Contents

INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................... 2
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES......................................................3
INTRODUCTIONS TO SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS...............................3
GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION.......................................................................................................... 5
FURTHER RESULTS ON SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS.............................................6
CHAPTER 2.............................................................................................................................................. 8
DETERMINANTS................................................................................................................................... 8
THE DETERMINANT FUNCTION......................................................................................... 8
EVALUATING DETERMINANTS BY ROW REDUCTION.....................................9
PROPERTIES OF THE DETERMINANT FUNCTION.................................................9
CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................................. 12
EXAMPLES............................................................................................................................................. 12
X,TRUE_SUR,MSE SIM,MSE ZHAO,MSE JIAN,MSE PZHAO,MSE PJIAN...................................................15
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................... 16
APPENDICES........................................................................................................................................ 17
VITA........................................................................................................................................................... 18
(ONLY MENTION DEGREES EARNED, NOT DEGREES IN PROGRESS)...............................18

INTRODUCTION

1
 This paper provides an elementary treatment of linear algebra that is
suitable for students in their freshman or sophomore year. Calculus is not a
prerequisite.
The aim in writing this paper is to present the fundamentals of linear alge-
bra in the clearest possible way. Pedagogy is the main consideration. Formalism
is secondary. Where possible, basic ideas are studied by means of computational
examples and geometrical interpretation.
The treatment of proofs varies. Those proofs that are elementary and hve sig-
nificant pedagogical content are presented precisely, in a style tailored for beginners.
A few proofs that are more difficult, but pedgogically valuable, are placed at the end
of of the section and marked “Optional”. Still other proofs are omitted
completely, with emphasis placed on applying the theorem.
Chapter 1 deals with systems of linear equations, how to solve them, and
some of their properties. It also contains the basic material on matrices and their
arithmetic properties.
Chapter 2 deals with determinants. I have used the classical permutation
approach. This is less abstract than the approach through n-linear alternative forms
and gives the student a better intuitive grasp of the subject than does an
inductive development.
Chapter 3 introduces vectors in 2-space and 3-space as arrows and develops the
analytic geometry of lines and planes in 3-space. Depending on the background of
the students, this chapter can be omitted without a loss of continuity.

2
 CHAPTER 1

SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES

INTRODUCTIONS TO SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

In this section we introduce base terminology and discuss a method for solving
systems of linear equations.
A line in the xy-plain can be represented algebraically by an equation of the
form
a1x + a2y = b

An equation of this kind is called a linear equation in the variables x and y. More
generally, we define a linear equation in the n variables x1, . . . , xn to be one that
can be expressed in the form

a1x1 + a2x2 + · · · + anxn = b (1.1)

where a1, a2, . . . an and b are real constants.

Definition. A finite set of linear equations in the variables x1, x2, . . . , xn is called
a system of linear equations.

Not all systems of linear equations has solutions. A system of equations that
has no solution is said to be inconsistent. If there is at least one solution, it is
called consistent. To illustrate the possibilities that can occur in solving systems of
linear equations, consider a general system of two linear equations in the unknowns
x and y:

a1x + b1y = c1

a2x + b2y = c2

3
The graphs of these equations are lines; call them l1 and l2. Since a point (x, y) lies
on a line if and only if the numbers x and y satisfy the equation of the line, the
solutions of the system of equations will correspond to points of intersection of l1
and l2. There are three possibilities:
l1 l2 l1 l2 l 1, l 2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.1. (a) no solution, (b) one solution, (c) infinitely many solutions

The three possiblities illustrated in Figure 1.1 are as follows:

(a) l1 and l2 are parallel, in which case there is no intersection, and consequently
no solution to the system.

(b) l1 and l2 intersect at only one point, in which case the system has exactly one
solution.

4
 (c) l1 and l2 coincide, in which case there are infinitely many points of
intersection, and consequently infinitely many solutions to the system.

