APEX Life Reproduction

BIOLOGY
Life Reproduction
Table of Contents
Lesson 1 – The Cell Cycle ................................................................................................................ 1

Lesson 2 – Mitosis and Cell Division ............................................................................................. 11
Lesson 3 – Mitosis and Meiosis..................................................................................................... 25
Lesson 4 – Asexual and Sexual Reproduction ............................................................................... 33
Lesson 5 – The Male and Female Reproductive Systems ............................................................. 48
Lesson 6 – Fertilization ................................................................................................................. 62
Lesson 7 – Problems on Fertility ................................................................................................... 75
Lesson 8 – Population Growth ...................................................................................................... 79
Lesson 9 – Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) ......................................................................... 86
Biology: Unit V - Life Reproduction
Lesson  1
THE CELL CYCLE
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory /Classroom
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

 describe the events that characterize the stages in the cell cycle;
 list down the phases of the cell cycle in their correct order; and
 appreciate the importance of cell division.
RESOURCES
 transparency (overhead projector) or Manila paper

 marker pen
 colored pencil, crayon or markers
PREREQUISITE
Arrange the students in groups of 6 or 8. Before the activity, ensure

that the students are familiar with the stages or phases of the cell
cycle. Choose a leader and an encoder for the group presentation.
PROCEDURE
1. Introduce the session by asking the students:

 How do organisms grow?
 How do organisms make more of themselves?
 Why do people differ from each other?
 Is it possible that one day you will see an exact copy of
yourself?
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2. Relate their responses to asexual or sexual division of cells:
Reproduction is an important biological function. It allows

organisms to produce new individuals of their kind. It ensures that
as old individuals die, new ones are born to take their place to
continue the life of the species. Organisms produce themselves
either by asexual or sexual means. In asexual reproduction,
organisms produce offspring without forming sex cells. On the other
hand, sexual reproduction involves the production of sex cells, egg
and sperm and their fusion during fertilization. They depend on cell
division for growth and reproduction.
3. Review the nature and concepts of cell and cell theory. Then,
discuss the cell structure and functions. Start with the basic unit of
life, the four premises of cell theory, cell size, cell form, cell
functions, cellularity and multi-cellularity. You may discuss
something like:
Cells are the basic unit of life and, therefore, carry on all the
functions inherent to living things, including growth and
reproduction. These processes are very important, not only for the
propagation of the species, but also from an economic standpoint.
Farmers, pasteur raisers, animal breeders must understand how
each particular plant or animal with which they are working
reproduce and grows.
At the cellular level, eukaryotic cells reproduce by mistosis. This

process produces two new cells that are identical to their original
plant cell. Multicellular organisms grow by producing more cells.
This means that an elephant has many more cells than human
beings, and a coconut tree has more cells than a sunflower.
4. Give a drawing of an animal cell, and label the following organelles:

cytoplasm, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitocohondrion, golgi
body, lysosome, chromosomes, chromatin, cell membrane. At the
back of the diagram, complete a chart indicating the definitions of
each. Use these definitions to tell a brief story of how cell
organelles work together, for example, the organs of the human
body.
5. Label all the parts of a plant cell that are visible. Add cell wall and
chloroplast as labels and in a definitions chart.
2
6. Each part of the cell and the individual function should be explained
in detail to the students. Label the chromosomes on a magnified
drawing of a nucleus. Show how DNA is wound into the
chromosomes. Refer to the diagram: ”Inside the Cell Nucleus”.
Main Activity: THE CELL CYCLE- WHAT IS IT?
1. A copy of the diagram entitled “Cell Cycle” should be distributed to

the students. The different stages and the different activities of
each step of the cycle should be explained. See Teacher Notes for
inputs.
2. Develop an overview of mitosis. Also provide reminder definitions of

