CHAPTER XII TOOL MARK

Tool - is an instrument or object capable of making a mark on another object.

Tool Mark - Is any impression, cut, scratch, gouge, or abrasion, or any marking left on an object by
another harder object or instrument.

Classification of Tool Marks

1.Negative impression

- it is made when a tool is pressed against or into a receiving surface.

- this type of mark is usually made when a crowbar is used to pry open a door or a window

2.Abrasion or friction mark

- is made when a tool cuts into or slices across a surface.

- this type of mark may be made by a pair of pliers, a bolt cutter, knife, ax, saw, drill, plane

Cut lock compared to a test cut from the suspect’s bolt cutters

3.Combination mark

- is made when a crowbar is forcefully inserted into the space between a door and the door facing and
pressure is applied to the handle of the tool to force the door open.

- the forceful insertion of the crowbar produces an abrasion or friction mark and leaving action produces
a negative impression.

Application of Tool Mark

1.Knife marks on bone

2.Fractured knife blades

3.Homemade explosive devises

4.Crimp marks on detonation

5.Cut marks on wire

6.Pry marks on a window or doors

 Glass Fragments and Fractures

What is Glass? It is a super cooled liquid which possesses high viscosity and rigidity (Urbano, 2008)

It is a fusion of sand (SiO2), soda (Na2CO3) & lime (CaO) that produces a transparent solid when cooled.

It usually composed of oxides like silica, boric oxide, and phosphorous pentoxide

• Spectrographic test

-determines the presence of trace elements.

-shows constituents elements.

• X-ray diffraction test

-determines the type of pattern of glass that is dependent upon glass composition.

• Physical properties examination

-Measuring density – by flotation method

-Measuring the refractive index – by immersion method

• Ultraviolet light examination

- differences in the appearance of fluorescent.

• Polish marks

- for optical glass and other fine glasswares.

GLASS FRACTURES - may caused by excessive exposure to heat or caused by impact of a blunt
instrument or object or caused by projectiles.

RADIAL FRACTURES

-primary fracture resembles the spokes of a wheel where the radiating rod originates at a common
point.

-when glass breaks, the line that radiate from the hole are caused by the glass bending away from the
point of impact.

-originate on the opposite side of the glass, because this is the surface which is the first to feel the
tension.

-when the limit of the glad elasticity is reached, it breaks, with cracking resulting along
CONCENTRIC FRACTURES

- secondary fracture having the appearance of circles around the point of impact connecting one
radiating crack to the other, thus forming triangular pieces of glass.

-also bends away from the direction of force.

-originate on the front of the glass.

CONCHOIDAL FRACTURES

-a characteristic of glass is that when it breaks, the fracture edges appear shell-like in form.

Radial cracks - form first and are propagated in short segments on the side opposite the force.

Concentric cracks - come later from continued pressure on the same side as the force applied.

Tempered glass

-“dices” without forming ridges

- Tempered glass is often referred to as safety glass because it is more resistant to breakage than normal
float glass.

b. Position of the Shooter

1.Perpendicular Shot

-exhibits an even distribution of chippings on the exit of the glass.

2.Angle from the right

-heavy flakings or chippings on the left side of the glass.

3.Angle from the left

-heavy flakings on the right side of the glass.

c. Age of the fracture

1.Fresh Fracture

-exhibits a regular pattern of radial/concentric fracture.

2.Old Fracture
-presence of a short extension lines at the end of the radial fracture.

‘’HAIR’’

HAIR - Is the outermost covering of the different parts of the body with the exception of the palm of the
hand and the sole of the foot.

Through microscopic examination:

-forensic examiner will first determine if the hair samples are of animal or human origin.

-if the hair is of animal origin, a general determination as to species may be made.

In case of human hair, the following can be determined:

1.The race of the person the hair originated from.

STRUCTURAL PART OF THE HAIR

A. INNER ASPECT:

1.Cuticle

-outermost part which is scale-like in appearance.

