WHAT IS SCIENCE?

Science can be defined as a scientific subject that looks at processes and the body of
objective knowledge (Sund and Trowbridge, 1967). It involves knowledge of theories, laws,
facts, concepts and principles and how scientific processes are used to develop this
knowledge .Other authors define Science in several different ways.
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Science is a broad subject that constitutes different scientific contributory disciplines. Science
consists of, Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Agricultural Science, Botany, Zoology,
Entomology and Environmental science to mention just a few. You will be expected to study
science and show a deeper understanding of all the above stated branches.
NATURE OF SCIENCE
In order for you to understand the nature of science, it will be essential that you look at
scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is obtained through observation, classification,
experimentation, generalization and verification of evidence.
The nature of science is that it is:
a. Tentative; it is subject to change and therefore does not claim to be absolute truth.

b. Empirical; scientific knowledge is ultimately based on observation or

experimentation to prove it.

c. Holistic; scientific knowledge that has specialized science contributory subjects to

form the whole body of knowledge.

d. Replicable; scientific knowledge is based on evidence that can be investigated.

e. Humanistic; scientific knowledge is a product of mankind’s effort to find out in

nature patterns that involves creative imagination

You will however discover that science tries to explain the natural world around us. It is
concerned with unveiling the natural world. Science here will be as a body of knowledge
built up by scientists and consisting of the content, methods or processes and values and
attitudes.

Science

CONTENT METHOD/PROCESS ATTITUDES/VALUES

Body of Knowledge Way of Investigating Way of Thinking

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SCIENCE CONTENT
You will understand that science content is the body of knowledge that makes up science as a
subject. Science content therefore consists of facts, concept, theories, principles and laws.
Science content refers to products of science
Facts: science facts are a reality of things as they exist e.g. water freezes at 0⁰C and boils at
100⁰C is a scientific fact.

Concepts: science concepts are relationships that describe the properties of objects forming a
pattern, e.g. the mole concept, photosynthesis in plants and refraction of light.

a. Principles: scientific principles are generalizations involving several concepts, e.g. the
Archimedes principle and the principle of moments.
b. Laws: scientific laws are rules or generalizations stating relationship between two or more
things, e.g. the law of reflection of light and the law of conservation of matter.
c. Theories: scientific theories bring up many concepts and principles together to explain
scientific phenomena, e.g. the kinetic theory of matter.

SCIENCE PROCESSES
You will learn that science processes are methods which we use to explain and review
scientific knowledge. According to Harlen (1992) science processes include observation,
hypothesis, predicting, communicating, investigating, interpretation of data and drawing
conclusion.
Scientific Method of Inquiry
You will discover that learning science involves doing science rather than the mastery of
scientific facts, theories and principles. The scientific method of inquiry involves procedures
in scientific investigation to test or verify set hypotheses and this involves problem solving
activities. Sund and Trowbridge (1967) states that, pupils can learn actively through scientific
methods. Cohan and Manion (1997) summarize the six stages of scientific method as follows

Stage 1 Identification of the problem situation

Stage 2 Searching for relevant information

Stage 3 Synthesize information related to the

problem

Stage 4 Formulate hypothesis

Stage 5of Education

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science research/experimentation
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Science Process Skills
Science process skills are scientific skills through which knowledge can be acquired or
revealed. You will find out that scientific skills are subdivided into Basic Skills and Integrated
Skills.
Basic skills include the following:

Observation: Collecting information by using on, or more of the five senses.

Measurements: Using instruments to make quantitative comparisons with standard units

e.g. Mass, Volume and Time.
Classification: Putting things into groups of common characteristics.
Communication: Expressing ideas of common interest in written, oral/verbal, diagram and
graphical forms.
Predicting: Making specific forecast of what the future observations will be based on past observations.
Inferring: Making reasonable and logical conclusions to explain observations.

Integrated Skills include the following:

Interpretation of data: Extracting and explaining data from graphs, tables and diagrams with

reasonable skill.

Conducting Experiments: Using experimental evidence to answer or test hypothesis.

