Csec Chemistry Lesson 2

CSEC CHEMISTRY
A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry

LESSON 2 “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
2 Heating and Cooling Curves
 A heating curve is drawn when the temperature of a solid is measured at intervals as it is

heated and changes state to a liquid and then to a gas, and the temperature is then plotted
against time.
 A cooling curve is drawn when the temperature of a gas is measured at intervals as it is
cooled and changes state to a liquid and then to a solid, and the temperature is then plotted
against time.
APPARATUS USED TO FIND MELTING

POINT OF NAPTHALENE
Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

We can explain the shape of the
3 curve using ideas of energy (heat)
transfer to the particles.
AB: Increasing heat energy

increases the vibrations of the
particles in the solid. So the
temperature of the solid increases.
2 BC: The forces of attraction

between the particles are weakened
enough so that the particles slide
over each other. The temperature
is constant because the energy is
going in to overcome the forces
between the particles instead of
raising the temperature. The
substance melts.

 3 C-D: Increasing the energy
4 increases the movement of the
particles in the liquid. So the
temperature of the liquid
increases.
 4. D-E: The forces of
attraction between the particles
are weakened enough so that
the particles move well away
from each other. The
temperature is constant
because the energy is going in
to overcome the forces
between the particles instead
of raising the temperature. The
substance boils.
 5. E-F: Increasing the energy
increases the speed of the gas
particles. So, the temperature
increases.

Cooling Curve  When the gas is cooled, the
5 particles lose kinetic energy
(movement energy). The
temperature falls (AB).
 2 The particles become attracted
to each other.
 3 Energy is released and the gas
turns to a liquid (BC). The flat
parts of the curve show where the
substance is condensing (B to C).
 4 When the liquid is cooled, the
particles lose more energy. The
temperature falls (CD).
 5 Energy is released and the liquid
turns to a solid (DE) ). The flat
parts of the curve show where the
substance is freezing (D to E).

Mixtures and Separation
6

7
AIM
 distinguish between pure substances and mixtures;
 distinguish among solutions, suspensions and colloids;
 identify different types of solutions;
 investigate the effect of temperature on solubility of solids in water;
 apply suitable separation techniques based on differences in properties of
the components of mixtures;
 describe the extraction of sucrose from sugar cane

8
LET’S GET THIS PARTY STARTED

Classification of Matter

10 Pure Substance
 A pure substance contains only one kind of matter. Eg Pure
sulfur has only one component in it-sulfur molecules.
 Any pure substance possesses certain general
characteristics: Its composition is fixed and constant eg its
melting point, boiling point and density.
 The component parts cannot be separated by any physical
process.
 To find out if a substance is pure, its melting point or
boiling point can be measured.
*If any impurities are present, they will usually lower its
melting point and raise its boiling point*

11 Determination of a Pure Substance
 Checking for exact and constant (or fixed) melting point of a solid. Impurities
decrease the melting point of a solid and causes melting to take place over a wide
range of temperatures.
 Checking the exact and constant (or fixed) boiling point of a liquid. Impurities
increase the boiling point of a liquid and causes boiling to take place over a wide
range of temperatures.
 Performing chromatography

12 ELEMENTS
 An element is a substance that cannot be further broken down to two or

more simpler substances by chemical methods.
 Each element has a name and a symbol.
 An atom is the smallest particle in any element.
 Each element is composed of atoms of one kind only. Most elements are
made up of individual atoms, e.g. silver (Ag) is made up of individual
silver atoms.
 Only seven elements are considered diatomic. That is they are made of
molecule which comprises of two of the same atoms eg Nitrogen, Bromine
etc.
13
Most elements can be classified as metals and

non-metals
A few elements have properties that are in
between those of metals and non-metals, and are
called semi-metals or metalloids, e.g., silicon and
germanium

14

15 COMPOUNDS
 A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined.
 A pure compound has constant composition. This means that no matter where and how a
compound is obtained or made, it is always made up of the same elements combined in
the same proportion by mass.
 A pure compound always has the same properties or characteristics (e.g., colour, smell,
reactions, etc.).
 The properties of a compound is different from those of the elements from which it is
made.
 Each compound has a name and a formula.
 Usually an energy change will accompany the formation of a compound. Exothermic vs
Endothermic??? (WE AGO CIRCLE BACK!!!!)