2.Cortex

-the innermost portion that contains the pigment

3. Medulla

-the central canal of the hair.

B. OUTER ASPECT:

1.Tip

-the distal end portion of the hair.

2.Shaft

-portion of the hair above the surface of the skull.

3.Root

-portion that is embedded in the skin.

ULTRAVIOLET, FIBER, TAPE AND PAINT

ULTRAVIOLET EXAMINATION

 Is a method of scientific examination of evidence using UV Light.

 Weapons, chemicals, minerals, petroleum products and other evidence may be routinely
observed under the UV lamp.

A. Fluorescing fingerprint powders

B. UV sensitive dye stains
C. Skin tissue examination
D. Darkens blood impressions
E. Fluorescing fluids for refrigerants
F. Luminescence backgrounds for contrast improvement
Methods of examination

 Only suitable UV lamp and darkrooms are necessary for UV examination.

 The room should contain adequate table space on which garments and other items to be
examined may be spread.

 All subjects will be placed under UV Lamp.

Fiber

Fabric, composed of knotted woven yarn, shall be examined in terms of color, composition and
construction

Tape

 The examination is similar to fabrics examination which generally involves the matching of the
ends of pieces of tapes used at the scene of the crime with the end of tape roll found in the
possession of a suspect.

 Cordage in the form of rope and string is examined in terms of composition, color, diameter
and construction.

 The known sample is compared with the unknown and occasionally, ends may be matched or
the manufacturer may be determined.

Paint

 Paint is examined and compared by using a microscope to determine the colour, texture,
layer, structure and any unique characteristics which may serve as points of similarity or
dissimilarity.

 Paint specimen or scraping is further analyzed using a Quarts Spectrograph in determining and
comparing the elemental composition of the questioned and standard.

 A very small amount of specimen is sufficient and even trace elements can be detected. The
spectrum resulting from burning a small particle of paint between carbon electrode is
recorded on a photographic plate which becomes a permanent record.
 MACRO-ETCHING

MACRO-ETCHING - Also known as Acid – etching methodA technique employed in number

restoration which involves the application of chemical solution on the metal surface where the
serial number is normally located.

Chemicals/ Reagents used in Macro – etching Examination

1. For iron and steel:

Cupric Chloride + Hydrochloride Acid + Water

2. For aluminum:

Nitric Acid + Water

3. For lead:

Glacial acetic acid + Hydrogen peroxide

Number Restoration

 When a letter or number is stamped into a metal surface, a molecular disturbance

occurs beneath the visible portion of the letter or number erased.

Serial Number

 A series of number that is punched or pressed into a particular object/material to

distinguish that object from one another.

A serial number is sometimes preceded with or followed by letters and symbols.

Serial Number Restoration

 Firearms are “stamped” with an identification serial number. These numbers are linked to the
buyer of the firearm.

 Identification numbers are usually etched on the metal body, frame or plate of the gun.

 Many times, criminals “erase” the serial number and it has to be restored once the weapon is at
the crime lab.
Serial Number Restoration

 To restore a serial number that has been removed or obliterated, the area must be thoroughly
cleaned and polished. An etching reagent is applied which will react with the strained area
faster than the unaltered metal, allowing the numbers to appear.

Types of Numbers

1. Stamped Numbers – numbers that is pressed or punched into a metal surface.

2. Engraved Numbers – number that is pressed intendedly using a electrical or mechanical gadget.

3. Embossed Numbers – numbers that is raised from the surface.

Preliminary Examination in number restoration

 Important points in the preliminary examination in number restoration:

1. A careful search for the location of the serial number must be made before the start of the
restoration process.

2. Grease and oil must be removed using gasoline, alcohol, etc.

3. Clean or polish the area using sandpaper.

4. Photograph the effected area.

Spot detection of tampered/obliterated serial number:

1. Presence of any sign of welding surrounding the serial number.

2. Presence of several scratches and filing marks on the serial surface.

3. Presence of any sign of concavity on the serial number surface.

4. Presence of any difference in the style of letters and numbers.

5. Appearance of fragmentary marks which could not be properly identified because part of it is
superimposed by letters and numbers.

