5-62 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Section Microwave Read it

till it
19 Engineering Hertz!

DEFINITION. Microwaves: A type of electromagnetic wave whose

wavelength ranges from 1.0 mm to 30 cm, used in radar, to carry radio
transmissions, and in cooking or heating devices.

DEFINITION. Microwave Link: A widely employed broadband transmission

medium commonly used to transport the analog FDM or digital PCM.

DEFINITION. Line Of Sight: Straight path, unobstructed by the horizon,

between a transmitting and receiving antenna.

A. .ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE SYSTEMS.

1. The gain of an antenna is proportional to its electrical size. Therefore,

one can construct high-gain antennas at microwave frequencies that
are physically small.

2. A 1% bandwidth provides more frequency range at microwave

frequencies than that of HF.

3. Microwave signals travel predominantly by LOS. Plus they don’t reflect

off the ionosphere like RF signals.

4. At microwave frequencies, the electromagnetic properties of many

materials are changing with frequency. This is due to molecular,
atomic, and nuclear resonance. This behavior is useful for remote
sensing and other applications.

5. There is much less background noise at microwave frequencies than at

RF.

6. Microwave systems do not require a right-of-way acquisition between

stations.

7. Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification.

8. Underground facilities are minimized.

9. Increased reliability and less maintenance.

Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-63

B. .LINE OF SIGHT MICROWAVE SYSTEMS.

1. Microwave Frequency Bands

Band Frequency
Region
Designation (GHz)
L 1-2

Microwave Region
(30 cm to 8 mm)
S 2-4
C 4-8
X 8-12
Ku 12-18
K 18-27
Ka 27-40
U 40-60
Millimeter

Region

V 60-80
Wave

W 80-110
Mm 110-300

2. Procedures of Microwave (Radio Link) Engineering

i. Selection of sites (radio equipment plus tower locations) that are

in line-of-sight of each other.
ii. Selection of an operating frequency band.
iii. Development of path profiles to determine radio tower heights.
iv. Path calculations
v. Making a path survey
vi. Establishment of a frequency plan and necessary operational
parameters.
vii. Equipment configuration to achieve the fade margins set in step 4
most economically.
viii. Installation.
ix. Beam alignment (Boresighting), equipment lineup, checkout, and
acceptance by a customer.

For Your Information…

Origin of Names…
Band Meaning Band Meaning
L Long wave Ku Kurz-under
S Short wave K Kurz
C Compromise Ka Kurz-above
X Cross V Very

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5-64 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

3. Types Of Path

i. Line of Sight
The straight path (LOS) between a transmitting and receiving
antenna unobstructed by the horizon.

ii. Grazing Path

The microwave beam barely touches the obstruction (zero
clearance).

iii. Obstructed Path

The microwave beam is hindered by an obstruction.

4. The K-Curve
A numerical figure that considers the non-ideal condition of the
atmosphere resulting to atmospheric refraction that causes the ray
beam to be bent toward the earth or away from the earth.

Effective earth radius re

k = =
True earth radius ro

k<1

k=∞

k>1

K-curve Conditions
i. Sub-standard condition
Under this condition, the microwave
beam is bent away from the earth, it
k <1 is as if we expanded the earth
curvature (bulge) or raised it up
toward the beam above its true
value.
ii. Standard condition

Under this condition, the fictitious

4 earth radius appears to the
k= microwave beams to be longer than
3
the true earth radius.
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-65

iii. Super-standard condition

This condition results in an effective

4
k> flattening of the equivalent earth’s
3 curvature.

iv. Infinity Condition (Flat Earth Condition)

This condition results to zero

curvature (as if the earth is flat) and
k=∞ the microwave beam follows the
curvature of the earth.

5. Earth Bulge (eb)

The number of feet or meters an obstacle is raised higher in elevation
(into the path) owing to earth curvature or earth bulge.

d1(mi)d2(mi) d1(km)d2(km)
eb(ft) = eb(m) =
1.5 12.75

Sample Problem:
Calculate the earth bulge 2 mi, 10 mi, 22 mi away from a transmitter for a
25 mi terrestrial microwave link.

