Book 6 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 B2
ENGINEERING DRAWING
AERONAUTICAL STANDARDS

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For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 7A.5 ISSUE 07 1210

© Licence By Post

No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/
guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company,
national safety authorities and national governments.
WITH SPECIAL THANKS TO

British Standards Institute (BSI) and the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)

for permission to reproduce drawings.

Notes BSI, ISO and EN standards may be obtained on-line from

www.standardsuk.com.

CAA publications may be obtained on-line from

www.caa.co.uk/publications.

Many official publications may be viewed free of charge on the net.

CONTENTS

Page

Engineering drawings 1
Drawing production 1
Validity 2
Types of orthographic drawing 5
Drawing layout 6
Drawing queries 8
Parts referencing systems 9
Types of drawing 10
Orthographic projection 10
Isometric drawing 12
Oblique drawing 13
Lines 14
Dimensioning 17
Sectioning and hatching 19
Abbreviations and symbols 19
Electrical symbols 26
Wiring codes 31
Wiring diagrams and schematics 32
Manufacturer’s manuals 34
The ATA100 (iSpec 2200) system 34
Standard manual topic referencing 34
AMTOSS codes 39
The FIN codes 43
Amendments/revisions to manuals 43
Engineering standard specifications 46
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

The B1/B2 engineer should be able to ‘read’ an engineering drawing and

understand the symbols, lines, conventions and the types of drawings used.
You should be able to describe the process by which a drawing becomes an
‘approved’ drawing, how it is amended and what procedure to adopt if it is
found to be in error.

Technical drawings may be supplied as hard copy drawings; as part of the

hard copy manual (AMM, SRM etc); in fiche (a type of film) or roll film format,
or in soft copy form such as CDs.

Fiche and roll film drawings are viewed on special large screen viewers, some
with printer facilities so hard copies can be obtained. These types of viewers
are becoming old fashioned. Drawings on CDs are viewed using a computer.

It would be a good idea if you could look at drawings related to the aircraft you
are working on and take note of:

* The projection used.

* The layout.
* Any symbols used.
* Any conventions used.
* Any reference to standard specifications (BSI, SI etc).
* Authorisation and other qualifying signatures.
* The title, drawing number, and issue number.

You should have a general knowledge of standard specifications, globally these

range from additives in food-stuffs to technical drawing standards to
engineering standards, but you should know about those related to
engineering – aircraft engineering in particular.

When working on aircraft/with publications/drawings take note of any

reference to standard specifications. One or two of the more regularly used
ones you should commit to memory.

Note. Drawings from CAP562 may not be found in that publication due to
amendment action by the CAA.
 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS

As a human being the most effective way of inputting information to the brain
is visually. This means that drawings are the best way of conveying an idea
from one engineer to another. The designer works on an idea and puts it down
on paper (or inputs it to a drawing programme on a computer), this is sent to
the drawing office where a more formal drawing is produced and sent to
workshops where the ‘idea’ is manufactured and turned into an artefact. The
company will produce drawings for manufacturing purposes and for
maintenance purposes.

The designer/draughts-person must include in the drawing all the information

to manufacture, assembly, install, inspect, modify or check the particular
piece of equipment. The drawings must convey all the information necessary to
manufacture and operate the equipment in a presentation that is easily
understood by a competent engineer.

If the item is just a single piece of equipment such as bolt then one designer
can do the work of designing and producing all the drawing/s. When it comes
to a complex item such as an aircraft, an engine, or a component then it will
take a team of designers and a team of draughtsmen/women to complete the
task – and this team (along with the thousands of drawings produced) will
need a complete design and drawing office and a separate organisation just to
control the design/drawing process.

Drawing Production

In general, a drawing is produced by an organisation and this is given a

unique drawing number and title. This is entered in a drawing register
together with details such as the designer, the draughts person, date etc. If the
drawing is subsequently changed (a change not affecting interchangeability)
then its issue number is changed. The register is than up-dated to include the
new issue number and brief details of the change. If the change affects
interchangeability then a new drawing is issued with a new drawing number.

The drawing may be produced by a draughts-person using the old fashioned

rule, pencil, drawing paper, T squares, drawing table etc – with the drawings
stored flat in large draws. Paper designations commonly used are AO, A1, A2
and less commonly A3 and A4. These paper sizes are to specification ISO ‘A’
series specified in ISO216. There is a ‘B’ series which provides intermediate
sizes.

The sizing starts at 4A0 with a size 1682mm x 2378mm and each subsequent
size is obtained by folding the paper in half. The following table shows some of
the more important sizes. Note the half value in each case for the next smaller
size.

-1-
 A SERIES B SERIES
CODE SIZE (mm) USES CODE SIZE (mm)
4AO 1682 x 2378
2AO 1189 X 1682
AO 841 x 1189 TECHNICAL DRAWINGS B0 1000 x 1414
A1 594 x 841 TECHNICAL DRAWINGS B1 707 x 1000
A2 420 x 594 FLIP CHARTS B2 500 x 707
A3 297 x 420 LARGE TABLES B3 353 x 500
A4 210 x 297 WRITING PAPER COPYING PAPER B4 250 x 353

TABLE 1 PAPER SIZES

Hard copy drawings are normally received by the maintenance engineer as

either separate sheets of paper (the larger sizes rolled up in cardboard tubes)
or as part of the usual range of aircraft manuals.

Most drawing/design offices now do all their work on computers using one of
several propriety brands of software packages. Each person may have his/her
own computer or may be connected to one central computer for the whole
office.

This means that drawings can be completed on the screen with registration of
each drawing in the drawing register being done automatically.

Drawings are imported electronically into the manual and the manuals (AMM,
SRM, IPC, FIM etc) are issued to the aircraft operators as a hard copy or on a
CD (ROM). The CD is loaded into the computer and (sometimes) a code word
has to be inputted (company password and operator password) to gain access.
In some cases the same information can be down-loaded via the net using a
subscription service and pass-word system.

Drawings (and text) can be viewed on-screen and hard copy obtained via the
printer. Drawings, whether hard copy or soft copy, must be issued by an
approved organisation and certified as correct by the chief
draughtsman/woman.

Validity

All aircraft and parts manufactured in the UK must be made and assembled in
compliance with approved drawings and specifications. That is, drawings
issued by an approved company (Primary Company or Design Organisation).

It is the responsibility of the approved Inspection Organisation to ensure that

all parts are ‘correct to drawing unless an appropriate concession has been
issued.

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Drawing practice in the UK should conform to BS8888 (was BS308). It covers
computer generated drawings as well as conventional hard copy drawings and
deals with drawing practices world-wide. It is a specification and not a
guidance document as was BS308 so tighter control can be exercised. Both
standards will run together as drawings to BS308 will be in circulation for
many years.

Design organisations amend both BS and SBAC systems to suit their own
design office standards, so non standard symbols may be found in some
aircraft drawings.