6. Presence of any difference in the spacing of individual letters and numbers.

7. Disalignment of letters and numbers.

8. 8. Absence of one or more letters before, in between or after a set of sequential numbers.

9. 9. Letters and numbers are stamped on places where the serial is normally located.
 10. 10. Sizes of letters and numbers are sharper and coarser than the others.

11. 11. Presence of any irregularities in the depth of individual letters and numbers.

12. 12. Model of the vehicle in the chassis number does not tally with that of the rating plate.

13. 13. Absence of rating plate.

14. 14. Alteration of the production number.

LIQUOR TEST

What is the purpose of this test?

 To determine whether or not a person is intoxicated with liquor.

 This test is being conducted to determine the amount of ethyl alcohol present in the blood
sample taken from the person suspected to have been intoxicated with alcohol.

TOXICOLOGY

Toxicology - is a scientific study of poisons, their nature, properties, effects and detection and the
treatment in case of poisoning.

Toxicology - deals with poisons, their origin, physical and chemical properties, effects and
treatment and methods of detection.

Importance of Toxicology
a. to verify if it is a case of poisoning
b. to be able to treat as the occasion demands
c. to forward justice
Poison - is the substance that when introduced in to or absorbed by a living organism causes death or
injury.

Types of Poisons
1. True poison- is one that still poisons no matter how diluted it is.
E.g. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

2. Corrosive Poison- is one which by contact with it chemically produces local destruction of tissues.
 E.g. Nitric acid (HNO3)

3. Cumulative Poison- is one that increases suddenly in its intensity of action after gradual additions of
it.
E.g. digitalis; arsenic

Types of Poisoning
A. Acute poisoning - one in which there is prompt and marked disturbance of function or death
within a shorter of time and is due to:
1. taking a strong poison
2. excessive single dose
3. several doses, small but frequent.

B. Chronic Poisoning – kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of functions of tissues
and may or may not result in death.

1. taking several small doses at long intervals

2. Taking only toxic doses of the drug

Three Major Case Load Areas

1. Police Cases - toxicological aspects of criminal investigations.

2. Postmortem cases - analytical studies In support of the medical examiner to determine the cause of
death.

3. Drug Abuse Cases - resulting from the illegal use of drugs

Evidence of Poisoning

1. Circumstantial or moral evidence - Is an evidence deduced from occurrence of facts and

circumstances.
Ex. Motives for poisoning, purchasing the poison, keeping the materials used.
2. Symptomatic evidence - includes the symptoms observed during the poisoning.
Ex. Arsenic poisoning is like choler; alcoholic coma may stimulate diabetic coma.
3. Chemical evidence - obtained by chemical analysis of the suspect substance or the vomit or secretion
of the body.
4. Postmortem evidence – obtained from the examination of the tissues and organs after death.
5. Experimental evidence - obtained by administering the suspected substance to some living animal
and noting the effect of symptoms.
2 Stages of Methods of Examination

1. Isolation - when the submitted specimen is in pure form, the poison must first be isolated.
A. Volatile poisons - isolated by extraction with alcohol and chloroform.
B. Non-volatile poisons - isolated by extraction with organic solvents such as strychnine and
other alkaloids.
C. Metallic poisons - these are poisons such as arsenic, mercury and lead
d. Other substances requiring special methods of isolation like corrosive acids.
2. Identification - the method employed for the identification of poison is specific. Preliminary tests
should be conducted. Such test include microscopic examination and flame tests.