 Formulating hypothesis: Use of rational reasoning to find out tentative answers to problems.
 Controlling variable: Use different conditions or factors as a basis for experiments.
 Extrapolation of Information: Use of careful reasoning to skilfully extract specifically related to
your research.
Scientific Attitudes
Scientific attitudes are desirable attitudes that foster the study of science. A science
Learner/Teacher is expected to portray positive attitudes in science. These include the
following:
 Persistence: Maintaining an active interest in towards a given topic/subject.
 Curiosity: Having a longing to know or understand something.
 Skepticism: Having an opportunity to question other opinions with view to correct.
 Objectivity: Basing conclusion on evidence and not cooking up results.
 Creativity: Being inventive and using intellect to bring out your own initiative.
 Humility: Not being pompous and arrogant towards other people.

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  Open mindedness: Willing to be objective and accept other people’s opinion even if
they could be wrong.

What is Science Education?

It will be important for you as a teacher to understand that Science Education is concerned
with the teaching and learning of science. It is also concerned with the methods and
theories of teaching and learning of science.
According to Anderson and Simpson (1981), every person must be scientifically literate in
order to function effectively in this present scientific and technological society.
You as a science teacher have the responsible to develop in learners, ability and attitudes of
“doing science” and acting scientifically by applying scientific knowledge. Science education
is about science educators who have the task of preparing students for multiple roles and
responsibilities in this modern society.
Aims of Science Education
 Acquisition of knowledge and understanding of a range of scientific concepts,
generalisations, principles and laws.
 Development of cognitive and psychomotor skills and processes directed at scientific
activities in laboratory.
 Utilization of scientific knowledge and processes in the pursuit of knowledge.
 Realization that science is part of our everyday experience and can be better
understood by exploiting the knowledge.
In conclusion you have learned the Nature of Science which essentially looks at scientific
knowledge and how it is obtained through observation, classification, experimentation,
generalization and verification of evidence while the Nature of science looked at science
content and science processes. Science teachers/educators are expected to instil in learners
desirable scientific attitudes and scientific process skills and lastly you are expected to
understand that science education involves methods and theories of teaching and learning
science.
Challenges in teaching/Learning science
 Lack of laboratories in school
 Lack of skilled teachers in science
 Lack of science books in schools
 Lack of apparatus
 Chemicals and apparatus used in science are expensive
HOW CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE
Government Policy on Science Education at Basic School Level

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The Government of the Republic of Zambia (G.R.Z) has set out a comprehensive national
policy on education in general in the book: Educating Our Future, (G.R.Z; May 1996). The
major focus of this policy is to improve the quality of basic education. It is based on the
principle of integration.
The contributing subjects to this area Environmental science, Home economics and
Agricultural science. It also integrated other cross-cutting issues such as Environmental
education, Reproductive Health, HIV/AIDS, Hygiene, Nutrition, Substance Abuse, Water and
Sanitation.
The government emphasises the need for learner participation in the lesson. The learning
area should be enhanced creativity, analysis, problem solving and the investigative
approach. The government prescribes that the learning area should be taught using a
variety of methods in a lesson in the classroom and outside. Learners are expected to
conduct experiments, study tours, field work and project work.
Integrated science is a learning area in which learners are required to develop scientific
knowledge, skills and attitude that will help them to explore and understand their
immediate environment and the world at large.
At the end of grade seven (7), learners are expected to develop an attitude of scientific
inquiry and curiosity, the ability to generate new ideas, ability to co-operate, willingness to
share knowledge, an understanding of human beings and their environment, awareness of a
variety of life and understanding of the relationship of living things in their environment and
knowledge and skills in health and nutrition.
GENDER IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
The major aim of science education is to ensure that all young people are accorded the opportunity to study
most of their school lives. The curriculum emphasises the need to provide equal opportunities to both girls a
be scientifically and technologically literate. This is so because all modern societies require that ordinary citi
basic understanding of scientific principles and issue in order to function and contribute effectively in the
that are built in a scientific and technological foundation.
All pupils should be helped to understand scientific basic principles to help them understand the world aroun

FACTORS THAT AFFECT GENDER IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

 Nature of study of study materials
 Methodology
 Pupils’ back ground
 The community’s view of science and technology
 The teachers’ perception and understanding of science and
technology.
NATURE OF STUDY MATERIALS

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The materials used tend to be gender based for boys than for girls e.g. science books showing
male doing science work.
METHODOLOGY
The teacher’s way of presenting a science lesson matters a lot. The perception that science
is for boys or males should not be perpetuated. Examples that are gender neutral should be
explored. Gender differences should be taken into account to accommodate every one.
PUPILS’ BACKGROUND
Basic scientific and technological background is very important to help cement
understanding operations of modern machinery and appliances. A moral background, social
roles and socio-economic status have an influence on the perception of science.