the parts of the cell involved (i.e., nucleus, chromosomes, DNA,
cytoplasm).
There are two kinds of cell reproduction: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis reproduces cells exactly like the original through replication
of the chromosomes. Mitosis is a continuous process which has
been broken down into four stages. Meiosis is the process where
reproductive cells are produced. Meiosis happens in the
reproductive parts of the body.
3. Based on the unlabelled drawing of the cell cycle, ask the students
to make an illustration of the cell cycle on Manila paper or on the
chalkboard. Tell them to label everything, color and describe each
phase of the cell cycle.
Discussion Ideas
What was your weight when you were born? What was your length?
How many millions of new cells did your body need to produce for you
to become as big as you are now?
Extension Ideas
1. Ask the students to summarize the information they have just
learned. Let them create a picture of a cell focusing on
chromosomes in the interphase stage using the pens, colored
pencils or markers. Then write the events that occur in the
interphase on the space provided. A sample is shown below.
3
The Cell Cycle: Interphase
The cell is engaged in metabolic activity and in

performing its duty as part of a tissue. The DNA
duplicates during interphase to prepare for mitosis
(the next four phases that lead up to and include
nuclear division). Chromosomes are not clearly
discerned in the nucleus, although a dark spot called
the nucleolus may be visible.
An exact copy of each chromosome is made in the nucleus. The
pairs stay physically stuck together. Outside the nucleus, a small
part of the cell called a centriole divides. The 46 chromosomes are
strung out like single threads and begin to condense as the next
phase starts.
2. Students can perform an experiment with onions to see if various

factors like temperature or salinity affect the time needed for each
stage of the cell cycle.
3. Students can research and find out how long animal cells spend in
the cell cycle, and then view slides of whitefish mitosis to calculate
how long the cells spend in each stage.
4. Using the Internet, students can research on cell cycle control

(regulation) and why cancer happens.
ASSESSMENT
1. List the phases of the cell cycle in order and describe each.
2. In which stage of the interphase does the most growth occur?
3. Which sequence of the cell cycle is common to Eukaryotic cells?
A. G1 to G2 to S to M to Cytokinesis
B. G1 to M to G2 to S to Cytokinesis
C. G1 to S to M to G2 to Cytokinesis
D. G1 to S to G2 to M to Cytokinesis
HOMEWORK
1. Some people say it is natural to gain weight as one gets older.

Explain why you agree or disagree with the statement.
4
2. Mitosis can occur only among eukaryotic cells. Based on what you
know about eukaryotic cells and what you have just found out about
cell division, what do you think is the reason for this?
REFERENCES
Baechler, Patricia. The Cell Cycle-Mitosis. Denver, Colorado: Academy
of Charter Schools 2, 3, 5, 17.
Olivares, et al. Science and Technology for the Modern World.168–
169.
http://www.bmb.psu.edu/courses/biotc489/notes/cycle.jpg
http://www.med.unibs.it/~marchesi/cellcycle.gif
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1982/7/82.07.02.x.html#a
5
Teacher Notes 1
INSIDE THE CELL NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the most important structure in cell reproduction because it

contains the blueprints which determine the size, shape, job, number of new
cells, and repairs for each cell. Inside the nucleus are small units called
chromosomes where the blueprint directions are stored. Every human cell
contains 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs.
The chromosomes contain important proteins and the hereditary chemical

material called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is a set of chemical
instructions that guide an organism’s development and functions. For a plant to
reproduce, it must pass a copy of its DNA on to its offspring in the form of a set of
chromosomes. But first the chromosomes have to be sorted. This is done by one
of two processes: mitosis or meiosis.
Before a cell divides, the DNA molecules in its nucleus must replicate. The
number of DNA in a cell depends on the species, but every cell of the root, stem,
or leaf of a given plant has the same number of DNA molecules. Each DNA in a
cell is double-stranded, a little like a twisted ladder. Each strand is called a
chromatid. Since the two chromatids of a chromosome contain identical genes
or genetic information, they are also sometimes referred to as sister chromatids.
On the drawing of the nucleus below, label the chromosomes and how DNA is
wound into the chromosomes.
Sister chromatids
centromer
6
Teacher Notes 2
THE CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered set of events, culminating in cell growth and division
into two daughter cells. Non-dividing cells are not considered to be in the cell
cycle.
The stages pictured on the left, are

G1–S–G2–M.
The G1 stage stands for “GAP 1”.
The S stage stands for “Synthesis”.