Solution:
For 2 miles;
d1d2 2(25 − 2)
eb = = = 30.67 feet
1.5 1.5
For 10 miles;
d1d2 10(25 − 10)
eb = = = 100 feet
1.5 1.5

For 22 miles;
d1d2 22(25 − 22)
eb = = = 44 feet
1.5 1.5

For Your Information…

If we consider atmospheric refraction that may cause the ray beam to be bent
toward or away from the earth we must include the k-factor to the earth bulge
equation.

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5-66 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Effective Earth Bulge Equation (Earth Curvature)

d1(mi)d2(mi) d1(km)d2(km)
eb(ft) = eb(m) =
1.5k 12.75k

Sample Problem:
Calculate the effective height of a 100 ft obstruction situated 10 mi from the
receiving end of a 25 mi radio link for the following values of k;
a. 4/3 b. ½ c. 5/2

Solution:
He = Hactual + Effective Earth Bulge

When k=4/3
10(25 − 10)
He = 100 + = 175 feet
⎛4⎞
1.5⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠

When k=½
10(25 − 10)
He = 100 + = 300 feet
⎛1⎞
1.5⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
When k=5/2
10(25 − 10)
He = 100 + = 140 feet
⎛5⎞
1.5⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠

6. Effective Earth Radius

where:
ro NS = Surface refractivity
re(km) =
1 − 0.04665 e(0.005577NS ) ro = true earth radius
= 6370 km

7. Sea Level Refractivity

where:
NS = N0 x e −0.1057hS N0 = Sea level refractivity
hs = height of potential site in km
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-67

Sample Problem:
Determine the surface refractivity for a potential microwave site 250 m
above sea level with a sea level refractivity of 312 and also calculate the
effective earth radius.

Solution:
For the surface refractivity
250
−0.1057 x
NS = Noe −0.1057ht = 312 x e 1000 = 303.86

For the effective earth radius

ro 6370 km
re = =
0.005577NS
1 - 0.04665e 1 − 0.04665e 0.005577(3 03.86)
= 8,539 km

8. Antenna Height

d1(mi)d2(mi) d1(km)d2(km)
hTX(ft) = hTX(m) =
2 17

9. Radio Range (Standard condition, K=4/3)

D(mi) = 2hT(ft) + 2hR(ft) D(km) ≅ 4 hT(m) + 4 hR(m)

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5-68 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Sample Problem:
Calculate the maximum range for a microwave link for which the antenna heights
are 100 and 60 ft.

Solution:
D = 2hT + 2hR = 2(100) + 2(60) = 25.1 mi

10. Approximate relation between Path length and frequency

As a general rule, the lower the frequency, the farther the microwave
link. Thus, a general estimate can be made as to the approximate
range of frequencies which may be used for specific distance:

Frequency Approximate Path Length

8 GHz 30 miles maximum
10.5 GHz 25 miles maximum
18 GHz 18 miles maximum
23 GHz 10 miles maximum

B. .FRESNEL CLEARANCE.

It derives from electromagnetic wave theory that a wavefront has

expanding properties as it travels through space. This factor must be
added to the obstacle height to obtain an effective obstacle height.
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-69

Fresnel Zone Radius

The amount of additional clearance that must be allowed to avoid
problems with the Fresnel phenomenon is expressed in Fresnel zones.

i. 1st Fresnel Zone Radius

d1(mi)d2(mi) d1(km)d2(km)
F1(ft) = 72.1 F1(m) = 17.3
f(GHz)D(mi) f(GHz)D(km)

60% of the 1st Fresnel Zone Radius (0.6F1)

A situation when there is no net change in attenuation or “no gain, no
loss” condition occurs when 60% of the first Fresnel radius clears a
path obstruction in microwave systems.

ii. Higher Fresnel Zone Radius

Fn = F1 n n = nth Fresnel zone

Sample Problem:
Solve for the total height extended in feet for an obstacle situated 27-mi
away fro a 35-mi microwave system assuming if the tree growth exists, add
40 ft for the trees and 10 ft for additional growth (use 6 GHz and 0.6F1).