THE COMMUNITY’S VIEW OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Most tradition societies view science and technology as field for boys and males Teachers
have an uphill battle to try and convince girls to have an interest in science, mathematics
and technology.
THE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN SOCIETYThe teachers need
to relate what happens in every day life to scientific and technological concepts in science
for science to become real.
Gender AND LEARNING RESOURCES
Teaching and Learning (T/L) Resource help teachers to explain concepts and on the other
hand help learners to grasp concepts.
Learners need to see something, hear something and do something during the learning
process. In other words various senses need to be exploited in acquiring concepts.
Learners learn better if they do something themselves or if they are shown how to do
something. They must do it themselves after a demonstration. There is an English adage
which says “Practice makes perfect”. A proportion of a lesson needs to be devoted to
putting into practice what is being learned.
A lesson must be activity based as much as possible. Activities provide opportunity for the
learners to gain new knowledge, gain experience and improve skills.
A practical lesson requires careful preparation beforehand and organization through out.
Before a field trip, arrangements must be made. Learners should be put in groups and each
group given a different activity to do.
In activity lesson, give worksheets which give clear steps and explanations. A demonstration
should be made if necessary to set the stage well. Learners should be aroused to consider
various ways and means of tackling a practical task by judicious questioning by the teacher.
Displays of charts or specimens give learners an opportunity of seeing in concrete terms

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 what they have to do and also have a goal set before them for high standards. Then issue
materials and equipment for the practical.
Learners should get on their work and the teacher should go round the class supervising,
criticizing, praising and encouraging the learners as required.
Classroom Resources
 Chalk board.
 Books, periodicals, worksheets etc.
 Pictures, charts, diagrams and posters.
 Electronic equipment and computers.
 Specimens, artifacts, models and dioramas.
1. The chalk board is still the most common and useful of all teaching aids. The writing
on the board should be horizontal, not plunging down or climbing up. Writing should
be uniform in size and the same style as children’s, to be a good example. A chalk
board should be well planned and work should not be scattered. Teachers should be
proficient in drawing and sketching.
2. Printed material is one of the most useful ways of storing and communicating
knowledge and one that teachers cannot do without. It is therefore important that
you recognize the potential of various kinds of written materials in teaching such as
text books, reference books, periodicals and pamphlets.
3. Pictures, charts, diagrams and posters can have selected information presented in a
large format. Visual aids tend to make learners understand better rather than talking
about something. However, if the real thing is available, it is better to use that. This
is referred to as reliably. Real life specimens can be obtained from the environment
but simulated presentations of real things can be used to stimulate the same
experience as a real thing. Simulated media include artifacts, models, dioramas and
puppets.
4. Electronic media involves the use of radios, televisions, tape recorders, DVDs,
PowerPoint’s, overhead projectors, slides, film strips and computers in teaching. The
issue of using teaching and learning resources involves self-help or improvisation of
resources. There should be no excuse of not using teaching aids because some of
them can be made using simple materials and being creative. After teaching and
learning resources have been made, they need to be protected from dust,
dampness, wind rain, termites, borers, moths, mice and heavy hand use

oaches to Learning science

uccess of any curriculum depends on the methods, techniques and strategies used in implementing it. So
ny teaching to be successful it must meet a number of requirements. You should know these and they
de:-
It must be planned.
It must b e based on appropriate methods, techniques and strategies

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 It must be resourceful.

r there are only two types of methods of teaching. These are:-

arner-centred method.
eacher-centred method.

ner-Centred Method
e are methods which recognise that learners are capable of doing their own learning with little supervision.
eacher assumes the role of a facilitator of learning experiences and arranges conditions in such a manner
pupils are able to discover for themselves the concepts and skills under her/his guidance. The teacher's
onsibility is to help, monitor and assess the learners, who actively participate in the learning process. This is
nformity with the social-constructivism theory of learning.
e Advantages of Learner-Centred Methods include:
Full participation of learners
Learners learn to solve problems on their own
Learners learn from one another
earners become responsible for their learning
Learners acquire practical or process skills
Special individual attention is given to the learners by the teacher
t allows for differentiated work set
Learners tend to be creative and critical thinkers
Learners get motivated and there is a free and happy learning atmosphere
Learners develop leadership skills
t allows for a variety of activities to take place
t allows for slow learners to get help from fast learners.
Learners do not easily forget what they learn.
or Learner-centred strategies are by far the most recommended in teaching of science because they
ve the learner both mentally and physically. You as a teacher must understand this.