This is the stage when DNA replication
Eukaryotic Cell occurs.
The G2 stage stands for “GAP 2”.
The M stage stands for “mitosis”, and is

a type of nuclear division
(chromosomes separate).
Cytoplasmic (cytokinesis) division occurs simultaneously with the last stage of

nuclear division.
The non-dividing stage, which is devoted largely to cell growth, is called

Mitosis. It has four stages namely:
1. prophase 3. anaphase
2. metaphase 4. telophase
Growth in the size, length, height, width, weight of an individual results from an
increase in the number of cells. As an organism matures, the rate of
development slowly decreases. The growth of the organism stops when it
reaches its mature size. Normally, humans do not grow taller than 180 cm. Trees
may grow taller than 30 m. Cells continue to divide but at a slower rate. New
cells are produced to replace those that were destroyed or have died.
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Student Activity
THE CELL CYCLE- WHAT IS IT?
Objectives
In this activity, you will:
1. describe each phase of the cell cycle.
2. list down the phases of the cell cycle in their correct order.
3. describe the cell cycle in one paragraph.
Resources
 transparency or Manila paper
 marker pen
 colored pencil, crayons or marker
Procedure
 Based on the unlabelled drawing of the cell cycle, make a
diagrammatic illustration on manila paper.
 Label everything you see and color each phase of the cell cycle.
 Describe each phase of the cell cycle.
 Present the group output to the class.
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Guide Questions
1. As shown in the diagram, what are the 2 major stages of the cell
cycle? (mitosis and interphase)
2. Which phase takes place before G1? G2?
3. Which phase has the longest period? The shortest period?
4. How many hours are needed to complete the cell cycle?
5. Describe the cell cycle in one paragraph.
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Answer Key
THE CELL CYCLE
Source: http://www.biologymad.com/CellDivision/CellDi1.gif
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Lesson  2
MITOSIS AND CELL DIVISION
TIME
One session
SETTING
OBJECTIVES
 observe and identify the different stages of mitosis;
 describe the events that take place in each stage of mitosis; and
 differentiate between plant and animal cell mitosis.
RESOURCES
 drawing of mitosis or a prepared slide (if available) of plant and
animal cells undergoing cell division
 marker pen
 colored pencils
 Manila paper
 ruler
 microscope
 reference materials in Biology
PREREQUISITE
Prepare the diagram of mitosis in plant and animal cells, or slides if

available.
PROCEDURE
1. Recall the past lesson then relate it to the present activity.
2. With the use of a drawing or prepared slide, instruct the students to
observe and analyze the different stages of mitosis. Also on the
worksheet package, let students draw pictures of a nucleus under
mitosis, labeling chromosomes, spindle fibres, nuclear membrane
and centrioles at each of the five phases. At each phase, space is
provided for note taking on the key features.
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3. Tell them to prepare for a group presentation.
4. Ask some questions like:

a. What are the stages of mitosis?
b. What is the signal that the cell will start or is ready to divide?
c. Which is the longest stage of mitosis?
Discussion Ideas
At this very moment, a group of cells throughout your body is growing,
dividing and dying. Worn-out cells of the palms of your hands are being
replaced. Cuts and bruises are healing.
Other organisms undergo similar processes. How do these happen?

Look at the picture below. Can you tell how young living things are able
to grow into adults? What is the role being played by the body’s cells in
the growth of living things?
Living things are able to grow into adults through an increase in the
number of their body cells. In order for body cells to increase in
number, new cells must form from cells that are already present in the
body. Hence, the reproduction of cells plays an important part in the
growth of living things.
Extension Ideas
Using your mathematics skills, assume that your body cells divide
every 30 minutes. How many cells will be formed if two (2) cells of your
body go on dividing for three (3) hours?
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Closing Activity
Mitosis refers to how cells make identical copies of themselves. This is

how organisms grow. In the following examples underline the place
where you would expect to see more mitosis happening:
 a baby’s bones
 an elder’s bones
 a tree bud in summer
 the hair follicles of a bald man
 the hair follicles of a hairy man
 a yeast culture with lots of sugar
 a yeast culture with no sugar
 an egg in your fridge
 an egg with a chick
ASSESSMENT
Multiple choice: On the blank provided, write the letter of the correct
answer.
_____________ 1. The first stage of mitosis when chromosomes