For current projects, the ISO system for dimensioning and tolerancing of
drawings is used (ISO 8015 – due to be replaced by ISO 14405), but at the
present time, imperial units, terms and tolerances may be found on many
drawings, particularly related to aircraft of American manufacture.

Drawing symbols may also be used that are specified in ATA100 (iSpec 2200)
but again the specification allows the use of local, national and manufacturer’s
symbols.

The most common form of drawing used in engineering is called an

Orthographic Projection.

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 DRAWING FROM CAP562
Fig. 1 TYPICAL ORTHOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL DRAWING

-4-
 TYPES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

Drawings are designed to perform specific functions and to that end will
contain different information depending on the intended actions of the
engineer.

Single Part (Detail) Drawing

Shows all the information necessary to completely define an item to be

manufactured or inspected, ie, shape, size, material, heat treatments, surface
finish, etc. There may even be notes on the drawing as to specific operations
such as casting details, machining details etc.

Collective Single Part (Tabular)

Similar to the above drawing but shows essentially similar items which have
slight differences, ie washers of differing sizes, finish and/or material, rivets of
differing lengths, special bolts etc.

Assembly Drawing (figure 1)

Shows the positioning of all the single parts necessary to make a component or
part of a component and gives all the information necessary for its correct
assembly.

An essential part of the drawing is a Schedule of Parts which may be

incorporated on the drawing or as a separate sheet. Items within the schedule
will be referenced by ‘ballooning’ on the drawing or by grid referencing. For
example, the items in the drawing above are referenced by ballooning and each
balloon refers to the specific item in the table of parts.

QUESTION With reference to figure 1. Why is the Parts List numbered from
the bottom up? (1 min)

ANSWER This allows the draughts person to add parts as he/she thinks fit.

QUESTION Can the list be numbered from the top down – and when? (2 mins)

ANSWER Yes – if the parts list starts at the top of the drawing.

-5-
Installation Drawing

Issued when-ever it is necessary to specify the exact installation of

components into an airframe engine or component (eg the aircraft fuel system
into the structure). May be handed Left Hand or Right Hand.

General Arrangement (GA) Drawing

Produced for main assemblies such as the fuselage, systems, etc, or

sometimes parts of main assemblies. They usually indicate profile and overall
dimensions and often internal details as well (sectioned).

DRAWING LAYOUT

All drawings must bear the following information:

* Descriptive title.
* Drawing number.
* Issue number.
* Alterations list.
* Name of approved issuing company.

Much of this is in the Title Block of the drawing - except for the alterations list
(bottom right hand side of the drawing in figure 1).

Descriptive Title

Kept reasonable short because of space limitations. May not mean too much
on its own, but the drawing is positively uniquely identified by its drawing
number and the name of the issuing firm.

Drawing Number

This positively identifies the drawing and appears at least once on the drawing.
Its composition is up to the individual company design/drawing office. When a
drawing comprises several sheets, each bears the same drawing number, but
is annotated “sheet 1 of 3, sheet 2 of 3” etc.

The drawing number may also be the Part Number of the item it describes.

QUESTION The drawing number often appears in the top left hand corner of
the drawing up-side-down (figure 1). What is the reason for this?
(2 mins)

-6-
ANSWER Drawings are stored flat in draws and when searching for a
particular drawing the whole sheet does not need to be disturbed
as all the numbers are on the bottom right hand corner – it is just
the corners of the sheets that need to be turned up to check the
numbers. This applies to all drawings including any drawing put in
the draw the wrong way round.

Issue Number and Alterations List

The first drawing drawn and issued is issue 1 – although it will not be
annotated as such. If the drawing is subsequently changed for any reason this
change is noted in the Alterations List with date of entry and the Issue Number
is added (issue 2). Thus it is important in that when referring to a drawing the
correct Drawing Number is used and it is the correct Issue Number.

Unaffected parts use the old issue number and new parts use the later issue
number.

If the change affects interchangeability then the drawing is re-issued with a

new drawing number (issue 1) and the part/component is made to the new
drawing specification and given a new part number.

When the first drawing is produced the drawing office will allocate a number
and title and record that number and title in the Drawing Master List. This will
be in the master register either in bound book form or, more commonly, on a
computer.

The drawing office will record the details of any subsequent change in the
Drawing Master List.

Scale

Rarely shown as all dimensions are indicated on the drawing and most
drawings are either scaled up or scaled down anyway.

A scale of 1:1 means that the drawing is full size. A scale of 1:2 indicates that
the drawing is half size etc.

Remember, you should not take dimensions straight off the drawing (using a
rule or dividers etc). Even if the drawing has a scale of 1:1 the drawing could
have shrunk or distorted due to the drawing manufacturing process. This
means that all dimensions must be read from the drawing and not scaled. As
the drawing says (figure 1) ‘DO NOT SCALE’.

-7-
Handed Parts

Refers to parts that are identical but are ‘handed. Just like the hands on the
human body - they are the same - but opposite when viewed palm down on a
flat surface.

On drawings, may be shown as RH, LH, Port or Left, Starboard or Right. The
convention on technical drawings is to have the left hand, upper, inner or
forward part, taking the odd number part number and the opposite hand item
to have the consecutive even numbers. This is not too unlike the FIN
numbering system (see later pages).

DRAWING QUERIES

If you find some discrepancy between a drawing and the part you are working
on then:

* Check the drawing title, who issued it, its number and issue
number - that it is the correct one and up-to date.

* Check you are working on the correct equipment – part number -

description – IPC – aircraft type/variant and registration – engine
type etc.

* Check the mod state of the part/component.

* Contact the issuing drawing office by telephone or email. State

drawing number, title and issue number and related equipment.

* If the problem is still not resolved then raise a ‘Drawing Query’

form.

Drawing Query Form

If your company has a Drawing Control Office or Publications and Documents

Control Office then the form is submitted to them – if not then you will have to
submit it to the manufacturer yourself. If the drawing is in electronic format
then an email should be sent to the manufacturer and/or their online drawing
query form completed and sent.

Details on the form should include a full description of the part being worked
on (with photographs, hand sketches/drawings etc) to include formal name,
part number, serial number and modification state.

Include any details if the problem affects other aircraft/equipment and, by-all-
means, make any suggestions as to what might be the cause – if you think you
know.

-8-
The Drawing Query Form should have a unique identity number with all
associated documents, photographs etc having connected reference numbers.
A copy of all documents being sent should be made and an entry made in the
Master List of Drawing Queries (held by the company).

The results of the query could be:

* An immediate provisional answer.

* Temporary fully approved answers in the form of a drawing office

instruction.

* Permanent answer by means of a new or re-issued drawing.

The Query Form and the Drawing Office Instruction should be identified on the
amended/re-issued drawing. Any other affected documents/drawings should
also be suitable cross referenced.