Mixtures
 Mixture consists of two or more substances
(elements and or compounds) which are
physically combined in variable proportions.
 Each component retains its own individual
properties and is not chemically bonded to any
other component of the mixture.
16 Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

17 Homogenous Vs Heterogenous
A homogeneous mixture has the same uniform appearance

and composition throughout. Many homogeneous
mixtures are commonly referred to as solutions.
A heterogeneous mixture consists of visibly different

substances or phases

18 Solutions
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances; one substance is usually a liquid.
▪ There are two components of a solution: solvent and solute.
▪ Solvent: The component of a solution which dissolves the other component is called solvent.
▪ Solute: The component of the solution which dissolves in the solvent is called solute

19 Colloids
 A colloid is a type of mixture intermediate between a homogeneous mixture and
a heterogeneous mixture with properties also intermediate between the two.
 The particles in a colloid can be solid, liquid or bubbles of gas.
 The medium that they are suspended in can be a solid, liquid or gas (although gas colloids
cannot be suspended in gas).
 The particles are approximately 10 to 10,000 angstroms in size and generally cannot be
filtered or settled out in an easy manner.
 Colloids may be colored or translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the
scattering of light by particles in the colloid.
 Colloid particles may be seen in a beam of light such as dust in air in a "shaft" of sunlight.

20 Colloids
 Brownian movement may be used to distinguish between solutions and colloids.
 Brownian motion is the random movement of colloidal particles suspended in a liquid or gas,
caused by collisions with molecules of the surrounding medium.
 The particles in solutions and colloids are in constant motion. However colloid particles are
large enough to be observed and are small enough to still be affect by the random molecular
collisions. Colloid particles resist settling rapidly to the bottom of a vessel due to Brownian
motion.
 Emulsions are an example of colloids composed of tiny particles suspended in another
immiscible (unmixable) material. An example would be oil and water being mixed.
Examples of emulsions include butter and margarine, and mayonnaise.

21 Colloids

22 Suspension
 A suspension is a mixture of small particles dispersed in another substance,
and in which the small particles settle on standing.
 The particles are large enough to be just visible.
 They are more than 1000 nanometers in diameter.
 They are opaque.
 Light is scattered by them.
 The particles can be separated by filtration.
 The particles undergo sedimentation

23 Solutions, Colloids, Suspension
Solutions Suspensions Colloids
Cloudy, heterogeneous,
Clear, transparent and
Appearance at least two substances Cloudy but uniform
homogeneous
visible
larger than 10,000

Particle Size molecular in size 10-10,000 Angstroms
Angstroms
none -- light passes

Effect of Light light is dispersed by
through, particles do not variable
(Tyndall Effect) colloidal particles
reflect light
particles will
Effect of
none eventually none
Sedimentation
settle out
24 Solubility
 If a solvent dissolves a particular substance, we say that the substance is
very soluble in that solvent.
 If the solute does not appear to dissolve in the solvent, we say that the
substance is insoluble.
 Solubility depends on both the solute and the solvent. Some substances may
be insoluble in water but soluble in other solvents. For example, sulfur is
insoluble in water but dissolves in some organic solvents.
 If, at constant temperature, a solution can dissolve more solute, we say that
the solution is unsaturated. If the solution cannot dissolve any more solid
and excess solid is present, we say that the solution is saturated.

25
 Solubility is the mass of solute that will saturate 100g of solvent at a
specific temperature.
 Solutions that can hold more solute than in a saturated solution is called a
supersaturated solution. Eg. hydrated sodium thiosulfate
(Na2S2O3.5H2O) contains water of crystallization in its structure. When
this compound is heated gently, it dissolves in its own water of
crystallization. This solution contains more sodium thiosulfate than a
saturated solution of sodium thiosulfate in water. Adding a speck of dust
or tiny crystal to the supersaturated solution results in the whole solution
crystallizing.

26 Factors affecting Solubility
Pressure
Pressure has a negligible effect on the solubility of solid and liquid solutes,
but it has a strong effect on solutions with gaseous solutes. Eg. Opening a
soda can. High pressure ensures that the soda stays carbonated, ie, CO2
stays dissolved in solution.

Polarity
A popular saying used for predicting solubility is “Like dissolves like.”
The ability for a solvent to dissolve various compounds depends primarily on
its polarity.
Polar solvents include: water, methanol, and acetic acid
Non-Polar solvents include: Benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and diethyl ether
WATER (POLAR) METHANOL BENZENE (NON-
(SLIGHTLY POLAR) POLAR)
SUGAR (POLAR SOLUBLE SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE

SOLUTE)
NAPTHALENE (NON- INSOLUBLE SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE SOLUBLE

POLAR) Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”
 Temperature: The solubility of a given solute in a given solvent
typically depends on temperature. For many solids dissolved in liquid
water, solubility tends to correspond with increasing temperature.
 NB The temperature must always be quoted. This is because solubility
varies with temperature.