Solution:
H = Earth Curvature + Fresnel Clearance + Vegetation
27(35 − 27) ⎧⎪ 27(35 − 27) ⎫⎪
H= + 0.6⎨72.1 ⎬ + 50
4 ⎪⎩ 6 x 35 ⎪⎭
1.5 x
3
= 108 + 43.87ft + 50
≅ 202 ft

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5-70 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Read it till it Hertz…jma

A French physicist, Augustin Fresnel, defined the propagation of a radio

wave as a three-dimensional elliptical path between the transmitter and
receiver.

ª Fresnel divided the path into several zones based on the phase and
speed of the propagating waves.

ª As frequency decreases, the size of the Fresnel Zone increases.

ª As the length of the path increases, the size of the Fresnel Zone also
increases.

ª A Fresnel Zone’s radius is greatest at the midpoint of the path.

Therefore, the midpoint requires the most clearance of any point in the
path.

Sample Problem:
Calculate the 5th Fresnel zone radius to clear a 35 mi radio link operating at
12 GHz if the 1st Fresnel zone radius is 61.57 ft.

Solution:

nd1(mi)d2(mi) 5(17.5 x 17.5)

Fn = 72.1 = 72.1 = 137.67 ft
f(GHz)D(mi) 12 x 35

Alternate Solution;
Fn = F1(ft) n = 61.57 5 = 137.67ft

C. .MICROWAVE LINK CALCULATIONS.

Path Profile
A Path Profile is a graphical representation of the path traveled by the
radio waves between the two ends of a link. The path profile determines
the location and height of the antenna at each end of the link, and it
insures that the link is free of obstructions, such as hills, and not subject
to propagation losses from radio phenomena, such as multipath
reflections.
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-71

Power Level Diagram

1. Transmit Parameters

i. Transmitter Power

In dBW In dBm

⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ PT ⎞
PT(dBW) = 10 log ⎜ T ⎟ PT(dBm) = 10 log ⎜ ⎟
⎝1W ⎠ ⎝ 1mW ⎠

ii. Transmitter Transmission Line Loss (dB)

α (dB)
L T (dB) = x total length + L M
length

iii. Transmitter Antenna Gain

2 2
⎛ πD ⎞ ⎛D⎞
General Solution GT = η ⎜ ⎟ GT = 6 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠ ⎝λ⎠
Metric GT(dB) = 17.8 + 20 log fGHz + 20 logDm
system
In dB
English GT(dB) = 7.5 + 20 log fGHz + 20 logDft
system

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5-72 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

iv. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

a. In Watts

System General Solution

Ideal EIRP = PT x GT

PT x GT
Practical EIRP =
LT

b. In dB

System General Solution

Ideal EIRP(dBW) = PT(dB) + GT(dB)

Practical EIRP(dBW) = PT(dB) + GT(dB) − L T(dB)

2. Path Parameters

i. Free Space Loss

The loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a
straight line through vacuum with no absorption or reflection of
energy from nearby objects.

System In dB

Metric FSL (dB) = 92.4 + 20 log fGHz + 20 logDkm

English FSL (dB) = 96.6 + 20 log fGHz + 20 logDmi

ii. Miscellaneous Noise

ª Atmospheric Noise

Na = 65.5 + En − 20 log fMHz

iii. Isotropic Receive Level (IRL)

IRL (dBW) = EIRPdBW − FSL dB

Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-73

3. Receive Parameters

i. Receiver Antenna Gain (dB)

Typically the same with TX antenna gain otherwise specified.

ii. Receiver Transmission Line Loss (dB)

Typically the same with TX line losses otherwise specified.

iii. Net Path Loss (NPL)