Teacher-Centred Strategies are those methods in which the teacher is more active and has direct contro
learners. These would include lecture, teacher demonstrations and teacher questioning. Teacher -centred
have been proved to be generally ineffective in teaching of science. They keep the learner on a passive side
they do not fully benefit. They are only mentally involved in lessons and learning is not re-enforced b
activities.

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 The other classification of teaching strategies in science is through the presentation of learning outcomes.
may provide experiences in which pupils have to organise different facts to arrive at a general p
generalisation. That is, pupils move from specific or known facts or concepts to a general principle or unkn
They have opportunity to use processes of science to solve problems. This is an inductive approach.
The teacher may choose to introduce a generalisation or unknown principle and then demonstrates how a
of known facts or ideas fit into this generalisation, i.e. pupils are guided from unknown to known facts or p
This is a deductive approach. This approach is based on verifying the existing knowledge and may not allow
develop an inquiry mind. Both teacher-centred and pupil centred strategies fit well in inductive and d
approaches and all depends on who is more active in a given lesson
Table 1.0 shows the type of classification described above and examples of both pupil and
teacher-centred methods.
Table 1.0

Inductive and Deductive Approaches in Science Education

TEACHER-CENTRED PUPIL-CENTRED

Inductive Approach Examples: Examples:

(known to unknown or -Questioning techniques -Educational games
specific to non-specific) -Guided discussion -Pupil-led discussions
-Demonstrations -Independent study
-Field trips
-Panel discussions
-Laboratory investigations
-Inquiry-based movies
-Simulations and role playing
-Brainstorming
-Problem-solving

Deductive Approach -Lecture -Laboratory exercises

(unknown to known or non- -Demonstrations -Programmed instruction
specific to specific) -Directed activities related to a text -Reading textual materials
-recitation -Pupil-led seminars
-Limited discussion -Pupil demonstrations
-Use of film or video show -Educational games
-Teacher questioning -Pupil reports
-Use of guest speakers

Adapted from Simpson and Anderson (1981:161)

MON TEACHING STRATEGIES IN SCIENCE
mber of teaching strategies do exist for use by teachers. Some of these are lecture, class discussion,
onstration, hands-on activities, question and answer, field trip, group work, brainstorm, project approach,
study, debate, panel discussion, role play, ice-breakers and energizers and eclectic methods. Some of these
egies are discussed below.

LECTURE METHOD

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gh one of the most ineffective methods in teaching science, many teachers nevertheless, use it often,
particularly when the teacher does most of the talking.
ntages
it is usually fast and useful where are large classes and teachers are few and the materials have to be
covered within a short time
it is useful in instances where explanations of scientific concepts, theories or operations of certain
equipment need to be made to pupils
it permits dissemination of unfamiliar or not readily available materials.
It allows the teacher to determine the aims, content, organisation, pace and direction of a presentation.
n be used to arouse interest in a subject.
n complement and clarify text material.
ows for gradual development of complex or difficult concepts and theories.
vantages
Pupils tend to be passive and their attention in learning is hindered or lost.
It promotes one way communication.
Pupils spend a lot of time outside classroom to achieve understanding and long-term retention of content
learnt. However, when it is interactive and combined with discussion and problem solving sessions, it
influences active participation of pupils.
Requires effective writing and speaking skills on the part of the teacher.
It puts demand on the teacher to organise and synthesize content.

Lecture method is best used in combination with other methods to promote effective learning as it arouses
pupils’ interest and imaginations, prompting them to perform practical activities.