29 Effect of Temperature on Solubility
 When we warm saturated solutions of most substances, the
solutions become unsaturated.
 A solubility curve shows the mass of solute dissolved to
form a saturated solution per 100 grams of solvent at
different temperatures
 At 0°C, Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3) is the most soluble
in water and Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) is the least soluble.
 At 80°C, Potassium Nitrate (KNO3)is the most soluble and
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is the least soluble.
 The increase in solubility with temperature is greatest for
Potassium Nitrate. Sodium chloride shows only a very
small increase in solubility as the temperature is increased.
 The increase in solubility with temperature is usually a
smooth curve or an almost straight line

30

31 Calculations using solubility curves
 From the graph, we can deduce the temperature at
which crystals start to form when a saturated solution
is cooled and the mass of solid deposited when a
saturated solution is cooled.
 Q1 At what temperature does a saturated solution
containing 140 g potassium nitrate first form crystals
as it is cooled from 80°
 ANS. Draw a line XY from 140g on the vertical axis
to join the curve.
o The line YZ gives the temperature at which
potassium nitrate is just soluble.
o So 70℃ is the maximum temperature at which
crystals will start to form.
Solubility of Potassium Nitrate

 Q2 Calculate the mass of potassium nitrate
that would come out of solution when a
saturated solution of potassium nitrate is
cooled from 80℃ to 40°C.
o ANS. At 80°C a mass of 170 g of potassium
nitrate dissolves (lines ABC).
o At 40 0 e a mass of 65g of potassium nitrate
dissolves (lines DEF).
o On cooling from 80°C to 40 °e the mass of
potassium nitrate that comes out of solution is
(170 g - 65 g) = 105g
Solubility of Potassium Nitrate

Calculations using solubility curves
33
 Q1. What is the solubility of copper(ll) sulfate at

43°C?
o ANS. The solubility of CuSO, at 43°C = 23 g per
100 g water
 Q2 A copper(ll) sulfate solution containing 100 g
water is saturated at 34°C. What mass of
copper(ll) sulfate must be added to re·saturate this
solution if it is heated to 71°C?
o ANS. At 34°C, 19 g of CuS04 saturates 100 g of
water At 71°C, 44 g of CuSO, saturates 100 g of
water :. the mass of CuSO, to be added to
re·saturate a solution containing 100 g of water
= 44 - 19g = 35 g
Solubility of Copper Sulfate

 Q3 A copper(ll) sulfate solution which
contains 300 g of water is saturated at 54°C.
What mass of copper (I) sulfate would
crystallize out of this solution if it is cooled to
22°C?
 ANS. At 54 °C, 30 g of CuSO, saturates 100
g of water At 22 °C, 13 g of CuS04 saturates
100 g of water
:. the mass of CuS0 4 crystallising out of a
saturated solution containing 100 g of water = 30 -
13 g = 17 g
mass of CuS04 crystallising out of a saturated
solution containing 300 g of water
= 17/100 𝑥 300𝑔
= 51 g

 Q4. At what temperature would
84 g of copper(lI) sulfate saturate
150 g water?
o ANS. 84 g of CuS04 saturates
150 g of water
84/150𝑔 𝑥 100𝑔
56g
Temperature at which 56 g of CuS04
saturates 100 g water = 82°C

36 Solubility Rules
 The following are the solubility rules for common ionic solids. If there two rules appear to
contradict each other, the preceding rule takes precedence.
 Salts containing Group I elements (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) are soluble . There are few exceptions
to this rule. Salts containing the ammonium ion (NH4+) are also soluble.
 Salts containing nitrate ion (NO3-) are generally soluble.
 Salts containing Cl -, Br -, or I - are generally soluble. Important exceptions to this rule are halide
salts of Ag+, Pb2+, and (Hg2)2+. Thus, AgCl, PbBr2, and Hg2Cl2 are insoluble.
 Most silver salts are insoluble. Except AgNO3 and Ag(C2H3O2)
 Most sulfate salts are soluble. Except CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4, Ag2SO4 and SrSO4 .

37 Solubility Rules
 Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble. Group I elements Hydroxides are soluble. Group
II Hydroxides (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of transition metals and
Al3+ are insoluble. Thus, Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, Co(OH)2 are not soluble.
 Most sulfides of transition metals are highly insoluble, including CdS, FeS, ZnS, and Ag2S.
Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and lead sulfides are also insoluble.
 Carbonates are frequently insoluble. Group II carbonates (CaCO3, SrCO3, and BaCO3) are
insoluble, as are FeCO3 and PbCO3.
 Chromates are frequently insoluble. Examples include PbCrO4 and BaCrO4.
 Phosphates such as Ca3(PO4)2 and Ag3PO4 are frequently insoluble, except Sodium and
Ammonium.
 Fluorides such as BaF2, MgF2, and PbF2 are frequently insoluble.