History of Modern Technology

Paracelsus - (16th Century) German Swiss physician/alchemist who first stressed the chemical
nature of poison and its action by experimentation. He introduced dose concept.
Prof. Matthieu Orfila - (19th Century) attending physician to Louis XVIII, correlated chemistry of
toxins with the biological effects it produces in a poisoned individual.

Four Elements Of Poisoning

1. Poison
2. The Poisoned Organism
3. The injury to the cells
4. The symptoms and the signs of death

CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS
A. Classification based on origin
1. Animal/toxin - a poison produced by living organism stimulating
antibodies.
2. Vegetable - Poison Ivy and Jimsonwood weed plants
3. Mineral - Hydrochloric Acid, caustic alkali
4. Microbial - produced by microscopic organisms
ex. Bacteria and fungi
5. Synthetic - manufactured by chemists such as drugs, pesticides as well as chemical purified
from natural sources such as metals from ores and solvents from gasoline.

B. According to chemical properties

1. Volatile poisons - compounds that can be isolated using steam distillation and analyzed using
Gas Chromatography with thermal head attached on it.
Ex. (acidic medium) cyanide, ethanol, methanol, nitrobenzene.
2. Non-volatile poisons - most drugs are non-volatile
3. Anions – carbonate, sulfite, nitrate
 4. Secondary 
5. Miscellaneous (e.g. Pesticides)
C. Classification based on Physical Form or Property
1. Solid – not well absorbed into the blood
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Vapor
5. Aerosol – hairspray

D. According to action (Physiological)

1. Irritants – by direct contact, this poison inflames the mucous membrane o parts it comes in contact
with.
ex. Bromine
True Irritants - bromine, chloride, cotton oil
2. Corrosives - direct contact, chemically produces local destruction of tissues. Ex. Disinfectant
3. Neurotics - affect the central nervous system
a. Cerebral neurotics: Narcotics
ex. Alcohol, opuim, tabacco
b. Spinal Neurotics: Tetanics
ex. Strychnine, picrotoxin
c. Cerebrospinal Neurotics
i. Deliriants- ex. Cannabis indica, cocaine
ii. Depressants- ex. Antipyrine, lobella
4. Aesthetics/Exhaustive - cause mark loss of vital or muscular power or general weakness.
Ex. Acotine, KCN, Digitalis

According to their effects on the body/target sites

1. those which cause local destruction (skin)-
phenol, HCI
2. Blood Poisons- carbon Monoxide (CO) Hydroxide Cyanide
3. Nervous Poisons (nervous system)
4. Cardiac poisons (Cardiovascular system)

Factors in Determining the Dissolution Rate

1. Solubility
2. size of Granules
Solubility of the Drugs

Dose - the greater the size the greater the effect. This is not always true.

The Physical State or Form of Poison

Dilution- when the poison is diluted, the absorption is rapid, thus, resulting to intense toxic effect.

Mode of administration
poison is more rapidly absorbed when injected in the veins than when taken orally.

Posology - is a science which deals with the study of the dosage of medicine to be administered within a
certain period.

Medicine - any substance which can be administered to correct or to alleviate the disease or disordered
state of the system.

Dose- quantity of medicine to be administered at one time.

Types of Dose

 SAFE DOSE – is one that does not cause harmful effects. Sometimes, however, it may be too
small to produce the desired effects.

 MINIMUM DOSE – is the smallest amount of medicine that can produce the desired therapeutic
effect without causing harm

 MAXIMUM DOSE – is the largest amount that will cause no injury but at the same time produce
the desired therapeutic effects

 TOXIC or POISONOUS DOSE – is one that is harmful both to the healthy and the sick

 LETHAL or FATAL DOSE – is the dose that kills

ANTIDOTES

 Is any agent that neutralizes a poison or otherwise counteracts or opposes its effects.

 ACTION – to act as an antidote, it may:

 Remove the poison from the body:emetic

 It may mechanically prevent its absorption (Demulcent):cathartic

 It may change the physical state or chemical composition (e.g. Na2SO4 for Barium)
  It may act upon the functions of the body so as to overcome the effects of its
absorption.