2 DEMONSTRATION METHOD
It involves the teacher or learner performing an activity or displaying something to some observers. It
teacher to introduce certain topics vividly with clarity to the pupils. As pupils see a demonstration from the
they get motivated and this enhances learning.
For this method to be useful it must:
 Have clearly defined aims and objectives.
 Be clearly observed by every pupil and involve the class at every stage.
 Be achieved by use of simple apparatus whose operations are easily understood by pupils.
 Have a workable logical order of presentation.
 Stimulate interest, curiosity and inquiry in pupils.
 Be easily performed by pupils themselves.

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 Advantages of Demonstration.
 It allows pupils to observe real objects and concrete things.
 It is relatively cheaper in terms and time and resources like equipment and chemicals.
 Risks and hazards or accidents associated with certain investigations can be minimised.
 It is useful in cases where materials and apparatus are limited and classes too large.

Disadvantages of demonstrations
 It limits the learners' participation
 Learners do not develop manipulative skills unless they demonstrate themselves.
 Learning is limited to merely mental activity on the part of the pupils.
This approach is best used when the class size is fairly small and equipment, apparatus and chemical
and in combination with other strategies.

Activity
This activity will help you to understand how a demonstration should be conducted.
Explain how you can ensure that your pupils learn from an experiment you are demonstrating?

QUESTION/ANSWER METHOD
ce is a discipline that has been developed as a result of asking many questions. Answers to these questions
the body of scientific knowledge that we study. Scientific inquiry comes from a curious mind and the art of
g the right questions. Questions help pupils to understand the nature and progresses of science. Through
tions, the teacher can collect information about the pupils' background, interest and abilities. Questions do
to identify strengths and weaknesses instructing and monitoring of pupil progress. Challenging questions
pupils can lead to investigations and help the teacher develop problem-solving skills in the pupils.
tions should be asked in order to:
Revise previous work.
Motivate pupils.
Find out what pupils already know or can remember.
Monitor teaching and learning.
Gain feedback on learning.
Stimulate pupils’ active participation in learning.
Help pupils to learn from one another.

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 Help pupils evaluate themselves.
Encourage self-criticism.
Promote willingness to work towards an answer.
questioning ability is a very important skill in this method to enable the teacher to:
Adequately sample questions for feedback.
Phrase the question in a simple and unambiguous way.
Guide the teacher in developing thinking patterns in the learners that may be necessary for problem
solving or recall of pre-requisites for a given situation.

e are three requisites for successful Q-A. These include:

The questions themselves.
The way in which student responses are obtained.
The way in which student responses are handled.
planning is required in Q-A and the teacher must know the questioning techniques to stimulate and
vate the learners of all ability levels basing on the lesson objectives. Questions may be:
Divergent (open-ended) or
Convergent (closed-ended).

Divergent questions encourage pupils to give a broad range of answers. Convergent questions focus o
teacher accepted answer.

Divergent questions help pupils “cast their nets” widely to come up with varieties of answers, hence the
problem-solving skills as they involve creative and critical thinking.
Convergent questions help the teacher to guide pupils and evaluate their observational and recall skills abou
Questioning techniques can be enhanced if the teacher considers the following:
 Less talking, more questioning.
 Use more divergent questions
 Asking questions at cognitive level e.g. application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
 Avoid questions with “yes” or “no” answers.
 Ask questions to find out learners abilities and talents and ask them to clarify their answers.
 Don't stop pupil discussion with the correct answer.
 Give time for pupils to think about the question as you pause, to motivate them and develop silent ti
 Be sensitive and listen, ask a lot of “What if” and “How would you” questions and avoid a lot o
questions and over generalisation.

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 For Q-A method to be effective, the teacher should:
 Ask key questions to lead the class to explore facts.
 Distribute questions evenly and involve every learner. Move around the classroom and talk from
positions.
 Keep eye contact and listen to the learner answering the question, but look around to everyone.
 Time questioning.
 Probe and prompt learners to try again if they fail at first attempt to give correct answers.
 Re-enforce correct answers as soon as possible through praise and rewards.
 Use correct and simple vocabulary with clarity of language.
 Use non-verbal cues/gestures as pupils act on these as signs of approval, encouragement and und
from the teacher.

