The rest (two , three…etc) are used
with plural count nouns
e.g.) One table two tables.
Usually ordinal numerals precede the cardinal except with general ordinal (next, last) which
can occur freely before or after the cardinals
e.g.) The first three girls
His two last books
His last two books
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Reference:
1. Specific reference: Reference is associated with articles:
a) Definite article (the)
b) Indefinite articles (a , an)
c) Zero article.
In this sentence (I saw a lion in a cage) the reference is specific , because we have in mind a
specific ‘ lion’.
The same is true in the following example:
e.g) I found the book in my bag.
The books were scattered on the table.
There were books on the table.
Some noun can be used with zero article although they are countable. These nouns can be
classified as follows:
1) Seasons: In spring we go on picnics
2) Institutions : They go to church every Sunday
3) Transports: He came by car
4) Times: At night he left
5) Illness: I have flu
6) Meals: We met at lunch
7) Parallel structure: They came arm in arm.
2) Generic reference:
With generic reference , we do not refer to a particular thing but things in general. The
definite article , the indefinite articles and zero article can be used in generic reference.
Articles are associated with reference ( generic , specific and unique reference).
The tiger
A tiger is a dangerous animal. (generic)
Tigers are dangerous animals. (generic)
With (generic , specific) reference , singular count nouns take the indefinite article (a , an) ,
while non-count nouns and plural count nouns take zero.
3) Unique reference:
Unique reference is that obtained with nouns that are specific or unique . These nouns include
c) Geographical names:
Invariable nouns are those that can be pluralized like : Music , furniture, rice
However, some invariable nouns end with (S) , yet they take singular verbs.
Besides , some variable nouns ending with (S) are listed as plural such as:
Bellows , pliers , shears , tongs , glasses , trousers ,, the middle ages , archives , auspices ,
bowels , goods
2) Variable nouns:
Variable nouns have two forms, singular and plural. To pluralize a variable nouns, we add
an (S) at its end. However , there may be some irregular cases which can be summarized as
follows:
1) Noun ending in (-y) preceded by consonants:
Spy…….spies , city……….cities
Sometimes the (-y) is not changed into (i) :
The kennedys , the two Germanys , stand-bys.
2) Some unusual nouns take ("s):
Dot your I’s , in the 1980’s . two ,MP"s
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3) Nouns ending in (-o) sometimes we add (s) only and sometimes (es) , and some nouns
accept both:
Banjo………………….…banjos………..……….es
Volcano………………….volcano……...………..es
Motto……………………mottos………….……..es
Cargo………………..…..cargos………………...es
Echo..................….echos , hero…………..…..heroes
Potato……………potatoes , tomato………….…tomatoes.
Veto………..……vetoes
Compound nouns sometimes have the plural (s) on the first noun , sometimes on the second
and sometimes on both:
On the first: passer-by……………………..passers-by
Mother-in-law……………….mothers-in-law
On both : Manservant……………..menservants
Woman-doctor……………..women-doctors
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Some variable noun having irregular plurals:
1) Noun ending in (th): mostly such nouns have regular plurals:
e.g) death…..deaths , birth……births
But when the (th) preceded by a vowel, sometimes the (S) is voiced:
e.g) bath….baths , youth…..youths
2) Noun ending in (f) or (fe):
Some nouns have (ves): life……....lives , knife….…..knives.
Some nouns have (fe) or (fes) : roof….…roofs , belief…….beliefs.
Other nouns have both : dwarf…..dwarfs or dwarves
Hoof…..hoofs or hooves
3) Mutation (vowel change only):
Woman…….…women , foot……...feet , louse………..lice.
4) En Plural : Child……....Children , ox….oxen.
Fish………fishes or fish
Hundred………….hundred, million………..million
Dozen……………..dozen , brace……………brace.
In some cases both zero plural and regular plural are possible:
Foreign plural:
Larva…………larvae
Area……….areas
fungu……fungi or funguses.
Curriculum……curricula
Ovum……ova , stratum……strata
Some nouns ending in (ex) or (ix) have both regular and foreign plural:
Apex…….…..apices or apexes
Index………...indices or indexes.
Criterion……..….criteria , phenomenon……….phenomena.
Demon…..demon , electron……electron
Bureau…….bureaux , adieu……..adieux
Plateau…..…plateau , tableau……tableaux.