If speed is of the essence then a telephone call to the manufacturer followed by

faxed documents can get things started straight away. No doubt with some
companies this can all be done on-line using scanned-in document
evidence/photographs etc.

PARTS REFERENCING SYSTEMS

These are used to locate items on an orthographic drawing (and on other

drawings).

The most common systems used are the Grid Reference system and the
Balloon Reference system. The Grid Reference system uses a letter reference
column going up the right hand side of the drawing (figure 1) and a numbering
line along the bottom of the drawing from right to left.

QUESTION With reference to figure 1 identify the part grid reference D5.
(2 mins)

ANSWER A ‘U’ shaped channel.

The Balloon Reference system uses a ‘balloon with a leader line pointing to the
item concerned. It is usually numbered and referenced to the Parts List on the
drawing and possible to associated documents.

For example, in figure 1, item 6 is an ANGLE part number A2R 21 33 quantity

1 material L72 18SWG. This item was affected on the change of issue to issue
2 (check Drawing Changes top left hand side).

-9-
The Parts List may be called a Parts Schedule.

If any item does not have a Part Number then the material specification is
usually used (as with the brackets in figure 1) and sometimes the annotation
ND is put in the Ref No column (ND = No Drawing exists).

TYPES OF DRAWING

Besides free-hand sketches (which have their place in the scheme of things)
technical drawings can be produced in several formats.

They can be Orthographic – which is what we have been talking about so far or
they can be Axonometric. In general terms an orthographic drawing (or
orthographic projection) is one where the part is viewed one side at a time,
with several sides shown. An axonometric drawing is a pictorial drawing
showing just the one view of the part. Figure 2 shows how the two main types
can be broken down into several different systems.

TECHNICAL DRAWING

ORTHOGRAPHIC AXONOMETRIC

FIRST ANGLE THIRD ANGLE ISOMETRIC OBLIQUE DIMETRIC

CABINET CAVALIER

Fig. 2 DRAWING TYPES

Orthographic Projection

This form of drawing is predominant in engineering. It allows more precise

details to be given of a part and allows for many views to be projected –
including as many ancillary views as the draughtsman/woman requires.

The basis of the system relies on a four quadrant framework with planes
arranged at right angles to each other (ortho = at right angles to). This
produces four angles of projection – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th. To avoid confusion
only two angles are used 1st and 3rd. Both are approved internationally with
equal status.

Should the drawing warrant it a view can be projected for each side of the
object (6 sides) with as many auxiliary projections produced as necessary.

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With First Angle projection the Front Elevation (FE) of the part is drawn in the
plane of the paper and any side that is viewed is drawn on the opposite side of
the FE. This means that the plan is shown at the bottom and the underneath
view would be shown on the top (figure 3).

With reference to figure 3. Consider the front elevation (B). Viewing B from the
side (C) (left hand side) projects that side elevation onto the opposite side (right
hand side) of the FE.

The plan (as viewed from the top) is projected underneath the FE.

DRAWING FROM CAP562

Fig. 3 FIRST ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

With Third Angle orthographic projection the Front Elevation is drawn in as

before but all side views are projected on to the same side. This means that the
plan is drawn on the top of the FE and side (C) is projected onto the same side
(figure 4).

Note that both drawings just show two views from the front view (FE) but could
show many more if required. Also note the symbol in both cases indicating the
angle of projection – also shown in figure 1.

Considering a box has 6 sides so an orthographic projection can have 6

elevations (views) – if necessary. To add to this it can have an infinite number
of auxiliary views.

It is usual for orthographic projections to have 2 or three views.

- 11 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP562
Fig. 4 THIRD ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

Isometric Drawing

Iso means equal and refers to the equal angles subtended at the centre of an
isometric cube (figure 5). Typical of all axonometric drawings this projection
gives a good pictorial view of a part but can give problems when it comes to
dimensioning and when trying to project other views.

The angles at the centre are 120°. All vertical lines are drawn vertically and all
horizontal lines are drawn at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. Lengths of all
sides are drawn without changing the ratio. That is – with the cube shown in
figure 5 the lengths of the vertical lines are the same as the lengths of the 30°
lines.

Fig. 5 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A CUBE

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Oblique Drawing

With this method of projection one side of the object is drawn in the plane of
the paper and the other sides are taken away at 45° ‘into’ the plane of the
paper. Figure 6 shows the sides going into the plane of the paper up and to the
right of the ‘front face’ but they can go to the left and down if necessary.

As with the isometric projection it is an axonometric drawing. It shows a good

‘picture’ of the object but is difficult to dimension more complex objects and
difficult to project other views.

Figure 6 shows a Cabinet Oblique Projection of a cube. This means that the
lengths going into the page are reduced by halve to make the object look more
in proportion. Figure 7 shows the same cube but in Cavalier Oblique
Projection with all sides having the ratio 1:1:1.

Any dimensions shown on the drawing would be those of the actual object.

Fig. 6 OBLIQUE CABINET PROJECTION OF A CUBE

Fig. 7 OBLIQUE CAVALIER PROJECTION OF A CUBE

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 Fig. 8 DIMETRIC PROJECTION

Variations of axonometric projections are used to suit different requirements.

One such variation is called the Dimetric Projection (figure 8). Other drawings
may show perspective – which means that lines going into the page tend to
converge – just like when looking at the lines of a straight railway track from a
bridge. Over a long distance they will converge to a point.

LINES

Lines on a drawing can be continuous or dotted. Either sets of lines can be

thick or thin and the dotted lines can be short dots or long dots. To add to this
the lines on a drawing may be a combination of both.

What ever type of line is used will give that line a meaning and you as an
engineer will interpret that as a function.

The following figure 9 and table 2 should be studied in conjunction with each
other to the extent that you should have a reasonable knowledge of the more
commonly used lines. The line types in table 2 are balloon referenced in figure
9.

You should commit to memory the description and main application of the
lines A to K in table 2.

In very general terms all lines are thin lines (about 0.3mm thick) except for
outlines (about 0.7mm thick). This is a very general statement and does not
hold true all the time – check table 2.

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 DRAWING FROM BS308
Fig. 9 TYPES OF LINES

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- 15 -
 TABLE FROM BS308
TABLE 2 TYPES OF LINE

- 16 -
Dimensioning

The following general rules apply:

* The whole drawing should be dimensioned in the same units, eg

mm or inches. They should not be mixed up on the same drawing.

* Dimensioning should be clear, unambiguous and not duplicated.

* The figures should be read from the bottom of the drawing or from
the right (see figures 1 and 10).

* The dimension figures should be placed on top of the dimension

line to which they refer or within a broken dimension line – but the
drawing must be all the same style.

* Dimension lines are thin continuous lines with narrow filled in

arrows.

* Projection lines are thin continuous.

* Ideally dimensions should be from a datum to help prevent

accumulation of errors (figure 11).