Although we have considered only two equations with two unknowns here, we
will show later that this same result holds for arbitrary systems; that is, every system
of linear equations has either no solutions, exactly one solution, or infinitely many
solutions.

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
In this section we give a systematic procedure for solving systems of linear
equations; it is based on the idea of reducing the augmented matrix to a form that
is simple enough so that the system of equations can be solved by inspection.

Remark. It is not difficult to see that a matrix in row-echelon form must have zeros
below each leading 1. In contrast a matrix in reduced row-echelon form must
have zeros above and below each leading 1.

As a direct result of Figure 1.1 on page 3 we have the following important

theorem.

Theorem 1.2.1. A homogenous system of linear equations with more unknowns

than equations always has infinitely many solutions

The definition of matrix multiplication requires that the number of columns of

the first factor A be the same as the number of rows of the second factor B in order
to form the product AB. If this condition is not satisfied, the product is
undefined. A convenient way to determine whether a product of two matrices is
defined is to write down the size of the first factor and, to the right of it, write
down the size of the second factor. If, as in Figure 1.2, the inside numbers are
the same, then the product is defined. The outside numbers then give the size of
the product.

5
 A B AB
m × r × = m × n
r n
inside
outside

Figure 1.2. Inside and outside numbers of a matrix

multiplica- tion problem of A×B = AB, showing how the inside
dimensions are dropped and the dimensions of the product are
the outside dimenions.

Although the commutative law for multiplication is not valid in matrix

arith- metic, many familiar laws of arithmetic are valid for matrices. Some of the
most important ones and their names are summarized in the following
proposition.

Proposition 1.2.2. Assuming that the sizes of the matrices are such that the in-

dicated operations can be performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are

valid.

(a) A+B =B+A (Commutative law for addition)

(b) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (Associative law for addition)

(c) A(BC) = (AB)C (Associative law for multiplication)

FURTHER RESULTS ON SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

In this section we shall establish more results about systems of linear equations
and invertibility of matrices. Our work will lead to a method for solving n equations
in n unknowns that is more efficient than Gaussian elimination for certain kinds of
problems.

6
Some Important Theorems
Theorem 1.3.1. If A is an invertible n × n matrix, then for each n × 1 matrix B,
the system of equations AX = B has exactly one solution, namely, X = A−1 B.

Proof. Since A(A−1B) = B, X = A−1 B is a solution of AX = B. To show

that this is the only solution, we will assume that X0 is an arbitrary solution, and
then show
0
that X must be the solution A−1 B.

If X0 is any solution, then AX = B. Multiplying both sides by A−1 , we

obtain
X0 = A−1 B.

Theorem 1.3.2. Let A be a square matrix.

(a) If B is a square matrix satisfying BA = I,then B = A−1 .

(b) If B is a square matrix satisfying AB = I, then B = A−1 .

In our later work the following fundamental problem will occur over and over
again in various contexts.
Let A be fixed m × n matrix. Find all m × 1 matrices B such that the system
of equations AX = B is consistent.
If A is an invertible matrix, Theorem 1.3.2 completely solves this problem by
asserting that for every m×n matrix B, AX = B has the unique solution X =
A−1 B.

7
 CHAPTER 2

DETERMINANTS

THE DETERMINANT FUNCTION

We are all familiar with functions lilke f(x) = sin x and f(x) = x2, which
associate a real number f(x) with a real value of the variable x. Since both x
and f(x) assume only real values, such functions can be described as real-valued
functions of a matrix variable, that is, functions that associate a real number
f(X) with a matrix X.
Before we shall be able to define the determinant function, it will be necessary
to establish some results concerning permutations.

Definition. A permutation of the set of integers {1, 2, . . . , n} is an arrangement of

these integers in some order without ommissions or repetitions.

