Ethics

Course Description

The subject is the study of what is right and/or wrong in human conducts, actions, and
decisions. It also includes the examination of the fundations employed in morality, sources of its
polarity, and justifications of the respective basis. Moreso, it attempts to assist and help students
make a conscientious and feasible decision in life’s moral dilemma, thereby, potentially benefit
from the study of the course.
Hence, the course is the study of the moral decisions process. It examines how we arrive
at the moral decision and what are we supposed to consider in the finality of such moral decision
(Co et.al. 6).

Ethics (Moral Philosophy) and Its Relationship With Philosophy

Philosophy - it comes from the two Greek words philo - which means love, and sophos - which
means wisdom. Hence, basically it means the love of wisdom or in its dynamic meaning, the study
of knowledge or thinking.

Three Areas of Philosophy:

Epistemology — is what counts as genuine knowledge.

Metaphysics — is what sorts of things exist and their essential natures.

Logic — what are the correct principles of reasoning.

Ethics — the discipline concerned with questions of how one should live.

Hence, Moral Philosophy is a quest to understand or to know what is true, right, or valid principles
of conducts or morality.

Basic Terms Used in Ethics

There are some basic terminologies used in the study of Ethics which are essential to get
familiarized with: ethics and moral are peceived to be almost the same ordinarily because…

common grounds: both deal with the actions of mankind; provide judgment for their goodness
(right or correct) and badness (evil or wrong); hence, almost the same.

Ethical — a term used to describe a behavior which conforms to acceptable standards.

Unethical — a term used to refer to behavior which deviates from the norm. A violation of the
norms.

Moral — is understood in the same way as the term ethical.

Immoral — is used to describe a person whose behavior does not conform to moral standards.
NOTE: Hence, in ordinary languange, we frequently use these words interchangeably. But
technically, they are not synonymous.

Ethics — comes from the Greek word ethos or ethikos, meaning character, disposition or relating
to one’s character respectively. It refers to the rules of conduct often formulated to regulate
human actions in a particular group or society (apply more to a group particularity).

For instance: Etiquette (social graces) — conventional social behavior, a prescribed or

acceptable code, the code of behavior regarding professional practise, legal ethics,
medical or bio-ethics, business ethics, ethics on the internet (Netiquette).

Morality — comes from the Latin word moralis, meaning customs and manners. It has internal
sources (from individuals themselves and at the same time with a common cognizance) and are
established by habits and adherence to principles which emphasize preference on personal sets
of beliefs about what is right and wrong (has individual applicability and general acceptability).

NOTE: In other words, morality then seems to pertain to the individual character of a person
(personal), and with general acceptability; whereas ethical seems to point to the relationship
between human beings in a group.

NOTE: Culture, environment, and society play vital role in the labelling or judging human’s actions
— misdeameanor (ethical) and sinister, henious, gross(moral).

Culture and Morality

Amoral — means having no moral sense, or being indifferent to right or wrong (having no sense
or right and wrong). These tend to be found among certain criminal types (or unscrupulous) who
can’t seem to realize they’ve done anything wrong. They tend not to have any remorse, regret,
or concern for what they have done. “They know what the ethical rules are, at least they can
repeat them parrot-like, but they are void of meaning to them.” “No sense of conscience, guilt, or
remorse is present. Hamful acts are committed without discomfort or shame.”

Nonmoral -- means out of the realm or scope of morality altogether (e.g., inanimate obejcts, foods,
clothes).

Trans: From these differentiations of ethical terms, we can say then that our actions can be
categorized into two types.

Acts of Man - refer to the certain types of actions that are naturally exhibited by man and as such
they are morally indifferent because we cannot judge them to be either ethical or unethical.

Human Acts - are the actions that proceed from the deliberate freewill of a person. These actions
are therefore done with knowledge and consent and willfully carried out by the person. It is
characterized as the free and voluntary acts of man.

Components of Human Acts:

 1. Knowledge (intelligence) - it affirms that it is an act done with intelligence and
understanding. Doing an act with knowlege makes the act deliberate.

2. Freewill (voluntariness) - the idea that we are free agents, able to act as we please - is
fundamental to all ethical thinking.

3. Intent - it requires the presence of mind (knowledge), will (freedom), design and
purposiveness in the commission of an act.

Intent vis-a-vis Moral Dilemmas — is a problem about choices. When a choice-

problem relates between “two equally good or two equally evil,” such problem on choices
is a moral dilemma.

Trans: How do we come up or develop our morality?

Stages of Moral Development

4 Components of Moral Character

1. Ethical Sensitivity - this component refers to the capacity of a person to recognize the moral
dilemma by looking through the alternatives. The ability to consider possible actions and their
repercussions in terms of the people involved.

2. Ethical Judgment - the moral agent looks and weighs the fact and issues and tries to select the
most fitted action that is best morally justifiable. The consideration of possible alternative actions
and the rationale for selecting the best alternatives.

3. Ethical Motivation - the selection of moral values most relevant in the situation and the
commitment to act on that selection. The moral agent is induced or compelled by good reason to
confront the situation.

4. Ethical Action - this is the component where moral character is revealed and acted upon. The
action reveals a willingness to put the well-being of another ahead of a personal interest.

4 Theories of it’s Development (by Gordon Vessels and William Huitt)

1. The External/Social Theory - it views morality as a product of external imposition in the form of
consequences and the intentional transmission of social rules and norms.