become visible in the microscope is called
a. anaphase c. prophase
b. metaphase d. telophase
_____________ 2. Which of the following features of cell division

differ significantly in animal and plant cells?
a. anaphase c. prophase
b. metaphase d. cytokinesis
_____________ 3. Which of the following statements is not true of

mitosis?
a. A single nucleus gives rise to two identical
daughter nuclei.
b. Homologous chromosomes synapse in
prophase.
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c. The daughter nuclei are genetically identical to

the parent nucleus.
d. The centromere divides at the onset of
anaphase.
_____________ 4. How would you differentiate mitosis in plant and in

animal cells?
HOMEWORK
Prepare a visual presentation depicting mitosis. Take a yarn or thick

thread to represent chromosomes. Choose a chromosome number.
Use a different color for each chromosome. Draw the different stages
of mitosis on paper. Submit your work next meeting.
REFERENCES
Cell: The Basic Unit of Life: NFE Accreditation and Equivalency

Learning Material. 39, 42.
Quelal-lan, R M, et al. Science and Technology: Laboratory Manual.

76–77.
Rabago, et al. Science and Technology: Biology. 228–231.
http://educ.queensu.ca/~science/main/concept/bio/b12/B12LAML.htm
14
Teacher Notes
MITOSIS TRIVIA
A eukaryotic organism has a diploid number of chromosomes. When its cells
divide, each daughter cell must get an identical set of chromosomes from the
parent cell if it is to remain the same. During cell division, the nucleus
duplicates through a complicated process called mitosis, which insures this
result. Mitosis refers only to the division of the nucleus.
The process of mitosis takes place in plants when plant cells divide in the
meristems of roots and shoots (the meristems are located near the tip of a root,
stem, or shoot and are the growing, active parts of plants.) Such vegetative
growth is also a means of propagation for plants such as onion, potatoes,
grasses and strawberries, and so on. In this form of reproduction, inherited
characteristics of the offspring are identical to those of the parent.
The function of mitosis is to duplicate the nucleus—its chromosome sets.

Usually, nuclear duplication is accompanied by the approximately equal division
of the cytoplasm with formation on new cell membranes and walls around the two
daughter cells. The life cycle of the cell is typically divided into 2 major stages:
interphase and mitosis.
The 4 major phases of mitosis are listed below, along with the major events that
occur during each phase.
Prophase
Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes
visible in the light microscope as chromosomes. The nuclear
membrane dissolves, marking the beginning of prometaphase.
The centrioles replicate and separate to opposite ends of the cell,
tiny threads appear between the centrioles to form a spindle, the
chromosomes coil and condense. Proteins attach to the
centromeres creating the kinetochores. Microtubules attach at the
kinetochores and the chromosomes begin moving.
Metaphase
The centrioles finish separating. Spindle fibers align the
chromosomes along the middle of the cell nucleus. This line is
referred to as the metaphase plate. This organization helps to
ensure that in the next phase, when the chromosomes are
separated, each new nucleus will receive one copy of each
chromosome.
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Anaphase
The paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and

move to opposite sides of the cell. Motion results from a
combination of kinetochore movement along the spindle
microtubules and through the physical interaction of polar
microtubules.
Telophase
New membranes form around the daughter nuclei while the

chromosomes disperse and are no longer visible under the light
microscope. Cytokinesis or the partitioning of the cell may also
begin during this stage.
A furrow forms in the center of the cell and separates the cell
into two parts, the chromosomes uncoil and a nuclear
membrane separates each new nucleus.
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Student Activity (Option 1)
THE ONION ROOT TIP