General NPL (dB) = Total Losses − Total Gains

Solution

In dB ( ) (
NPL (dB) = L TX(dB) + FSL dB + LRX(dB) − GTX(dB) + GRX(dB) )
iv. Receive Signal Level (RSL)

In term of RSL (dBW) = PO(dBW) − NPL dB

Output
Power and
Net Path Loss RSL (dBm) = PO(dBm) − NPL dB

In terms of
fade margin RSL (dBW) = FMdB + ITdB
and
Improvement RSL (dBm) = FMdB + ITdBm
threshold

v. Noise Threshold

N(dBW) = 10 log(kTB) + NFdB

In dBW
N(dBW) = −204 + 10 logB + NFdB

⎛ kTB ⎞
N(dBm) = 10 log ⎜ ⎟ + NFdB
⎝ 1mW ⎠
In dBm
N(dBm) = −174 + 10 logB + NFdB

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5-74 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

vi. FM Improvement Threshold (IT)

The point where “capture effects” takes place and the output
signal-to-noise ratio suddenly jumps to 30 dB.

System In dB

In dB IT(dBW) = NdBW + 10 dB

In dBm IT(dBm) = NdBm + 10 dB

vii. Carrier-to-Noise Ratio

The ratio of the minimum wideband carrier power at the input to a
receiver that will provide a usable baseband output to the
wideband noise power present at the input of a receiver, the noise
introduce within the receiver, and the noise sensitivity of the
baseband detector.

For Your Information…

C AM: C/N = S/N
= RSL dBm − NdB
N (dB) FM: S/N about 30 dB larger
than C/N ("FM IT")

viii. Fade Margin (dB)

A “fudge factor” included in the system gain equation that
considers the non-ideal and less predictable characteristics of
radio-wave propagation, such as multipath propagation and
terrain sensitivity.

Rayleigh Table

Propagation Required Fade

Reliability (%) Margin (dB)
90 8
99 18
99.9 28
99.99 38
99.999 48
99.9999 58
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-75

In terms of RSL and IT

In dB FM(dB) = RSL dBW − ITdBW

In dBm FM(dBm) = RSL dBm − ITdBm

In terms of Propagation Parameters

FMdB = 30 log dkm + 10 log ( 6abfGHz ) − 10 log (1 − R ) − 70

where:

Surface
Description
Factor (a)
For very smooth terrain, over
4.0
water, desert
For average terrain with some
1.0
roughness
For mountainous, very rough,
0.25
or very dry terrain

Climate
Description
Factor (b)
0.5 For hot, humid coastal areas
For normal, interior
0.25
temperature
For mountainous or very dry
0.125
but not reflective terrain

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5-76 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Sample Problem:
An FM LOS microwave link operates at 6.15 GHz. The required receiver IF
bandwidth is 20 MHz. The transmitter output power is 30dBm. The receiver
front end’s first active stage is a mixer with a noise figure of 9 dB. The path
length is 21 mi; the antennas at each end have a 35-dB gain and the
transmission line losses at each end are 3 dB. If the FM Improvement
threshold is used as the unfaded reference, what is the reliability of the radio
link?

Solution:
1. EIRP
EIRP = Pt(dBm) − L tx(dB) + Gtx(dB)
= 30 dBm - 3 dB + 35 dB
= 62 dBm
2. FSL
FSL = 96.6 + 20log(fGHz xDmi )
= 96.6 + 20log(6.15x21)
= 138.82 dB
3. IRL
IRL dBm = EIRPdBm - FSL dB
= 62 dBm - 138.82 dB
= -76.82 dBm
4. RSL
RSL dBm = IRL dBm + Grx(dB) − L rx(dB)
= −76.82 dBm + 35dB − 3 dB
= −44.82 dBm
5. Noise Threshold
NdBm = −174 + 10log(BW) + NF
= −174 + 10log(20x106 ) + 9 dB
= −91.99 dBm
6. FMIT
FM ITdBm = NdBm + 10 dB
= −81.99 dBm
7. Carrier-to-Noise Ratio
⎛C⎞
⎜ ⎟ = RSL dBm − NdBm
⎝ N ⎠ dB
= −44.82 dBm - (-91.99 dBm)
= 47.17 dB
8. Fade Margin
FMdB = RSL dBm − FM ITdBm
= −44.82 dBm - (-81.99 dBm)
= 37.17 dB
9. Reliability (By interpolation)
Reliability = 99.982%
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-77

D. .MICROWAVE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE.

1. System Gain
The difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and
the minimum input power required by a receiver.