2. The Internal Theory - it believes that human nature is essentially good and that unhealthy social
influences should not be allowed to thwart the natural development of the child’s predispositions
to think, feel, and act morally.

3. The Interaction Theory - this theory proposes that moral character development is in constant
struggles between biological predispositions to act selfishly and aggressively, and social pressures
to act in a prosocial manner.

4. The Personality/Identity Theory - this includes theories that find virtue rooted in personality and
personal indentity. Virtues as a combination of (a) natural predispositions and (b) interactions with
the environment that involve both reflection and commitment to moral values and behavior.
 3 Stages of Moral Development (Jean Piaget’s Theory of Moral Reasoning, developed by
Lawrence Kohlberg)

Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality

Stage 1 Punishment-Avoidance - children do not hold personal sense of morality. The sense of
right and wrong is shaped by the standards of the adults and children learned these through the
physical consequences of the action.
Stage 2 Instrumental Exchange - this stage opens up to a child the idea that there is no single view
of rightness and wrongness. There is in fact, a “market-place exchange of favors or blows.”

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Stage 3 Interpersonal Conformity - a person acts to gain approval of others. Good behavior is that
which pleases or helps others within the group. The concept of right is in conformity with the
stereotypical behavior and values expectations of one’s society or peers.
Stage 4 Law and Order - maintaining the social order implies awareness and respect for fixed
rules, laws, and properly constituted authority. The way to maintain law and order is by following
rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3: Post-Convetional
Stage 5 Prior Rights and the Social Contract - an individual acts out of mutual obligation and a
sense of public good. A person recognizes the obligation to respect laws and moral rules but in
some instances, these laws become arbitrary and somewhat not valid when they turn in conflict
with personal interests.
Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principles - these are applied to all without exceptions. People at this
stage have strong conviction to act and defend these principles even if it means going against the
rest of society or having to pay the consequences of disapproval and threat of imprisonment. The
moral reasoning is anchored on the idea that persons are never means to an end, but are ends in
themselves (e.g., equality, justice, human rights).

Major Approaches to the Study of Morality

Scientific or Descriptive Approach - this approach most often is used in the social sciences that
deals with human behavior and conduct. The emphasis here is empirical (observational); that is,
social scientists observe and collect data about human behavior and conduct and then draw
certain conclusions.

Philosophical Approach - this is consists of three parts:

Normative or Prescriptive Ethics - it encompasses the making of moral value judgments

rather than just the presentation or description of facts or data (this is from what is norm
or standard to what is ought to and should. In contrast to proscriptive which is a
prohibition of an act, e.g., 10 Commandments, don’t do).

Metaethics or Analytic Ethics - it does not describe or prescribe anything, instead it goes
beyond facts (Greek prefix meta), by analyzing the language (e.g., what we mean when
we use the word love is it just between heterosexuals or homosexuals?) and concentrating
on logic and reasoning.
 Two issues involved in the study of metaethics:

Metaphysical issues concerning whether morality exists independently among

humans.

Psychological issues concering the underlying mental basis (sources) of our moral
judgments and conducts.

Applied Ethics - the term refers to a field of ethics that deals with ethical questions specific
to profession, discipline, or practical realms. It proposes that right and wrong can be found
within scenarios and in particular issues of practical concerns (e.g., bioethics, social ethics,
environmental ethics, business ethics).

Trans: Where does morality come from? Why do humans have the concept of what is right or
wrong, good or bad, and moral or immoral? Where does this originate?

Origin of Morality (There are three ways suggesting answer to this question)

The Supernatural Theory (They come from some supernatural being) - it is the belief that values
come from some higher or supernatural beings or principles - god/s. Further, that these beings
or principles embody the highest goood themselves, and that they reveal to human beings what
is right and good and what is bad or wrong. If human beings want to be moral, then they must
follow these principles or the teachings of these beings (St. Thomas Aquinas argued for this view).

The Natural Law Theory (There are moral laws somehow embedded within nature itself or natural
law) - it is the belief that morality somehow is embodied in nature, and that there are “natural
laws” that human beings must adhere to if they are to be moral (Immanuel Kant’s ethical theory
is based on this).

The Value Existing Theory (The world and objects in it have value with or without the presence
of valuing human being) — it is the belief that things can have values and be classed as good, bad,
right, or wrong even in the absence of conscious being who can put value on these things. In
other words, if there are no human beings, there certainly “value” found in the symbiotic relation
or purpose things, plants, and animals fulfilled to other creatures (complementary roles - warmth
of the sun, shade of the trees, provision of food they ate and water the quenched their thirst).

Trans: Why do you think you should be good rather than bad?

Why Should Human Beings Be Moral?

There are possible suggestions on answering this question (without regard to human religious
propensity).
Enlightened Self-interest (related to Ethical Egoism) — it based on the concept that it is, at the very
least, generally better to be good rather than bad and to create a world and society that is good
rather than one that is bad. It is espoused in the idea “It’s in my self-interest to do good rather that
bad because I stand to benefit if I do and also because I could be ostracized or punished if I don’t.”

Argument from Tradition and Law — this argument suggests that because traditions and laws,
established over a long period of time, govern behavior of human beings, and because these
traditions and laws urge human beings to be moral rather that immoral, there are good reasons
for being so.

Common Human Needs — this is a contention that morality has come about because of human
need and through a recognition of the importance of living together in a cooperative and
significant way. And adhering to moral principle (social contract theory) enables human beings
to live their lives as peacefully, happily, creatively, and meaningfully as is possible.