* Tolerancing can be shown as in figure 12 but the drawing must

have the same style throughout.

* Any symbols used must be in accordance with BS8888 and placed

in front of the value to which they refer.

* Screw threads should be dimensioned as per figure 13.

Fig. 10 DIMENSIONING

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 Fig. 11 DIMENSIONING FROM A DATUM

Fig. 12 TOLERANCING

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 13 DIMENSIONING THREADED PARTS

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Sectioning and Hatching

Where more detail is needed a view may be sectioned (figures 9, 13 and 15).
The section lines a thin continuous and are equally spaced across the
sectioned area (spacing depending on the size of the area). Their angle can be
any angle so long as it conveys to the engineer that it is a sectioned area
(figures 14 and 15).

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 14 HATCHING

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 15 HATCHING ADJACENT PARTS

It is convention not to hatch some items, these include:

* Nuts, bolts, rivets, taper pins etc, when fitted as part of an

assembly drawing.
* Webs – across their thick section.

ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

Used extensively in drawings, associated documents and aircraft manuals. The

range is vast and what follows in this book is just a sample of those in more
common use for the aircraft engineer. Many of these symbols are specified in
standard specifications – see later text.

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 DRAWING FROM BS308
Fig. 16 SCREW THREAD SYMBOLS

Screw Thread Drawing Symbols (figure 16)

External

(a) Stud side view.

(b) Stud end view.
(c) Stud sectioned side view.
(d) Stud sectioned end view.

Internal

(e) Hidden detail end view.

(f) Blind hole side view hidden detail.
(g) Sectioned end view.
(h) Blind hole side view (sectioned).
(i) Hidden detail side view – thread passes all the way through.
(j) End view.
(k) Sectioned side view – thread passes all the way through.

- 20 -
One way of remembering screw thread symbols is to imagine cutting the screw
thread. For an external (male) thread you start with a round rod and cut the
thread into the rod, so the symbol has an unbroken circle on the outside and a
broken circle on the inside. For an internal (female) thread you start with a
hole and cut the thread into the metal on the outside of the hole, so the
symbol has a continuous circle on the inside and a broken circle on the
outside.

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 17 SPLINES & SERRATED SHAFTS – SYMBOLS

Figure 18 shows the usual form for showing repeated parts. This can apply to
holes, rivets, bolts, brackets etc.

Figure 19 shows how long parts can be reduced for drawing purposes –
provided there is no change of any detail along the length. The top left picture
shows a tube and the picture beneath shows a round solid bar.

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 18 CONVENTION FOR REPEATED ITEMS

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 DRAWING FROM BS308
Fig. 19 CONVENTION FOR INTERRUPTED VIEWS

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 20 CONVENTION FOR BEARINGS

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 21 FURTHER CONVENTIONS

Figure 20 shows the convention for showing bearings and figure 21 shows the
symbols for showing various machinings on round bars.

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 DRAWING FROM BS308
Fig. 22 MACHINING SYMBOLS

Figure 22 shows machining symbols and conventions used in technical

drawings.
The symbol shows that the surface has to be machined and the numbers show
the surface texture values (how smooth the surface has to be).

Table 3 deals with commonly used abbreviations and symbols. Take a few
moments to make sure you know what they all mean. Table 4 shows symbols
used on drawings and associated documents used in overhaul facilities. You
would not normally come across these too often but you should have, at least,
some idea of their use.

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- 23 -
TERM ABBREVIATION TERM ABBREVIATION

ACROSS FLATS A/F PATTERN NUMBER PATT NO

ASSEMBLY ASSY PITCH CIRCLE DIAMETER PCD
BRITISH STANDARD BS PNEUMATIC PNEU

CENTRES CRS POUND weight LB

CENTRE LINE CL or C RADIUS RAD or R
CHAMFERED CHAM REFERENCE REF

CHEESE HEAD CH HD REQUIRED REQD

COUNTERBORE C’BORE REVOLUTIONS PER MNUTE RPM or
COUNTERSUNK CSK REF/MIN

CYLINDER or CYLINDRICAL CYL RIGHT HAND RH

DEGREE (angle) ° ROUND HEAD RD HD
DIAMETER in text DIA BRITISH ASSOCIATION BA
with a dimension ∅
BRITISH STANDARD FINE BSF
FIGURE FIG BRITISH STANDARD PIPE BSP
FULL INDICATED MOVEMENT FIM BRITISH STANDARD
HARDNESS - Brinell HB WHITWORTH BSW
- Rockwell HR + letter scale
- Vickers HV UNIFIED COARSE UNC
UNIFIED FINE UNF
HEXAGON HEX UNIFIED SPECIAL UNS
HEXAGON HEAD HEX HD
HYDRAULIC HYD SCREWED SCR
SECOND of angle “
INCH IN or “ SHEET SH
INSULATED INSUL
INTERNAL DIAMETER I/D SKETCH SK
SPECIFICATION SPEC
LEFT HAND LH SPHERICAL DIAMETER SPHERE ∅
LONG LG
MACHINE M/C SPHERICAL RADIUS SPHERE R
SPOTFACE S’FACE
MACHINED M/CH SQUARE SQ
MATERIAL MATL
2
MAXIMUM MAX SQUARE INCH SQ IN or IN
STANDARD STD
MAXIMUM MATERIAL STANDARD WIRE GAUGE SWG
CONDITION MMC or M
MILLIMETER MM TAPER
THREADS PER INCH TPI
MINIMUM MIN UNDERCUT U’CUT
MINUTE of angle ‘
NOT TO SCALE NTS VOLUME VOL
WEIGHT WT
NUMBER NO
OUTSIDE DIAMETER O/D

TABLE 3 ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

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 TABLE FROM CAP562
TABLE 4 SYMBOLS USED ON PROCESS TREATMENT
DRAWINGS & DOCUMENTS

Table 5 shows some of the symbols used on drawings to denote the geometry
of an item – its position, form, attitude etc. Not often come across in assemble
drawings but are used in drawings associated with machine work – single part
drawings, detail drawings etc.

- 25 -
 TABLE FROM CAP562
TABLE 5 GEOMETRIC SYMBOLS

Electrical Symbols

The symbols used in electrical drawings and aircraft manuals, and wire
identification codes, should conform to standards as laid down in ATA100
(iSpec 2200) standards or standards applicable to those specified in a
particular country, or to those that conform to standards laid down for a
particular manufacturer.

- 26 -
When looking a different manufacturer’s manuals various symbols will be
found representing a particular component. In some drawings/manuals a
legend is provided while in others a drawing standard is specified.

It is interesting to note that ATA100 (iSpec 2200) does not actually show any
drawing symbols but refers the reader to other standards – in some respects
like BS8888.