Example 2.1.1. There are six different permutations of the set of integers {1, 2, 3}.
These are

(1, 2, 3)(2, 1, 3)(3, 1, 2) (2.1)

(1, 3, 2)(2, 3, 1)(3, 2, 1) (2.2)

One convenient method of systematically listing permutations is to use a per-

mutation tree. This method will be illustrated in our next example.

Example 2.1.2. List all permutations of the set of integers {1, 2, 3, 4}

Solution. By drawing a permutation tree with each branch representing all four
numbers, we see that there are a total of 24 possible permutations.

8
 EVALUATING DETERMINANTS BY ROW REDUCTION
In this section we show that the determinant of a matrix can be evaluated by re-
ducing the matrix to row-echelon form. This method is of importance since it avoids
the lengthy computations involved directly applying the determinant definition.
We first consider two class of matrices whose determinants can be easily eval-
uated, regardless of the size of the matrix.

Theorem 2.2.1. If A is any square matrix that contains a row of zeros, then
det(A) = 0.

Theorem 2.2.2. If A is an n × n triangular matrix, then det(A) is the product of

the entries on the main diagonal; that is det(A) = a11a22 · · · amn.

Example 2.2.1. Evaluate det(A) where

 
1 2
A=   (2.3)

3 4

Some Final Conclusions

It should be evident from the examples in this section that whenever a
square matrix has two proportional rows (like the first and second rows of A), it is
possible to introduce a row of zeros by adding a suitable mutliple of one of these
rows to the other. Thus, if a square matrix has two proportional rows, its
determinant is zero. In the next section we consider some examples of linear
algebra functions ex- pressed in table form – primarily to see the list of tables
command works in Latex.

PROPERTIES OF THE DETERMINANT FUNCTION

In this section we develop some of the fundamental properties of the
determi- nant function. our work here will give us some further insight into the
relationship

9
between a square matrix and its determinant. One of the immediate consequences of
this material will be an important determinant test for the invertibility of a matrix
Consider Table 2.1 and its implications in the area of linear algebra.

Function 1 2 3

Value 2.45 34.12 1.00

Determinant 0 0 0

Inverse 1 1 1

Table 2.1. An example table showing how centering works with

extended captioning.

It should be evident from the examples in this section that whenever a square
matrix has two proportional rows (like the first and second rows of A), it is possible

10
to introduce a row of zeros by adding a suitable mutliple of one of these rows to the
other. Thus, if a square matrix has two proportional rows, its determinant is zero.
We hope this has given some insights into the basics of linear algebra and its
impact on the world around us. We leave you now with two encapsulated postscript
graphs which illustrate the main points discussed in this paper.

Figure 2.1. An encapsulated postscript file.

0.5

-10 -5 0 5t 10

-0.5

-1

Figure 2.2. A second encapsulated postscript file.

11
 CHAPTER 3

EXAMPLES

Some examples of the definitions found in the file ps-defs.tex follow below.
Here are examples of how you can use equation numbers with multiple line
equations.

(f + (g + h))(a) = f(a) + (g + h)(a)

= f(a) + (g(a) + h(a)) (3.1)

= (f(a) + g(a)) + h(a)

= (f + g)(a) + h(a)

= ((f + g) + h)(a) (3.2)

(f + (g + h))(a) = f(a) + (g + h)(a)

= f(a) + (g(a) + h(a))

= (f(a) + g(a)) + (3.3)

h(a)

= (f + g)(a) + h(a)

= ((f + g) + h)(a)

(f + (g + h))(a) = f(a) + (g + h)(a)

= f(a) + (g(a) + h(a))

= (f(a) + g(a)) + h(a)

= (f + g)(a) + h(a)

= ((f + g) + h)(a)

12
 Below is a figure which shows how to line up small figures on multiple lines.
The .dvi version is immediately below. The .pdf version may be found underneath
the complete figure and commented out. If you exchange the sections commented
out, then you can compile a .pdf file.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 3.1. Two rows of graphics: (a) Square (b) Circle (c) Rectangle

13
 Three figures across the page requires fairly small figures to fit within the Grad-
uate School margins.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 3.2. Three rows of graphics: (a)–(c) Squares. (d)–

(f) Circles. (g)–(i) Ovals.