TALK AND DISCUSSION/GROUP WORK METHOD

and discuss group work method is useful in teaching science as it involves pupil-teacher and pupil-pupil
action. In this method information flows in three dimensions i.e. teacher-pupil communication, pupil-
her communication and pupil-pupil communication.
method promotes inter-learning in which case both the learner and teacher learn from each other. The
common application of talk and discussion group method in science lessons is in practical activities. Here,
s pair up or form small groups of 3 or 4 and work on the same task. It is important for the teacher to plan,
g into consideration the following factors:
Topic objectives and reason for using this method.
Availability of materials.
Safety measures and precautions.
Social skills to be developed in the learners such as cooperation and tolerance.
Monitoring and interaction with each group as a facilitator.
Time the groups spend on each activity.
Encouraging all learners to actively participate in the activities.
Ending the lesson by drawing up learners together their experiences and make objective comments on
their findings.

ity
activity will help you to understand the importance of class discussion in a lesson.
in why a class discussion is suitable for beginning and summarizing lessons.

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BRAINSTORMING METHOD
method involves the learners’ creativity, thought provocation and inquiry. This method is based on the fact
every learner has the potential to bring out highly thought out ideas born from their creativity and
nations, hence contributing to the learning of science. During brainstorming, criticism of ideas should be
ed and evaluated at last. Brainstorming can be at individual or group level. Group brainstorming can be
ve by considering the following:
Define the problem to be solved clearly.
Focus on the problem posed.
Discourage criticisms.
 Encourage enthusiastic attitude among group members to get everyone contribute and develop idea
 Appoint a group leader to write down points.

6 FIELD TRIP METHOD

Field trip method is an investigative type that brings the learner in direct contact with the intended study
any learning activity carried out by a group of learners or just and individual outside the classroom in fo
park, factory, mine or environment outside classroom. It helps learners to relate theory to practice.
A filed trip should be well planned if it is to:
 Encourage pupils to develop knowledge, skills and attitude and apply them in real life situations.
 Allow learners to verify class work, textbook knowledge or lab activities in relation to day life activitie
 Promote cooperation among pupils as they discuss their findings.
 Inculcate basic research skills as they observe, collect and analyse data and draw up conclusion.
 Help pupils realise that that they can contribute to their own learning while the teacher acts as a faci
 Help pupils broaden their learning sphere from the class room.
Good planning is necessary for a field trip to be successful. This involves a survey of the place, what things p
carry, clear guiding instructions, safety of pupils and first aid.
After the trip is completed, follow up activities are necessary. These include pupils writing comprehensive
their field trip observations. Reports should be discussed in class.
Some advantages of field trips are:
 Verification of scientific generalisations.
 Use of all senses to gain complete picture of concepts under consideration.
 Development of skills in observation.
 Enjoyment through social interaction.

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 Some disadvantages of field trips include:
 Difficulties in planning and conducting follow ups.
 Cost on part of parents, school and teachers.
 Accidents may happen during field trips.
 Social problems among older pupils especially mixed classes (boys and girls).

ity
eld trips are important in science education. Discuss why this is so and give merits and demerits of this
proach
eal objects can strengthen the understanding of science by pupils. Discuss;
How real objects can be used in teaching a concept in science at primary school.
Write at least three advantages and disadvantages of using this method in the teaching of science.

THE PROJECT APPROACH

approach involves a student or teacher initiated activities based on content, processes and products and
ally carried out by students-either within or outside class time. This is done individually or in small groups.
e activities are used to explore to some depth, an area of interest either for enrichment purposes or as part
ss instructions. It enables the learners to:
Formulate their own questions about the topic under investigation.
Make predictions about possible solutions.
Think of ways to test their hypotheses.
Liaise with the teacher on various ways to present their findings.
Spend time to solve their own problems through trial and error.

tific topics for projects may be practical, theoretical or both. The learners are expected to explain the
nce of the project and usually submit a report. A good report should take into consideration:
A title.
Back ground information to the problem.
Statement of the problem.
Literature review related to the problem under investigation.
The methodology employed in tackling the problem.
Results from the investigation.
Analysis and interpretation of results.
Implications and conclusion.

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n a teacher uses the project method in teaching of science, he/she is expected to:
Talk and discuss with the learners why the project method is to be used.
Meet regularly with learners, giving the as much autonomy as possible and check that they have
necessary skills to deal with problems they encounter.