The following table (table 6) is split up into 6a, 6b, etc and shows the most
commonly used electrical symbols. You should study all the symbols and note
what they mean.

blank

- 27 -
TABLE 6a ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - 1

- 28 -
TABLE 6b ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - 2

- 29 -
TABLE 6c ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - 3

- 30 -
 Fig. 23 EXAMPLE OF AIRCRAFT WIRING CODE

Wiring Codes

When a cable is manufactured by the cable manufacturer, data is printed on

at regular intervals giving information such as cable manufacture’s name,
cable size, cable ident codes etc. When the cable is fitted into the aircraft the
aircraft manufacturer will give the cable another code relating to the
circuit/system the cable is fitted into. Should also include a FIN code.

This aircraft manufacturer’s code is either printed onto sleeves that are stretch
fitted to both ends of the cable or, much more commonly, printed at regular
intervals along the entire length of the cable. This printing usually being
carried out automatically (once set up) by a machine using a heat printing
process (it may also carry out electrical checks such as insulation checks on
the cable at the same time).

Figure 23 shows an example of an aircraft manufacturer’s code. While you

should read and understand the details there should be no need to commit
them to memory. The explanation of each element of the code is:

(1) Used where components have identical circuits.

(2) Indicates the circuit (and associate circuit) function.
(3) Allocated to differentiate between cables that do not have a
common terminal in the same circuit. Beginning with the number
1 in the circuit with a different number being given to each cable.
(4) This identifies the segment of a cable between two terminals and
differentiates between segments of the circuit when the same cable
number is used throughout. Segments are given an alphabetical
letter starting with A and missing out I and O.
(5) Cable size.
(6) Indicates cable type and connection function.

- 31 -
 Fig. 24 AIRCRAFT WIRING CODE – EXAMPLE

Figure 24 shows an example of an aircraft manufacturers’ coding system on a

drawing. Some manufacturers might use standard schemes, others might use
their own. Most manufacturers include their name on the cable and also the
trade name of the cable. Note that only 1 wire is used from component to
component and most circuit drawings will have many wires. Note the similar
code structure for each cable along each run. Note also the third digit change
as the ‘cable run’ progresses from left to right.

WIRING DIAGRAMS & SCHEMATICS

Issued by the manufacturer of the equipment/aircraft/engine to show the

layout of a circuit or system without regard to the actual appearance of the
components or their location in the aircraft. It is a line drawing showing
components as squares or blocks and cables as lines. Each wiring
diagram/schematic will have a title block similar to a technical drawing. It will
show details such as:

* Title.
* Drawing number or code number.
* Issue number and/or date or amendment state or Change
Letter.
* ATA reference number.
* Number of sheets.
* Aircraft/equipment applicability.
* Names of designers, draughts-person, approval signature etc.

- 32 -
They may be available in paper form or on CD. Many are produced in book
form, for example the LAMM schematics for McDonnell Douglas. Should there
be any conflict between a wiring diagram/schematic and production drawings
then the production drawings are to be taken as the authority.

Fig. 25 EXAMPLE OF A WIRING DIAGRAM TITLE BLOCK

Wiring diagrams/schematics usually come with a location list, location

drawings, master index, symbols legend, abbreviations list etc. The master
index is the same as used for AMMs, IPCs, etc for cross referencing purposes.

Schematics are drawn to ATA100 (iSpec 2200) standard and come in three
levels.

First Level BLOCK DIAGRAM. System block diagrams with broad

scope and little depth.

Second Level SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC. Have a less broad scope but

more depth than the block diagram. Contain schematic
symbols but not individual wires. Are intermediate
between First Level and Third Level.

Third Level SYSTEM SCHEMATIC. A detailed drawing with limited

scope but great depth. Shows all LRUs, functional
wiring, and functional interfaces with other sub-systems.

A second level drawing is drawn if the complexity of the system is such that an
overview of its operation is not possible with the third level drawing.

A block drawing is produced if the system and sub-systems are of major

complexity and it is the only way that a proper understanding of the complete
system can be obtained.

First and second level drawings are identified by a code (usually 4 digits) with
the third level having an additional digit. On the schematic, all LRUs are
identified by an ATA number which directs the reader to the schematic where
the LRU is shown in detail. Wires will be coded using the ATA100 (iSpec 2200)
codes.

- 33 -
 MANUFACTURER’S MANUALS

Published by the manufacturers of aircraft and equipments. To be used during

the maintenance, overhaul, and repair of aircraft, engines, and equipment.
Manuals published by manufacturers include – Aircraft Maintenance Manual
(AMM), Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC), Overhaul Manual, Structural Repair
Manual (SRM), Wiring Manual, Fault Isolation Manual (FIM) etc.

Each must have a ‘Statement of Initial Certification’ - that it conforms to

BCARs (A5-3) - signed by the manufacturer. (BCARs are slowly being
superseded by JARs and EASA regulations, but are still current as aircraft are
still flying that have been certified under the BCAR standard.)

All manuals must conform to ATA*100 specification (ATA iSpec2200) as far as

layout is concerned. May also be issued as an IBM Word For Windows
compatible disc (on CD ROM – Read Only Memory).

* ATA = Air Transport Association – based in America.

THE ATA ISPEC 2200 SYSTEM

STANDARD MANUAL TOPIC REFERENCING

Prior to the introduction of the ATA100* standard presentation of technical

data in the manufacturer’s manuals was not laid out to any standardised
format. Consequently, for example, the subject of towing was found in chapter
9 of the Vicker’s manual, but in the De Haviland manual it was in a different
chapter. This meant confusion, time wasting, and inconvenience for operators
working with different types of aircraft.

With the introduction of the ATA100 (now iSpec 2200) standard a particular
subject could be found in the same chapter irrespective of the aircraft
manufacturer – Airbus, Boeing, Fokker etc.

Every chapter in each manual for all aircraft will have an unchanging chapter
number and title. The chapter numbers are grouped under headings, the order
of which is largely alphabetical.

The chapters listed below do not necessarily occur in all manuals – for
example, chapters 5 to 10 will be in the AMM only.

* ATA100 and ATA2100 (Digital Data Standards) have been combined into ATA
iSpec 2200.

- 34 -
Chapters

FOR OPERATOR USE ONLY

CHAPTER 1 to 4 Reserved for airline use

AIRCRAFT GENERAL

CHAPTER 5 Time limits/Maintenance checks

6 Dimensions & charts
7 Lifting & shoring
8 Levelling & weighing
9 Towing & taxiing
10 Parking & mooring
11 Required placards
12 Servicing
13 to 19 These chapters are left unassigned for any additional data
the manufacturer may wish to include at a later date.