GS(dB) = P0(dBW) − Threshold(dBW) GS(dB) = P0(dBm) − Threshold(dBm)

2. System Reliability
The percentage of time a system or link meets performance
requirements.

ª Reliability

R = (1 − Outage) x 100%

ª For Multi-hop link

R s = R1 xR 2 xR 3 … xR n

where:
Outage = is the amount of time that the
requirements will not be meet
R1 ,R2 …Rn = individual reliability

Reliability vs. Outage time table

Outage Outage Time
Reliability
Time Per Month Per Day
(%) Per Yr.
(%) (avg.) (avg.)
0 100 8760 hr 720 hr 24 hr
50 50 4380 hr 360 hr 12 hr
80 20 1752 hr 144 hr 4.8 hr
90 10 876 hr 72 hr 2.4 hr
95 5 438 hr 36 hr 1.2 hr
98 2 175 hr 14 hr 29 min
99 1 88 h 7 hr 14 min
99.9 0.1 8.8 hr 43 min 1.4 min
99.99 0.01 53 min 4.3 min 88.6 s
99.999 0.001 5.3 min 26 s 0.86 s

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5-78 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

ª Availability

MTBF
A= x 100%
MTBF + MTTR

ª Unavailability

MTTR
U= x 100% U = (1 − A) x 100%
MTBF + MTTR

Sample Problem:
What fade margin is required for a microwave LOS link with a time availability
requirements of 99.997%?

Solution:
From Rayleigh table
Propagation Required Fade
Reliability (%) Margin (dB)
99.99 38
99.997 ?
99.999 48

By interpolation method;

FM − 38 0.99997 − 0.9999
= ⇒ FM = 45.77 dB
48 − 38 0.99999 − 0.99997
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-79

E. .DIVERSITY TECHNIQUE.

Diversity suggests that there is more than one transmission path or

method of transmission available between a transmitter and a receiver.

1. Frequency Diversity
Frequency diversity is simply modulating two different RF carrier
frequencies with same IF intelligence, then transmitting both RF
signals to a given destination.

2. Space Diversity
With space diversity, the output of a transmitter is fed to two or more
antennas that are physically separated by an appreciable number of
wavelengths.

where:
3λ R e R e = fictitious earth radius in km
S=
L L = path length in km
λ = signal wavelength in m

3. Polarization Diversity
A single RF carrier is propagated with two different electromagnetic
polarizations.

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5-80 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

I H
1. To provide a reliable 1 GHz cellular phone service in the ground floor dining
room of a 52-story (160 m) building in the center of a metropolis, a passive
link via coaxial cable was installed between the top of the building and the
dining room. Without the link, signals via multipath reflections were unreliable.
The top of the building antenna is a λ/2 dipole. The dining room antenna is a
λ/4 stub (probe) projecting down from the ceiling. The handheld cell phone
with λ/4 antenna projecting up has equivalent effective area. If the dining
room cellular phone is 10m from the ceiling antenna and the top of the building
antenna is 1.2-km LOS from the cell tower antenna, which has a gain of 10dB
and the cable loss is 2dB/100m. What is the total path loss in dB?
A. -154 dB B. -134 dB
C. -174 dB D. -114 dB

2. When drawing a path profile, we calculated the appropriate k-factor as 0.85.

How will such a k-factor impact tower height compared to a k-factor of 1.0?
A. It will decrease by 7.5% B. It will increase by 15%
C. It will increase by 7.5% D. It will decrease by 15%