Kinds of Antidotes

 Chemical or true or specific

 Mechanical antidote or antidotal measure

 Physiological antidote or antagonist or symptomatic antidote

Chemical, True or Specific Antidote

 Is one that makes the poison harmless by chemically altering it.

Mechanical Antidote or Antidotal Measure

 Is an agent that removes the poison without changing it; coats the surface of the organ so that
absorption is prevented.

Physiological Antidote/ Symptomatic (Antagonist)

 Is an agent that acts upon the system so as to counteract the effects of the poison

 Emetics – is an agent that causes vomiting.

 Cathartic – is an agent that produces intestinal evacuation

 USES of CATHARTICS:

 To remove the compound that is formed by the action of the chemical antidote.

 To hasten elimination of poison

 Demulcent – is an agent that forms a protective film; soothes and protects the parts where
demulcent is applied

 Precipitants – are substances that prevent absorption of poisons by precipitating them and
rendering them insoluble.

Causes of Death in Poisoning

1. Cardiac Failure

2. Respiratory Failure

3. General Devitalizing
 4. Shock t the nervous system

Forensic Chemistry

 Serology

- is the term used to describe a broad scope of laboratory tests which used to specific antigen
and serum antibody reactions.

- the scientific study of plasma serum and other bodily fluids.

- the term usually refers to the diagnostic identification of antibodies in serum.

Blood

 Is been called the circulating tissue of the body

 Referred to as highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes proteins and inorganic substances.

 It is opaque.

Composition Of Blood

1. 45% Formed elements or Solid materials consisting chiefly of cells (Suspended Solid Cells)

 Erythrocytes (RBC) - contains haemoglobin and carry oxygen to the various cells in the
body.

 Leukocytes (WBC) - are masses of nucleated protoplasm. It defends the body from
invading microorganisms. It helps fight infection.

 Thrombocytes - cells that are produce by a bone marrow and are necessary for proper
clotting of blood.

2. 55% Plasma- the fluid portion of the blood where the cells are suspended. It is principally composed
of:

a. Water 90%

b. Solid (solutes) 10%

  Albumen - The most abundant protein in the blood.

 Globulins- has an important role in the immune mechanism of the body. It carries drugs as well
as sex and thyroid hormones, lipids and iron.

 Fibrinogen-the soluble precursor of fibrin, which forms blood clot.

 Plasma-the yellowish fluids of the blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended. A
straw yellow liquid formed when blood to which an oxalate has been added to prevent clotting
is allowed to stand.

 Serum- a straw yellow liquid formed when clotted is allowed to stand for some time and blood
contracts.

BLOOD CHARACTERIZATION

Spot test- test for presence of blood.

a. Benzidine test- presumptive test for the presence of blood.

b. Kastle Meyer test- using phenolphthalien and hydrogen peroxide forming pink
discoloration due to the presence of peroxidase (enzyme) activity of the blood
haemoglobin.

c. Luminol Test- a spray reagent used to test for the presence of blood even if it is not
visible under ordinary light. This is viewed using UV lamp.

d. Takayama test

Teichmann Test

Test used for determination

1. precipitin Test- antigen and antibody reaction forming precipitate.

2. gel diffusion – using agar test for human blood.

3. Electrophoresis

The chronological test for Blood

1. Preliminary test

2. Confirmatory test

3. Precipitin test

4. Blood grouping test

Blood Clotting

 When a protein in blood called fibrin is trapped and enmeshes red blood cells, blood clotting
occurs.

 Removing clotted blood yields a yellowish liquid called serum.

 This yellowish liquid contains certain protiens known as antibodies.

 The serum that contains antibodies is called antiserum.

Bloodstain Pattern

 Bloodstain and patterns are useful for interpreting and reconstruction of events that occurred
during bleeding.