AIRFRAME SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 20 Standard practices - airframe

21 Air conditioning
22 Auto flight
23 Communications
24 Electrical power
25 Equipment/Furnishings
26 Fire protection
27 Flight controls
28 Fuel
29 Hydraulic power
30 Ice & rain protection
31 Instruments
32 Landing gear
33 Lights
34 Navigation
35 Oxygen
36 Pneumatics
37 Vacuum
38 Water/Waste
39 to 48 These chapters are unassigned for additional data that
may be required at a later date.
49 Airborne auxiliary power

continued

- 35 -
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 50 Unassigned
51 Structure
52 Doors
53 Fuselage
54 Nacelles/Pylons
55 Stabilisers
56 Windows
57 Wings
58 to 59 Unassigned

PROPELLERS

CHAPTER 60 Standard practices prop/rotor

61 Propellers
62 to 64 Unassigned
65 Rotors
66 to 69 Unassigned

POWER PLANT

CHAPTER 70 Standard practices engine

71 Power plant
72 Engine
73 Engine fuel & control
74 Ignition
75 Air
76 Engine controls
77 Engine indicating
78 Exhaust
79 Oil
80 Starting
81 Turbines
82 Water injection
83 Accessory gear boxes
84 to 89 Unassigned

GENERAL

CHAPTER 90 Unassigned
91 Charts

Sections

Each chapter is broken down into Sections. Each section deals with a subject
area within it’s chapter eg, section 10 of chapter 73 deals with ‘distribution’
and is written as 73 – 10.

- 36 -
Subjects

Each section is divided into Subjects eg, subject 41 of Section 10, Chapter 73
deals with ‘Fuel Pumps’ and is written 73 – 10 – 41.

Composition

The three elements – Chapter, Section, and Subject are each made up of 2
digits and go to make up the ATA100 (iSpec 2200) page numbering system, eg:

73 – 10 – 41

FIRST ELEMENT SECOND ELEMENT THIRD ELEMENT

73 - 10 - 41

CHAPTER SECTION SUBJECT

eg ENGINE FUEL eg DISTRIBUTION eg HP FUEL PUMP
& CONTROL

Page Numbering (topics)

In addition to the ‘three element’ system, the subjects are further broken down
in order to provide ‘topics’. This makes for easier referencing. The system uses
standard page numbering but the numbers are grouped in blocks.

TOPIC PAGE BLOCKS

Description & operation (D & O) 1 to 99

Fault isolation (FI) 101 to 199
Maintenance practices (M/P) 201 to 299

Each topic is made up of several sub-topics, ie, ‘Maintenance Practices’ is

made up of the following sub-topics: Servicing; Removal/installation;
Adjustments/ tests; Inspection/checks; Cleaning/painting; Approved repairs.
Where these sub-topics are brief they will all be dealt with under the topic
heading ‘Maintenance Practices’. Where the sub-topics are lengthy and their
combination would require many pages, then each sub-topic is treated as a
topic.

The standard page numbering would continue as follows (next page):

- 37 -
 TOPIC PAGE BLOCKS

Servicing (SRV) 301 – 399

Removal/installation (R/I) 401 – 499
Adjustment/test (A/T) 501 – 599
Inspection/check (I/C) 601 – 699
Cleaning/painting (C/P) 701 – 799
Approved repairs (AR) 801 – 899
Dispatch deviation 901 – 999

The ‘three element number’ together with the page number will appear on the
bottom right hand corner of each page (figure 26).

73-10-41
Page 203

Fig. 26 PAGE IDENTIFICATION

Overhaul Manual Page Numbering

TOPIC PAGE BLOCK

Description & operation 1 to 99

Disassembly 101 to 199
Cleaning 201 to 299
Inspection/check 301 to 399
Repair 401 to 499
Assembly 501 to 599
Fits & clearances 601 to 699
Testing 701 to 799
Trouble shooting 801 to 899
Storage instructions 901 to 999
Special tools fixtures & equipment 1001 to 1099
Illustrated parts list (where applicable) 1101 to 1199

- 38 -
AMTOSS CODES

The AMTOSS (Aircraft Maintenance Task Orientated Support System) code is a

two/three digit code for use when recording the actual tasks performed on
aircraft. The code is used on work cards/job cards/computer records etc so
when work done is recorded on automated data storage systems the
referencing/retrieval of the data is made easier.

This code is part of the ATA100 (iSpec 2200) system and can be found be in
some AMMs. Having said this Airbus (and presumably other manufacturers)
can supply manuals with or without the AMTOSS code. (With at least one
airline the code has lead to confusion and a near serious accident – an Airbus
aircraft taking off with the spoilers on one wing deployed [after maintenance
work], but the pilot managed, with some difficulty, to go-around and land the
aircraft safely.)

Procedures on aircraft are standardised into the following structure:

1. General
2. (TASK)
A. General
B. Equipment
C. Consumable Materials
D. Parts
E. References
F. Access
G. (TOPIC)
(1) (SUB-TASK)
(a) Sub-step
(b) Sub-step
(c) Sub-step
(2) (SUB-TASK)
(3) (SUB-TASK)
(a) Sub-step

Tasks are procedures for specific maintenance requirements. For example:

R/I page blocks normally contain two tasks:

1. Removal of the LRU.
2. Installation of the LRU.

A/T page blocks may contain three tasks:

1. Operational test of the system.
2. Functional test of the system.
3. System test of the system.

- 39 -
TOPICS are generic headings used in tasks to group sub-tasks. There are one
or more topics in each task.

SUB-TASKS are the major action steps in tasks. A sub-task refers to specific
equipment. For example, ‘Disconnect hydraulic lines’ is a sub-task. Separate
skill requirements are put in separate sub-tasks.

For example, a step involving hydraulic pipelines is never combined with an

action involving electrical wiring.

All tasks and sub-tasks are coded with an AMTOSS identification code in the
AMM unless specified by the operator.

A typical AMTOSS identification codes would include the task and the sub
task. For example:

Task:
ATA100/iSpec 2200 code Page Paragraph

Task 29-11-05-404-001-002 This code refers to the

installation of the engine
driven hydraulic pump.

Sub-Task:
AMTOSS Function Code

S874-001-002 The code 87 refers to the

bleeding of air from the
hydraulic system.

Listed below are the AMTOSS function codes. It should not be necessary to
commit them to memory, but you should have some knowledge of them.