Some French nouns ending in (s) or (x) have zero plural but with different
pronunciation ( ) (z)
Chassis………chassis , pateis……..patois
4. Collective nouns:
With some nouns like (army , team , family , crew) , we can use both (it) or (they) to refer
to them
e.g) The team (is / are) doing exercises
5. Higher animals:
Some animals (pets) can be substituted by such pronouns as (he , she , who )
e.g) dog , cat , horse , cow , bull , hen…..etc
6. Higher organisms:
With nouns of countries and ships use different gender depending on their use in different
context (policy , geography , sport….etc)
e.g) France is in Europe. (it / she ) is a large country
France has been able to increase her export.
France have improved their chance to win the cup.
7. Lower animals and inanimate nouns:
Both of lower animals and inanimate nouns have the same gender. For example , both
(snake ) and (book) have (which) and (it) as pronoun. Sometimes, we can use gender
markers to distinguish between masculine and feminine nouns
e.g) she- goat , he – goat , hen-pheasant
male frog , female frog , cock-pheasant
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CASE
We have to distinguish between cases of nouns:
The common case (boy) and the genitive (boy’s). The genitive case is shown by either the
(s) genitive or the (of) genitive
The ‘S genitive :” it used with animate nouns:
e.g) The boy’s room. (singular)
The boys’ room. (plural)
The (of) genitive : it is often used with inanimate nouns:
e.g) The door of my car
Sometimes, we may have the two genitive for the same noun
e.g) The ship’s name
The name of the ship .
The – ‘S genitive is used in the following noun classes:
1. Personal names: Ali’s book
2. personal noun: The girl’s pen
3. Collective nouns: The nation’s security
4. Higher animals: The horse’s tail.
5. Geographical nouns: Europe’s future
6. Temporal nouns: A week’s holiday
7. Noun related to man’s activity: The game’s history.
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Group Genitives:
Nouns phrases that have two genitive, both the (‘s) genitive and (of) genitive are used.
e.g) The teacher of music’s room
We may use ellipsis with the genitive case of the context makes it clear.
e.g) My car is faster than Tom’s
I shall go to Bill’s – ( Bill’s house)
I shall go to the dentist’s .- (the dentists’ clinic)
Double genitive : Some Noun phrases double genitive (‘s and of ) if the noun is both
definite and personal
e.g) A book of my friend’s
A friend of the doctor’s arrived
A friend of mine.
Genitive Meanings:
1. Possessive genitive: my son’s wife = my son has a wife
2. Subjective genitive: the rise of the sun = the sun rise
3. Objective genitive: the boy’s release = somebody released the boy
4. Genitive of origin: the girl’s story = the girl told a story
5. Descriptive genitive: A women’s college = a college for women
6. Measure genitive: two week’s absence = the absence lasted two weeks
7. Appositive genitive: the city of York = York is a city.
Pronouns:
Pronouns are class of items that have several features in common:
1. They do not admit determiners
2. They have an objective case
3. They have person distinction
4. They have gender distinction
5. They have number distinction
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Case: Pronouns unlike nouns have three case distinctions:
- Subjective case: He , she , it , we you , they , I
- Objective case: him , her , it , us , you , them , me
- Genitive case: his , her , its , our , your , their , my .
Person: All the three types of pronouns ( personal pronouns , possessive pronouns
and reflexive pronouns) have person distinctions:
Gender: All the types of pronouns show gender distinction. For example , (he, him, his,
himself) refer to masculine gender , while ( she , her , herself) refer to feminine gender.
Number: The pronouns ( I , he , she , it , his, her , its, me , him ,her , myself,
himself,…..etc) have singular ad plural number , while ( you , they , we , us , them) have
plural number.
Types of pronouns:
1. Personal pronouns:
Subjective: He , she , it , we you , they , I
Objective: him , her , it , us , you , them , me
Genitives: his , her , its , our , your , their , my
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2. Reflexive pronouns: These pronouns refer to back to a previously mentioned entity in
the same sentence.
e.g) Ali hurt himself
3. Reciprocal pronouns ( each other , one another )
e.g) Tom and Suha like each other
The four children were fond of one another.