Advantages and disadvantages of the project method are similar to those for laboratory and demonst

8 Laboratory Work/Practical Method

This method involves the pupils to examine and manipulate objects individually or in small groups
teacher supervises the activity. Usually in this mode, all pupils work on the same task.
Functions of laboratory activities include:
 A means to secure information.
 A means to determine causes and effect relationships.
 To verify certain factors or phenomenon.
 To apply what is known.
 To develop skill and provide drill.
 To help pupils learn to use scientific methods to solve problems and carry out individual research.
Laboratory approach in science lessons:
1. Motivates pupils to learn science with interest.
2. Teaches skills to pupils in accurate observation and manipulative skills.
3. Helps pupils understand and accept theories and develop scientific attitudes.
4. Helps pupils develop team work, communication skills, experimental skills like recognising a problem
a procedure, collecting, recording and analysing data and drawing conclusions.

Laboratory strategy of teaching science requires real planning, resourcefulness and commitment on the
part. Teacher should be are of laboratory management skills like setting clear objectives, good timing of acti
safety rules.

Activity
This activity will help you to understand some aspects of laboratories and why pupils learn more when using the
method.
1 Explain why the laboratory method, though expensive, should be encouraged.
2. Outline at least 15 laboratory rules.
3. State some common causes of laboratory accidents.
4. List at least three disadvantages of laboratory method in the teaching and learning of science.

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 ROLE-PLAY
teacher you should understand that role-play is an activity in which pupils assume the role of another
on and act it out. It can be in form of drama. This type of activity gives pupils the opportunity to test their
understanding of their scientific knowledge and explore their own views, feelings and attitudes. To conduct
play with your class, the following steps should be considered:
Selection of an appropriate role-play situation or problem.
Preparation and warm-up and learners should be told the situation or problem and instructed on various
roles.
Select participants and assign them roles and allow them to briefly plan.
Conduct the role-play. The teacher should not interrupt except to introduce a new element or fact,
reverse roles where possible.
After the role play, discuss, evaluate and analyse the role-play; how the players felt and learned.

fits of role-play would include:

Teaching the social, economic and environmental aspects of science.
Encouraging cooperative learning.
Simulating real life situation.
Providing an opportunity to practice oral skills and fun.

ity
a teacher, think of other benefits of role- play.
esign a science activity involving role-play and explain how it would benefit the learners.

UPERVISED PRACTICE
method compels pupils to work individually or in small groups at assigned tasks within the class period and
acher is on the spot to get and give feedback. The pupils may work on identical tasks or different ones and
acher flits around the entire set up interacting with pupils.

ty
s it important for you as a teacher to plan and supervise and activity based science lesson?

11 INDIVIDUALISED INSTRUCTION

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 In this method the pupils receive instruction individually taking into account individual differences i
their abilities, motivation, interests and needs. In this method the pupil is given an opportunity to lea
own pace to achieve mastery level of content before proceeding to higher level content. The le
participates actively in the learning process.
You as a teacher should realize that individualized method however, some disadvantages like:
 Time consuming with high demands on humans, equipment, materials and chemicals especially if t
big.
 It discourages group instruction, cooperative attitude and interpersonal relationship among pupils.
 Different pupils require different kinds of attention from the teacher.

12 THE USE OF GAMES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

Think of instance when pupils were told to go outside to play, even those who were inactive and dozi
free to enjoy themselves!!!Do games have any place in the teaching and learning of science?
Types of Game
1. Puzzles
(i) Cross-word puzzle similar to those in newspapers.
(ii) Word-search, a letter grid where words related to the topic have to be located.

2. Board games. In this case, the teacher draws a game on a large piece of paper and also gives instructio
it.
3. Simulations. Involves imitation or presence. Simulations can be used to make complex or abstract
appear real.
4. Role Play.
Advantages of Games in Science Education
 They help learner of mixed abilities to work together.
 Provide an atmosphere for social interaction
 They encourage freedom of expression and decision making.
 Learners find it interesting.
learners who cannot contribute during normal lesson find it easier to discuss when playing a game. Games
ourage active participation of learners.

Challenges of Using Games in Science Education

allenge Suggested Solution

Construction of a game may be tasking for Collaborate with colleagues and

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one person. learners in game construction.
Materials may be costly. Improvise with cheap materials e.g.
Wood or hard cardboard.
Class size may be too big. Group the pupils.
No available game for every topic. Adapt many games for any given
topic.

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