3. What is the effective earth radius if Ns = 301?

A. 8393 km B. 7270 km
C. 6370 km D. 8493 km

4. The effects of fading due to multipath reception are often reduced using:
A. diversity B. low power
C. high-gain antennas D. repeater

5. Repeaters are used in a microwave system:

A. always
B. when distance exceeds line-of-sight
C. above 10 GHz
D. below 10 GHz

6. Calculate the maximum range for a microwave link for which the antenna
heights are 100 and 60 ft.
A. 23.5 mi B. 44.5 mi
C. 25.1 mi D. 21.8 mi

7. What reliability is equal to an average outage time of 88.6 seconds per day?
A. 99.99% B. 96.97%
C. 90.91% D. 98.19%
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-81

8. What is the system reliability of a microwave network consisting of three hops

with the following individual reliability? April 1992
Hop 1: 99.99% Hop 2: 99.95% Hop 3: 99.8%
A. 96.52% B. 97.52%
C. 99.52% D. 98.52%

9. A certain radio station is transmitting at 0 dBW. The transmission line losses at

the transmitting and receiving ends are both 2 dB, total propagation path loss
of 138 dB, and the receiver noise threshold is -124 dBW. What should be the
combined gain of the transmitting and receiving antenna to obtain a C/N ratio
of 10 dB at the receiver front end? April 1989
A. 18 dB B. 48 dB
C. 28 dB D. 38 dB

10. Satisfactory performance of an analog microwave system is defined as:

A. a carrier-to-noise ratio that exceeds a given value
B. an ERP level that exceeds a given value
C. an energy-per-hertz level that exceeds a given value
D. a power density that exceeds a given value

11. A point-to-point communication system consists of a transmitter operating at

400 MHz with an RF output of 90 W. It is fed to a 6 dBi antenna through a 150
ft coaxial cable which has an attenuation of 1.7 dB per 100 ft. The receiving
stations, located several miles away, has an antenna system consisting of a 9
dB gain antenna, with a 100-ft coaxial cable with an attenuation of 1.5 dB per
100 ft. If the path loss between the transmitter and the receiving stations is
124 dB, determine the signal level in dB at the receiver.
A. -95.6 dBm B. -63.5 dBm
C. -148.1 dBm D. -88.2 dBm

12. Fading is caused by:

A. multipath reception B. attenuation due to weather
C. ducting D. all of the above

13. MMDS stands for:

A. Multichannel Microwave Distribution System
B. Multipoint Microwave Distribution System
C. Multichannel Multipoint Distribution System
D. Multiple Microwave Distribution Systems

14. For a system gain of 112 dB, a total NF of 6.5 dB, an input noise power of -104
dBm, and a minimum output S/N of the FM demodulator of 32 dB, determine
the minimum received carrier power and the minimum transmit power.
A. -55.2 dBm, 33.5 dBm B. 29.5 dBm, -82.5 dBm
C. -33.5 dBm, 55.2 dBm D. -82.5 dBm, 29.5 dBm

15. An advantage of digital techniques over analog in a microwave system is:

A. less bandwidth is required
B. accumulation of noise is reduced
C. it requires less power
D. lower cost

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5-82 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

16. 90% reliability is equivalent to how many hours per year that a certain
microwave system will not meet the desired propagation requirements.
A. 876 hrs/yr B. 568 hrs/yr
C. 347 hrs/yr D. 239 hrs/yr

17. A frequency diversity microwave system operates at an RF=8 GHz. The IF is a

low-index frequency-modulated subcarrier. The baseband signal is a single
mastergroup FDM system (BW=2520 kHz). The antennas are 2.4-m parabolic
dishes. The feeder lengths are 12 0m at one station and 80 m at the other
station with a feeder loss of 6.5-dB/100m and a total 3 dB branching loss for
each station. The reliability objective is 99.995%. The system propagates over
an average terrain that has a very dry climate. The distance between stations
is 40 km. The minimum C/N ratio at the receiver input is 28 dB. Determine
the system gain and the minimum transmit power.
A. 93. 52 dB, 14.2 mW B. 93. 52 dB, 41.2 mW
C. 39. 52 dB, 41.2 mW D. 39. 52 dB, 14.2 mW