4. Possessive pronouns (my , his , our ,….etc ) , ( mine, his , hers , theirs ……etc)
o There are two types of possessive pronouns:
1. Attributive possessive pronouns: my book , his car
2. Nominal possessive pronouns: mine , his , hers.
Finally , ‘’ either . neither and none are also among partitive pronouns
Adjectives are distinguished by being modified by the intensifier ‘’ very ‘’ and by taking
1) Attributive :
Adjectives are attributive when they premodify nouns, i.e. : when they appear between the
2) Predicative:
2. Intensifying Adjective:
There are two types of intensifying adjectives :
Emphasizers which have a general heightening effect and they are attribute only
e.g) a real hero , an outright lie
Amplifying which denote scale upwards from an assumed norm. They are central
adjectives when inherent
e.g) a complete victory = the victory is complete
But many of them are attributive only
e.g) a close friend , a great helper
3. Limited Adjectives:
Such adjectives particularize the reference of the noun they modify
e.g) The main reason , the only occasion , the same student
Some adjectives can function as a limiter in a context and as an intensifier in another
context
e.g) particular sure
a certain person , a certain winner
limiter intensifier
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4. Adjectives related to adverb:
Some attributive adjectives can be related to adverb . They are non- inherent.
e.g) my former friend = formerly my friend
an occasional visitor = occasionally a visitor
a hard worker = a worker who works hard
a fast car = a car driven fast
5. Denominal Adjective:
Some adjectives are derived from noun. They are attributive only.
e.g) criminal law = law about crime
an atomic scientist = a scientist specializing in atomic science
a medical school = a school for students of medicine
6. Predicative Adjective:
Some adjectives are predicative only . They tend to refer to conditions rather than to
characteristics. Such adjectives include: faint , ill, well , afraid of , fond of , …..etc
3. Inherent / non-inherent :
Most adjectives ( especially the dynamic ones ) are inherent , i.e . they characterize the
referent of the noun directly , otherwise, they are non-inherent
For example , the adjective ‘’ new ‘’ in ( the new student) is inherent because we can
say ( the student is new ) . But , the same adjective is non-inherent in ( my new friend ) ,
because we cannot say ( my friend is new).
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Order of Adjectives
1. intensifying adjective: e.g) a real hero
2. postdetermners and limited adjective: e.g) the only occasion
3. General adjective of subject . measure: e.g) lovely , careful
4. general adjective of object measure: e.g) wealthy , large
5. adjective denoting age: e.g) young , old , new
6. adjective denoting color : e.g) red , black
7. adjective denoting material : e.g) wooden, metallic
8. adjective denoting provenance: e,g) British , French
Comparison of Adjectives
There are three degrees of comparison in adjectives : absolute and completive and
superlative:
Old older oldest
Important more Important most Important.
The comparative degree is used for comparison between two , while the superlative is used
for comparison among more than two persons or things. The comparative degree requires
the use of ‘’ than ‘’ as correlative to ‘’ more ‘’ , less ‘’ … and ‘’ as….as correlative to ‘’
a’’
e.g) Tom is more intelligent than Ali
Tom is as intelligent as Ahmed
Intensifiers ( so , very , quite ..) and amplifiers ( complete , extreme , great,..) and
comparatives can modify gradable adjectives , i.e those having values on a scale. They
cannot be used with non- gradable adjective like ‘ English ‘
Very English
More English.
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Change in Spelling:
The final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by one vowel:
e.g) big , bigger , biggest
The final (y) is changed into (i) if preceded by a consonant
e.g) early , earlier , earliest
The final (e) is dropped before the suffixes (er) or (est)
e.g) brave , braver , bravest
Modifier of Adv:
An adverb may premodify another adverb and function as intensifier
e.g) They are smoking very heavily
Modifier of Prep. P.
e.g) The nail went right through the wall
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Modifier of determiner:
e.g) Nearly everybody came
Modifier of noun phrase:
e.g) He tells such funny stories
He was rather a mess
He was quite some player.
3. As complement of a preposition:
Some place and time adverbs function as complement of a preposition . The place adverbs
‘’ here , and ‘’ there ‘’ are good of this use
e.g) From here , down there , over there
The adverb of ‘’ home ‘’ can be the complement of the preposition { at , from , near ,
towards}
e.g) at home , near home
Time adverb can be used with the prepositions: { since , till ,after , before , from , for …}
e.g) since recently , till tomorrow , for today