14
 The verbatim environment can be useful when using data from a spreadsheet
as is done below.

X,TRUE_SUR,MSE SIM,MSE ZHAO,MSE JIAN,MSE PZHAO,MSE PJIAN

0.0 0.7520 0.03864 0.01407 0.01407 0.01180 0.01223
4.0 0.7273 0.04079 0.01675 0.01675 0.01479 0.01551
8.0 0.7035 0.04203 0.01923 0.01923 0.01675 0.01817
12.0 0.6524 0.04581 0.02157 0.02135 0.01932 0.02043
16.0 0.6029 0.05146 0.02345 0.02266 0.02304 0.02320
20.0 0.5551 0.05343 0.02498 0.02393 0.02627 0.02509
24.0 0.5089 0.05449 0.02677 0.02453 0.02936 0.02641
28.0 0.4641 0.05706 0.02901 0.02442 0.03315 0.02722
32.0 0.4209 0.05719 0.02910 0.02341 0.03558 0.02776
36.0 0.3790 0.05656 0.02974 0.02229 0.03745 0.02667
40.0 0.3385 0.05518 0.02940 0.02119 0.03864 0.02618
44.0 0.2994 0.05344 0.02989 0.02054 0.03928 0.02531
48.0 0.2615 0.04950 0.02803 0.01906 0.03855 0.02414
52.0 0.2249 0.04582 0.02712 0.01812 0.03849 0.02229
56.0 0.1895 0.04101 0.02454 0.01578 0.03632 0.01918
60.0 0.1552 0.03564 0.02282 0.01315 0.03372 0.01629
64.0 0.1220 0.03216 0.02124 0.00997 0.03188 0.01391
68.0 0.0900 0.02420 0.01730 0.00688 0.02551 0.01070
72.0 0.0590 0.01592 0.01254 0.00363 0.01811 0.00622
76.0 0.0290 0.00865 0.00838 0.00110 0.00886 0.00368

Figure 3.3. Use of verbatim environment

On the following page is an example of how to rotate text that is too long to
fit within the horizontal margins that are required.

15
 REFERENCES

[1] Anton, H., Elementary Linear Algebra, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977.
[2] Huang, X. and Krantz, S.G., On a problem of Moser, Duke Math. J. 78
(1995), 213–228.
[3] Kellog, O.D., Harmonic functions and Green’s integral, Trans. Amer. Math.
Soc. 13 (1912), 109–132.
[4] Kruzhilin, N.G., Local automorphisms and mappings of smooth strictly pseudo-
convex hypersurfaces, (Russian), Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 271 (1983), 280–
282.
[5] Macdonald, I.G., Symmetric Functions and Hall Polynomials, Second
edition, Clarendon, Oxford, 1995.
[6] Rasulov, K.M., Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 252 (1980), 1059–1063; English transl.
in Soviet Math. Dokl. 21 (1980).
[7] Rasulov, K.M., Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 270 (1983), 1061–1065; English transl.
in Soviet Math. Dokl. 27 (1983).
 APPENDICES

**(No Page Number)**

17
 VITA

Graduate School
Southern Illinois University

James Smith Date of Birth: July 01, 1975

2244 West College Street, Carebondale, Illinois 62901
1001 South Walnut Street, Chicago, Illinois, 60411

email address (email after graduation)

Southern Illinois University at Carbondale

Bachelor of Science, Mathematics, May
1998
(ONLY MENTION DEGREES EARNED, NOT DEGREES IN PROGRESS)

Special Honors and Awards: (OMIT IF NONE)

Research Paper Title:

A Sample Research Paper on Aspects of Elementary Linear Algebra

Major Professor: Dr. J. Jones

Publications: (OMIT IF NONE)

18