18. A microwave receiver receives –60 dBm of signal. The noise power is –100
dBm. What is the carrier-to-noise power ratio?
A. 160 dB B. 40 dB
C. -160 dB D. -40 dB

19. A typical microwave system uses a transmitted power of about:

A. 2 watts B. 20 watts
C. 200 watts D. 2000 watts

20. Consider a receiver with an FM IT of –114 dBW, a free space attenuation of 140
dB, an antenna gain of 20 dB each, and 2 dB transmission line losses. What
would the transmitter output have to provide a –114 dBW input level to the
receiver?
A. 3.5 W B. 0.1 W
C. 5.3 W D. 8.2 W

21. _____ fading is a partial isolation of the transmitting and receiving antennas
because of intrusion of the earth’s surface or atmospheric layers into the
propagation path.
A. voltage B. current
C. Rayleigh D. power

22. What Fade Margin is required for 99.95 % single hop propagation reliability?

A. 25 dB B. 33 dB
C. 18 dB D. 45 dB

23. LMDS stands for:

A. Local Microwave Distribution System
B. Local Multipoint Distribution System
C. Local Multichannel Distribution System
D. Low-power Microwave Distribution System

24. Calculate the half-power beamdwidth of a parabolic reflector with a gain 44 dB.
A. 1° B. 23°
C. 15° D. 21°
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-83

25. Calculate the required clearance for an obstacle located 10 km from the
transmitting end of a 40-km line of sight radio link operating at frequency of 6
GHz.
A. 11.6 m B. 22.8 m
C. 5.5 m D. 8.14 m

26. A transmitter has a power output of 10W at a carrier frequency of 250 MHz. It
is connected by 10 m of a transmission line having a loss of 3 dB/100m to an
antenna with a gain of 6 dBi. The receiving antenna is 20 km away and has a
gain of 4 dBi. There is negligible loss in the receiver feedline, but the receiver
is mismatched; the antenna and line are designed for a 50-Ω impedance, but
the receiver input is 75-Ω. Calculate the power delivered to the receiver,
assuming free-space propagation.
A. 204 nW B. 2040 nW
C. 2.04 nW D. 20.4 nW

27. A 10 hops LOS microwave system has a system time availability equal to
99.85%. What would the per hop time availability be?
A. 99.85% B. 90.95%
C. 99.985% D. 97.85%

28. The use of redundant system to reduce the effects of multipath fading is
_____.
A. combining B. diversity
C. modulation D. multiplexing

29. In digital microwave systems, additional repeaters increase the:

A. reliability B. noise level
C. jitter D. security

30. The microwave signal path should clear obstacles by at least

A. 60% of the Faraday zone
B. 60% of the Fresnel zone
C. 60% of the height of the antenna tower
D. 60% of the highest obstacle height

31. What is the availability of a system where the MTBF is 40,000 and the MTTR is
10 hr?
A. 98.5% B. 99.975%
C. 99.918% D. 95.95%

32. The extra strength needed in order to assure that enough signal reaches the
receiving antenna and must be made available to compensate for fades;
computed as the difference between the received signal strength and the
threshold level
A. RSL B. Noise Figure
C. Threshold Level D. Fade Margin

33. A microwave path over which radio waves barely touches the obstruction is
called _____.
A. Grazing Path B. Obstructed Path
C. Line of Sight D. Crooked Path

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5-84 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

34. Calculate the system propagation reliability given the following individual link
availability: Link 0-1 = 99.85% Link 1-2 = 99.99%
Link 2-3 = 99.9% Link 3-4= 99.95%
A. 99% B. 99.45%
C. 99.95% D. 99.845%