38 Common Methods of Purification
 Filtration can be used to separate an insoluble substance from a liquid
or a solution. For example, sand water, clay and water and chalk and
water can be separated by Filtration.
 After filtration, the clear liquid collected is called the filtrate, and the
solid left on the filter paper is called the residue.
 However, filtration cannot separate a soluble substance from a solution.
Eg adding water to a mixture of sand and salt. (salt water is the filtrate
and sand is the residue, one cannot use filtration to separate salt water)

39

40
Common Methods of Purification

 Crystallization can automatically exclude impurities when it crystallizes,
 Impurities are usually not soluble in a hot solvent. For example, pure sugar can be purified
from a crude sugar solution (containing impurities and pure sugar) by crystallization
(WE SOON CIRCLE BACK!!!!)

41 Preparation of Pure Copper(II) Sulfate
Crystals by Crystallisation
 STEP 1: The solution is heated to remove most of the solvent (water). Heating is stopped
when a saturated solution (A solution that contains as much dissolved solute as it can at
a given temperature) is formed.
 STEP 2: The hot, saturated solution is allowed to cool.
 STEP 3: The dissolved copper(II) sulfate appears as pure crystals
 STEP 4: The cold solution is removed by filtration. The residue of pure crystals is
washed with cold distilled water.
 STEP 5: The crystals are then dried by pressing them between pieces of filter paper.
 NB: Rapid cooling produces small crystals while slow cooling produces large crystals.

 Evaporation can be used to remove water from a dissolved
solid. For example, when sea water is evaporated, salt is left
behind.
The components to be separated must differ widely in their
boiling points
The solid obtained by evaporation to dryness is not always
pure. Any soluble impurities will be left together with the solid
after heating (disadvantage).

43

 Distillation is evaporation followed by
condensation. This can be used to purify a
liquid that is made dirty with soluble impurities.
 For example, when sea water is distilled, pure
water (distilled water) will be obtained as the
distillate.
 Salts with high boiling point are not easy to
evaporate and remain as residue.
 The components to be separated must have
differ widely in their boiling points

45 Simple Distillation
1. Boiling chips are added to ensure smooth boiling.
Water vaporizes, rises and enters the condenser.
2. Water boils and becomes vapour. Thermometer
measures temperature of the vapour.
3. Water vapour is cooled and condenses into pure
liquid (distillate).
4. The salt solution becomes more concentrated as
distillation continues. Salt will be collected as
residue.
5. Pure water is collected as distillate

 Fractional Distillation can be used to separate
two liquids with approximately the same boiling
points. It is very similar to distillation but is a
series of repeated distillations.
 To simplify the procedure, a fractionating column
is usually used. For example, wine containing
more water, but less alcohol can be fractionally
distilled to make it richer in alcohol.
 The method of purifying a mixture depends on the
properties of the mixture to be separated
 Fractional distillation can be used to separate
Ethanol and water, Purified air, Crude oil

47 Fractional Distillation
 STEP 1: Ethanol vapour and water vapour rise up the column as
the solution is heated.
 STEP 2: The water vapour condenses in the fractionating
column and falls back into the flask.
 STEP 3: Ethanol, which has a lower boiling point than water,
reaches the upper part of the column and is distilled over.
 STEP 4. At this stage, the thermometer shows a constant
temperature of 78oC, which is the boiling point of ethanol.
 STEP 5. In this condenser, hot ethanol vapour condenses as
running water cools it; liquid ethanol flows down the inner tube
of the condenser and into the receiver
 STEP 6: Ethanol is collected as the distillate in the receiver.
 STEP 7: When all the ethanol has distilled over, the temperature
rises rapidly to 100oC, which is the boiling point of water. At
this temperature, water distils over and can be collected
separately.
 Separating funnel A
separating funnel is used to
separate two (or more)
immiscible liquids, e.g. oil
and water. Immiscible
liquids do not mix and are
separated due to their
different densities.