The Situation
Assuming that you are an ornamental horticulturist, your occupation

requires that you beautify commercial landscapes, such as green belts,
the facade of office buildings, and banks with plants that you grow.
You have found out that the more established the roots are on the
plants you are transplanting, the better their survival. To accomplish
this, you must provide the proper conditions for the roots of plants you
are propagating.
You learned that by regulating the cell cycle, you can carefully control
the growth of an organism. In plants, the roots continue to grow as
they search for water and nutrients. These regions of growth are good
for studying the cell cycle because at any given time, you can find cells
that are undergoing mitosis.
In this investigation, you will use a microscope to observe onion root tip
cells in different stages of mitosis. You will also observe a prepared
slide of a root tip to determine where the dividing and growing cells
are.
Objectives
When you finish this investigation, you will be able to recognize cells
that are undergoing mitosis.
Resources
 prepared slide of onion root tip mitosis (allium, longitudinal section)

 compound light microscope
Safety Caution
Be careful when handling microscope slides because the edges and
corners are sharp
17
Procedure
1. Obtain a prepared onion root tip slide and a microscope.
2. Place a thin slice of the onion root onto a microscope slide and
stain so the chromosomes will be visible.
3. Using the low-power (10x) objective, find the area of cells in the
process of mitosis.
4. Move the slides so that you can observe the cells in regions above
the root tip. Classify each cell based on what phase it is in.
5. Diagram the root, noting the relative size and number of cells as
you move up from the tip. Sample drawing is shown below:
6. Count up the cells found in each phase and use those numbers to
predict how much time a dividing cell spends in each phase. You
can base your calculation on a total cell cycle of 24 hours. Copy the
table below onto a piece of paper. You can enter data in this table
as you go along, or at the end of the activity.
7. Return the microscope and slide to your teacher.
Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total
number of
cells 36
percentage
of cells 100%
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Guide Questions
 When you looked at the onion root cells, what differences did you
notice between the cells just behind the root tip, and those
elsewhere?
 Where are the most dividing cells in a root located?
 Where are the longer cells of the root found?
 Do root cells produce daughter cells that grow longer, or do the
cells grow longer first and then divide?
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THE MITOSIS JOURNEY
Objectives
In this activity, you will investigate the activity of chromosomes during

mitosis. You will develop skills in observing, identifying and describing
stages of mitosis cell division and also show cooperation and
teamwork in doing the activity.
Resources
 red and blue playdough

 centimeter ruler
 red and blue colored pencils
 student worksheet
Procedure
a. Define mitosis and the parts of the cell involved in mitosis namely:
chromosomes, spindle fibres (microtubules), centrioles and nuclear
membrane.
b. Obtain a small quantity (ball approximately 4 cm in diameter) of red

and blue playdough.
c. Using half of each color of the playdough make the following:
 red chromosome 10 cm in length

 blue chromosome 5 cm in length
d. The space in front of you represents the nucleus of a typical cell

that contains the 2 chromosomes you have constructed. This cell is
in INTERPHASE. Draw this phase on the space provided on the
worksheet. Make the chromosomes look like chromatin in your
drawing.
e. During the interphase, each chromosome duplicates itself and is

attached at a single point called the centromere. Use the remaining
playdough to make a duplicate copy of each chromosome and
attach this to the original to form an “X” shape.
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f. The chromosomes become shorter, thicker and more pronounced

(chromatid) when mitosis starts. Draw this as PROPHASE. Label
the nuclear membrane that is still visible, but will begin to break
down. The centriole divides in two and migrates to the opposite
poles of the cell. Label the centrioles and the spindle fiber.
g. The X’s line up at the equator (middle) of the cell. Draw this as
METAPHASE. Label the equator, spindle fibers and poles of the
cell.
f. The X’s separate at the centromere and half of each colour of

playdough travels to the opposite poles of the cell. Carry out this
step using your chromosomes and label the result ANAPHASE.
g. The chromosomes have arrived at their respective poles and the

spindle fibers disappear. Next, the cell membrane and the
cytoplasm split (cytokinesis). Two cells are produced that look
identical to the cell we began with. Draw this as TELOPHASE.
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Mitosis Worksheet
Using your playdough (chromosome), draw the cell at each phase of mitosis.
Label the four parts of the cell. Describe what is going on in your own words.
Phase Diagram of cell (draw) What is happening? (notes)