35. A line-of-sight microwave link operating at 4 GHz has a separation of 40 km

between antennas. An obstacle in the path is located midway between the two
antennas. By how much must the beam clear the obstacle?
A. 12.4 meters B. 14.4 meters
C. 16.4 meters D. 18.4 meters

36. What fade margin is required for a microwave LOS link with a time availability
requirements of 99.997%?
A. 42.5 dB B. 45.77 dB
C. 43.5 dB D. 46 dB

37. In analog microwave systems, additional repeaters increase the:

A. reliability B. noise level
C. jitter D. security

38. Consider a space-diversity microwave radio operating at an RF carrier

frequency of 1.8 GHz. Each station has a 2.4-m diameter parabolic antenna
that is fed by 100-m of air filled coaxial cable, which has a branching loss of 2
dB/100 m and a feeder loss 5.4 dB/100m. The terrain is smooth and the area
has a humid climate. The distance station is 40 km and a reliability objective of
99.99% is desired. Calculate the system gain.
A. 113.35 dB B. 77.45 dB
C. 105 dB D. 145 dB

39. Calculate the value of k-factor that will, as if effectively give an earth bulge of
200 ft for a 25 mi radio link system.
A. 1.33 B. 0.521
C. 0.75 D. 0.92

40. A transmitter has a power output of 150 W at a carrier frequency of 32 MHz. It

is connected to an antenna with a gain of 12 dBi. The receiving antenna is 10
km away and has a gain of 5 dBi. Calculate the power delivered to the
receiver, assuming free-space propagation.
A. 4.04 nW B. 404 nW
C. 40.4 nW D. 44 nW

41. Determine the power delivered to the receiver in dBm of a transmitter located
40-km away with an output power of 2 W using a 20 dBi antenna, assuming
the receive antenna gain is 25 dBi at 6 GHz.
A. -37 dBm B. -153 dBm
C. -62 dBm D. -85 dBm

42. A situation when there is no net change in attenuation or “no gain, no loss”
occurs when _____% of the first fresnel radius clears a path obstruction in
microwave systems.
A. 60 B. 85
C. 45 D. 75
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-85

43. Calculate the noise temperature of the antenna/feedline system, referenced to

the receiver input of a microwave system if the antenna sees a sky
temperature of 120 K, and the antenna feedline loss of 2 dB.
A. 94 K B. 182 K
C. 271 K D. 144 K

44. A component of a microwave station that samples signal traveling in one

direction down to the transmission line.
A. Attenuator B. Combiner
C. Directional coupler D. Modulator

45. Calculate the thermal noise power in dBm, referred to the receiver input of a
microwave antenna/feedline system with a combined noise temperature of 182
K connected to a receiver with a NF of 2 dB and 20 MHz of bandwidth.
A. -80 dBm B. -120 dBm
C. -100 dBm D. -150 dBm

46. How far from the transmitter could a signal be received if the transmitting and
receiving antennas were 40m and 20m, respectively, above level terrain?
A. 44.5 km B. 87.6 km
C. 32.7 km D. 15.8 km

47. If the line-of-sight distance for an optical beam is 12 km, what would it be,
approximately, for a microwave beam?
A. 15 km B. 16 km
C. 12 km D. 8 km

48. Satisfactory performance of a digital microwave system requires a:

A. low level of transmitted power
B. high level of ERP
C. good energy per bit per transmitted Watt ratio
D. good energy per bit per noise density ratio

49. A transmitter and receiver operating at 1 GHz are separated by 10 km. How
many dBm of power gets to the receiver if the transmitter puts out 1 Watt, and
both the sending and receiving antennas have a gain of 20 dBi?
A. -22.4 dBm B. 32.4 dBm
C. -42.4 dBm D. 42.4 dBm

50. A microwave system has a feed-line loss of 2 dB and sees a sky temperature of
150 K. Calculate the noise temperature of the antenna/feed-line system
referenced to the receiver input.
A. 201 K B. 300 K
C. 178 K D. 290 K

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