00 REMOVAL

01 REMOVE/OPEN FOR ACCESS

02 REMOVE UNIT/COMPONENT
03 DISCONNECT/LOOSEN/REMOVE ITEM
04 DEACTIVATE
07 ERASE ELECTRONICALLY STORED DATE
08 REMOVE TEST EQUIPMENT
09 REMOVE SUPPORT EQUIPMENT

continued

- 40 -
10 CLEANING

11 CHEMICAL
12 ABRASIVE
13 ULTRASONIC
14 MECHANICAL
15 STRIPPING
16 MISCELLANEOUS CLEANING
17 FLUSHING

20 INSPECTION/CHECKS

21 GENERAL VISUAL
22 DETAILED DIMENSIONAL
23 PENETRANT
24 MAGNETIC
25 EDDY CURRENT
26 X-RAY/HOLOGRAPHIC
27 ULTRASONIC
28 SPECIFIC/SPECIAL
29 BOROSCOPE

30 REPAIR

31 WELDING/BRAZING
32 MACHINING/REAMING/BLENDING
33 COMPOSITE
34 FIBREGLASS/PLASTIC/HONEYCOMB/EPOXY
35 MISCELLANEOUS REPAIR
36 LEAKAGE REPAIR
37 PAINTING
38 PLATING
39 SEALING

40 INSTALLATION

41 INSTALL/CLOSE ITEMS REMOVED/OPENED FOR ACCESS

42 INSTALL UNIT/COMPONENT
43 INSTALL ITEM/RECONNECT/TIGHTEN/SAFETY
44 REACTIVATE
47 LOAD ELECTRONICALLY STORED DATA
48 INSTALL TEST EQUIPMENT
49 INSTALL SUPPORT EQUIPMENT

continued

- 41 -
50 MATERIAL HANDLING

51 SHIPPING
52 RECEIVING
53 PACKING
54 UNPACKING
55 STORAGE
56 MARSHALLING
57 ENGINE FERRY/POD MAINTENANCE
58 AIRCRAFT HANDLING

60 SERVICING/PRESERVING/LUBRICATING

61 SERVICING
62 PRESERVING
63 DEPRESERVING
64 LUBRICATING
65 FUELING/DEFUELING
66 DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING
67 DISINFECT/SANITISE
68 DRAIN FLUID

70 TESTING/CHECKING

71 OPERATIONAL
72 FUNCTIONAL
73 SYSTEM
74 BITE
75 SPECIAL
76 ELECTRICAL
78 PRESSURE
79 LEAK

80-99 MISCELLANEOUS

81 FAULT ISOLATION
82 ADJUSTING/ALIGNING/CALIBRATING
83 RIGGING
84 PREPARE FOR…/RESTORE…TO NORMAL
85 OPERATOR MODIFICATION INCORPORATION
86 AIRCRAFT/SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
87 BLEEDING
88 HEATING/COOLING
90 CHANGE = REMOVE + INSTALL
91 STANDARD PRACTICES
93 MARKING
94 JOB SET-UP/CLOSE-UP
95 MASKING
96 REPLACE
97 DATA RECORDING/CALCULATING
98 MANUAL OPERATION OR POSITIONING
99 ILLUSTRATIONS

- 42 -
THE FIN CODE

The equipment on the aircraft is identified by a unique identification number

called a Functional Item Number (FIN). The basic element of the FIN is a two
letter code indicating the system/circuit that the equipment belongs to. To this
code are added suffixes and/or prefixes which provide the unique
identification number for that item of equipment in that system/circuit.

For example:

2CA1

PREFIX. SECOND CIRCUIT LETTER SUFFIX. FIRST OF

COMPONENT CODE SEVERAL SIMILAR
IN CIRCUIT CA SYSTEMS

If components are handed, even suffixes indicates a component on the right-

hand side and odd numbers indicate a component on the left-hand side.

More details of the actual aircraft FINs can be found in the:

* Aircraft Schematic Manual (ASM)

* Aircraft Wiring Manual (AWM)
* Aircraft Wiring List (AWL)

AMENDMENTS/REVISIONS TO MANUALS

Manufacturer’s review their manuals frequently and change them as required.

Changes are brought about because of:

* Aircraft modifications.
* Correcting errors in the manuals - technical or typing errors.
* Modifying the manual in the light of experience.

This means that amendments are issued as required.

Holders of manuals are responsible for ensuring that their copies are kept up
to date and engineers that use the manuals are also responsible for ensuring
they are up-to-date before issuing any certification (CRS) (AN3 – now moved to
CAP 562).

- 43 -
Amendments for manuals are issued on:

Yellow paper – temporary.

White paper – permanent.

They are also accompanied by a ‘Letter of Transmittal’ on which the issuer

certifies the accuracy of the information and gives instructions as to what to
do. Manual holders should check the authenticity of these letters.

Cassette/CD Rom Systems

Used by many organisations instead of hard copy manuals to include AMMs,

IPCs, FIMs, manufacturer’s drawings etc. CDs are usually used with a PC, lap-
top, or similar computer incorporating a screen and printer. Cassettes use film
and a film projector/copier.

Cassette/CD systems reduce storage space (the CD/cassette can be put away
in a drawer whilst manuals for a large aircraft will take up a lot of shelf space)
and are more convenient to use – though if you have trouble with the
hardware (computer/cassette reader etc) this may not be the case.

Film Systems

Microfilm cassettes are used with a Cassette Reader using a lens and lamp
system to project the images (pictures and text) onto a built-in screen. The film
(simply pages of text and pictures in black and white) is wound forward or
backward (similar to a video) using a in-built electric motor. Some cassette
readers have a facility to print hard copy via a printer.

Microfiche is another method of storing technical information – drawings or

otherwise. Again it is a film system where photographs are taken of each page
of the manual (as for microfilm) and miniaturised. These are put onto a
negative microfiche film about 10cm by 15cm. Each microfiche film will
contain hundreds of pictures (pages) and the films are stored in indexed boxes.

To view a film it is placed on a glass platter within a lamp and lens system and
the pictures are projected onto a screen. The screen enlarges the pictures so
they are readable. The platter is moveable so it can be moved back and forth
as well as sideways to view the appropriate image. The platter is moved a very
small amount to move from one page to another.

An index of pages is provided to assist in location. They do not normally have

printer facilities attached and both film systems above are old and not used
much.

- 44 -
Computer Systems

These allow the user to view the pages of the manual (including drawings) on
the screen and print what-ever hard copies he/she wishes for use at the work
location.

Hard copies (from the printer) obtained by this system are usually used once
only, and therefore handling damage/deterioration is not a problem, as with
hard copy manuals.

If a subscription service is provided manuals and technical documents can be

viewed on-line via the web.

Computers used include desk-top computers, lap-tops (specially made –

toughened - for engineering purposes and body mounted voice commanded
computers with a miniature screen fitted to a head band and placed in front of
the eye of the operator.

Fig. 27 HANDS FREE BODY MOUNTED COMPUTER

Amendments are carried out by the issue of a new CD/cassette/fiche.

Each CD/cassette/fiche must be clearly marked as to its amendment state

and more recent amendments must be recorded and kept in a folder which
should be kept next to the viewer.

Engineers, using these systems, must ensure that they have checked both the
CD/cassette/fiche and the folder to ascertain the correct amendment state.
For computer systems, some manufacturers only allow access after inputting
the operator’s access code and a user code, for others, assess codes are not
required.

On-line systems are kept up to date by the manufacturer.

Check your company’s system.

NB. Aircraft constructors may produce their own systems which may require
that users are trained in their use.