 Paper chromatography is used to separate several solutes which are present in a solution.
 The solutes are usually coloured and travel through absorbent paper at different speeds, e.g. the dyes in black ink
or pigments in chlorophyll.
 The solutes are separated based on:
▪ How soluble each one is in the solvent used. (Mobile Phase)
▪ How strongly each one is attracted to the paper used. (Stationary Phase)

50 Paper chromatography
 The chromatography paper with the separated components is called a chromatogram.
 A chromatogram produced by paper chromatography or thin layer chromatography
(TLC) can be used to distinguish between pure and impure substances:
❑ a pure substance produces one spot on the chromatogram
❑ an impure substance produces two or more spots
 The ratio between the distance travelled by the substance and the distance travelled by the
solvent is a constant known as the Retension Factor (Rf)
 The Rf value of a substance is constant as long as chromatography is carried out under the
same conditions (i.e. same solvent and same temperature).
 This property allows us to easily identify a substance on a chromatogram.

51 Advantages of Using Chromatography
The advantage of using chromatography lies in the fact that:
 only small amounts of the mixture are needed,
 the components are not destroyed by the process
 it can be used to separate mixtures of substances with similar properties

52 Extraction of Sucrose from Sugar Cane
 Sugar cane is a giant grass, the height of which varies between 8 and
20 feet depending on the country of origin and variety of plant. The
normal growing time for cane is 12 to 18 months.
 The major steps involved are:
1. Juice Extraction (Milling)
2. Clarification/ Filtration
3. Evaporation
4. Crystallization

53 Juice Extraction (Milling)
1. Revolving knives cut cane into small pieces without extracting any juice.
2. Most of the juice is extracted via a crusher that break and crush the structure of cane.
3. A series of giant rollers (mill tandem) squeeze the juice out of the cane. The roller are arranged
such that eat roller breaks the cane fibres a little more than the previous roller.
4. Water is added at the penultimate set of rollers (mill) to wash out additional sucrose that remains
in the fibre.
 The cane fibre from which sucrose has been extracted is called bagasse.
 It is normally conveyed to the boiler as fuel.
 Juice extracted from the mill tandem is referred to as mixed juice; it contains 8 to 21% sucrose,
2.5% impurities and the rest water.

54 Clarification/Filtration
 The mixed juice from the mills is clarified (purified) by adding lime (down to a Ph of 6.8/7) and
is heated to 212℉
 A precipitate forms from the action of lime and heat which settles in a vessel known as a
Clarifier.
 The overflow from the clarifier is called clarified juice.
 The precipitate settled at the bottom of the clarifier is called mud.
 The mud is filtered in a rotary vacuum filter to remove as much sucrose as possible which is
retained in the mud.
 The filtrate is returned either to the clarified juice or to the mixed juice for re-clarification.
 The mud retained by the filter is used as fertilizer in the cane fields

55 Evaporation
 The clarified juice which contains 8-12% sucrose is evaporated to

syrup of 65% sucrose requiring the removal of a great quantity of
water.
 Evaporation is accomplished by multiple evaporation, in Jamaica
usually by four evaporator vessels in which the vapours from one
vessel are used to boil juice in the following vessel at a lower
pressure.

56 Crystallization
 Is accomplished in a large, single vessel known as a vacuum pan.

 The vacuum pan is first charge with sufficient syrup to cover the
heating surfaces (tubes) before steam is turned on. Water is
evaporated until the syrup becomes supersaturated.
 A few crystals of sugar are added to help more sugar crystals to
form.
 The mixture then contains a thick syrup called molasses together
with sugar crystals

57 Centrifugation and Drying
 A centrifuge is a machine that spins round and round at very high speeds
pulling the heavier particles downward thus separating them from the
larger particles.
 A basket centrifuge is used to separate the molasses from the sugar
crystals.
 The mixture is placed in the perforated basket (a basket with tiny holes in
it). This is spun round at a high speed.
 The sugar remains in the basket.
 The molasses are forced out through the holes in the basket.
 The sugar crystals are dried in air using a type of tumble-drier.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCKt02NGjfM

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CSEC CHEMISTRY

A. Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry

 A heating curve is drawn when the temperature of a solid is measured at intervals as it is

APPARATUS USED TO FIND MELTING

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

AB: Increasing heat energy

2 BC: The forces of attraction

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

 An element is a substance that cannot be further broken down to two or

Most elements can be classified as metals and

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

16 Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

A homogeneous mixture has the same uniform appearance

A heterogeneous mixture consists of visibly different

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

larger than 10,000

none -- light passes

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

SUGAR (POLAR SOLUBLE SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE

NAPTHALENE (NON- INSOLUBLE SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE SOLUBLE

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Solubility of Potassium Nitrate

Solubility of Potassium Nitrate

 Q1. What is the solubility of copper(ll) sulfate at

Solubility of Copper Sulfate

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Common Methods of Purification

(WE SOON CIRCLE BACK!!!!)

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”

Turner, B.Sc Env. Chemistry “ Chemistry is not a sprint- it’s a marathon”