- 45 -
 ENGINEERING STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

There is a vast array of engineering standards, some local to a particular

manufacturer, some national and others international.

The aim of standard specifications is to provide a documented system for the

economical production of artefacts (in this case components for aircraft) that
allow interchangeability and standard procedures (engineering or
administrative) and a common means of presenting information.

Examples:

Production – nuts and bolts to standard sizes and materials, PCBs to

standard layout, etc (PCB = Printed Circuit Board).

Procedures – stores procedure, quality control procedures etc.

Information – layout of maintenance manuals (ATA100/iSpec 2200),

drawing symbols and layout (BS8888) etc.

Local Standards

Most firms will have standard procedures (published or otherwise) associated

with sales, accountancy, procurement, manufacture etc. In many cases the
firm will adopt national or international standards for these areas.

Manufacturing parts for aircraft, for example, will require documentation

procedures, manufacturing procedures and quality control procedures as
required by the CAA and these will all meet national, European and
international standards.

National and international standards are agreed standards within the industry
they concern. They are not imposed on anyone and any organisation or
individual can ignore them if they/he/she wishes. If the standard is generally
recognised throughout the industry it would be folly to ignore it.

If, for example, when designing an aircraft all the rivets where to be made to
non standard sizes and materials, the rivet manufacturer would have to put
his prices up – putting the price of the aircraft up and possible putting
prospective customers off because of the difficulty of getting spares.

Not to mention the fact that the CAA might not give it a C of A because the
rivets do not conform to the required standards. You can still build the aircraft
– but it may not fly.

Governments, of course, can make standards compulsory.

- 46 -
History (should not be examinable but does give perspective to the issue of
standards)

‘Standards’ are not new. Possible the first attempt at standardisation was in
the area of speech and the writing of music. Later in 1215 the Magna Carta
(signed at Runnymede in the UK) famous for declaring that men can only be
tried by their equals also stated that there should be a standard measure
throughout the realm for ale, wine, corn and cloth.

Engineering standards go back nearly as long, with a flourish in the number of

standards produced coming with the industrial revolution. In 1880 Sir Joseph
Whitworth (of Whitworth screw thread fame) complained about the non
standardisation of candles and candle holders. Initially standards were local to
an area (the Newall system for example, was associated mostly with the North
of England).

Electrical engineers where one of the first to recognise the need for
international standards and in 1906 the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) was founded. Today it is composed of over 40 national
committees with the UK BSI acting for the British IEC committee.

In 1926 the ISA was formed, to be replaced in 1947 (after the war), by the ISO
(International Organisation for Standardisation). ISO is the international
standards agency for all areas except those covered by the IEC.

The ISO promotes the development of international standards from over 90

different national standards authorities with BSI (for the UK) being a leading
member. All authorities have the right of representation on the various
committees.

The European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) was founded in 1961 and
comprises the national bodies of the EU and other European countries. When
CEN publishes European standards they are adopted as national standards by
the countries approving them.

CENELECT is the electrotechnical equivalent of CEN.

National Standards/International Standards

All parts used on aircraft have to conform to either national or international

standards. In some cases a local standard has, because of usage, become a
national standard and sometimes developed later into an international
standard.

- 47 -
The range of standard specifications is vast and growing all the time. Older
(national) standards are being replaced by EN (European) standards and
international (ISO) standards. Listed below are just some that are related to
aircraft engineering (to keep fully abreast of all the changes you are advised to
use the internet):

* AC. Air Corp standard. An older American standard.

* AN. An American Army/Navy standard that is used for many small

parts on aircraft. Tends to be found on older aircraft.

* BSI. British Standards Institute. Used widely in the UK for all

aspects of aircraft engineering including manufacture (eg
aluminium alloy made to BSL86 specification), information (eg
drawings drawn to BS8888 standard).

The BSI has 14 classifications from Commercial to Health and

Safety including Materials, Manufactured Components, Quality
Control etc.

Some further examples:

BS 8888 Engineering drawing practice (was BS308). This

standard is a standard in its own right but also
acts as a reference to other standards, eg:
ISO 128 International standard for the production of
technical drawings.
ISO 7573 Technical drawings – item lists.
ISO Tolerancing.
BS 5070 Drawings – symbols.
ISO 7200 Title blocks and data fields.
BS EN ISO standards cover many areas including
software drawing systems, dimensioning,
tolerancing etc (EN = European Norm).
BS EN 22553 Welding, brazing and soldering symbols.
BS 2917 Symbols for fluid power systems.
BS 3939 Electrical and electronic symbols. Now
withdrawn and replaced with BS EN 60617.
BS EN 60617 Electrical/electronic symbols.
BS EN 20286 Limits and fits.

* DTD. Directorate of Technical Development. An (older) UK based

standard, eg DTD585 – hydraulic fluid.

- 48 -
* MIL. (Military) A US military standard common to all the US
services and used widely for the specification of oils, fuels,
equipments etc on civil aircraft. May be written as MIL-SPEC, MIL-
STD etc.

* MS. Military Standard. American. Example: MS20470 AD 5-12

denotes a rivet (size, shape of head and material).

* NAS. National Aerospace Standard. UK based.

* SBAC. Society of British Aerospace Companies. Specifications

relating to aircraft parts.

* ISO. International Organisation for Standardisation. Has 40 ‘fields’

of interest from Sociology to Domestic Equipment. Of interest to
the aircraft engineer is field 49 (the 40 fields are not numbered
consecutively). This has sub fields on:

Materials
Fasteners
Components
Structure
Engines
Electrical equipment
Instruments
Cabin equipment
Cargo equipment etc.

* ATA. The ATA100/iSpec 2200 system is well known throughout

civil aviation, but less well known are the other standards ATA
produce. ATA is a voluntary US industry agreement association
covering many areas in aviation. Just a few are:

100 Technical data presentation

101 Ground equipment
103 Jet fuel quality
104 Training
105 Training for NDT
106 Approved parts
107 Visual inspection
111 Airworthiness co-ordination
113 Human factors
117 Wiring
2100 Digital standards (now incorporated into ATA iSpec
2200)

- 49 -
Additional standards organisations include (national & international):

AECMA Association Europeene des Constructeurs de Material

Aerospatial
AFNOR French Standards
CEC Canadian Electrical Code
CECC Electronics Components Committee
CGSB Canadian General Standards Board
CSA Canadian Standards Association
DIN German/English Standards
EUROCAE European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
JIS Japanese Standards
SA Standards Australia
VDE Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker
VDI Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure
AN Air Force-Navy Aeronautical Standard Drawings
AND Air Force-Navy Aeronautical Design Standards
DODISS Department of Defence Index of Specifications & Standards
FAA Federal Aviation Administration Standards
FIPS Federal Information Processing Standards
AIA Aerospace Industries Association
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ARINC Aeronautical Radio Inc
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

”””””””

- 50 -