IINTERPHASE
PROPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
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OBSERVING MITOSIS
Objectives

 identify the different stages of mitosis; and
 examine and analyze each phase of mitosis of plant and animal
cells.
Resources
 diagram of mitosis or a prepared slide (if available)

 microscope
 marking pen
 pencil
 ruler
 Manila paper
Procedure
1. Examine the slides from each type of organism, and draw a cell of
each that is undergoing mitosis. Draw one cell in a stage of
mitosis, using proper microscope drawing technique. Use Table 1.
2. With the use of a prepared slide or diagram, observe and analyze
the different stages of mitosis. Complete the information requested
in Table 2.
3. Write your observations and analysis on Manila paper. Be ready for
the presentation.
Table 1
Organism Size of the cells Shape of the cells Chromosomes of
(smallest, (round, square, the cells (easy to
middle, largest) irregular) see, crowded
together)
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Table 2
Phase Events in Each Phase Diagram of Diagram of the

(What is happening to the the Animal Cell
chromosomes at this stage?) Plant Cell
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Questions
1. What is the longest stage of mitosis?

2. What aligns at the equatorial plate of the cell?
3. What is visible during the telophase stage?
4. After mitosis is completed, what happens to the original cell?
5. How would you know that the slide you observed was that of a
plant cell? Of an animal cell?
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Lesson  3
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory /Classroom/ Outdoors
OBJECTIVES

 analyze the stages of meiosis cell division;
 compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis; and
RESOURCES
 diagram or drawing of meiosis or a prepared slide (if available)

 microscope (if prepared slide is available)
 Manila paper, marker pen, colored pencils or markers
PREREQUISITE
Prepare a diagram of meiosis or a slide, if available.
PROCEDURE
1. Recall the previous activity then relate it to the present lesson.

2. Use slides and the microscope. Set up stations for students to view
cells in different stages of meiosis. If equipment is unavailable, use
the diagrammatic illustrations or drawings of meiosis.
3. Instruct the students to proceed to their groupings.
4. Provide one activity sheet per group.
5. Prepare the students for the group presentation.
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6. Ask these questions regarding the lesson:

a. What is the important event during Prophase I?
b. What important event takes place between the first and second
meiotic divisions?
c. How does meiosis preserve the number of chromosomes of a
specie?
d. Meiosis is sometimes called reduction division. Why is this so?
Discussion Ideas
Did you know that all the cells in the human body are made up of 46
chromosomes? These chromosomes make up 23 pairs that are
replicated and passed on to daughter cells. The only exception in the
sperm and egg cells is that each sex cell is made up of 23 single
chromosomes. Why do you think this is so?
In the process of reproduction, the sperm unites with the egg cell in
order to produce a zygote that will grow into a fetus inside its mother’s
womb. Each sex cell contributes 23 chromosomes to the developing
human. Hence, a human being starts out with 46 chromosomes, which
are contributed by the biological parents.
Extension Ideas
Construct a model to show what happens to the nuclear materials

during meiosis. Use any recycled, indigenous and/or low-cost
materials.
ASSESSMENT
Identify the step in cell division that is being described by each

statement. Write the phase in which the event occurs on the blank.
___________ 1. Each chromatid seeks its homologous pace.

____________ 2. This is the stage where cytokinesis takes place to produce two
cells.
___________ 3. The homologous chromosomes separate.
___________ 4. The cell appears to be resting.
___________ 5. Cytokinesis takes place to produce four cells.
___________ 6. The sister chromatids separate from each other.
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___________ 7. The member of the tetrad prepares to separate.

___________ 8. The sister chromatids are lined along the metaphase plate.
9-10 Compare a diploid to a haploid cell.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
HOMEWORK
1. Complete the following table.
Basis of Comparison Mitosis Meiosis
1. Types of cells where the

process occurs
2. Number of cell divisions
3. Number of chromosomes
4. Number of daughter cells

produced per parent cell
2. If the body cells of a horse have 64 chromosomes each, how many

chromosomes do the gametes of a horse contain?_____________
REFERENCES
Cell: The Basic Unit of Life: NFE Accreditation and Equivalency

Learning Material. 47–53.
Rabago, et al. Science and Technology: Biology. 321–325.
27
Teacher Notes
MEIOSIS: WHAT IS IT?
Cells reproduce either by mitosis or meiosis. We discussed last time the process
of mitosis and performed activities pertaining to it. The second type of cell
division is meiosis. Meiosis takes place in order to produce gametes or sex
cells namely, the egg cells and the sperm cells. The egg and sperm cells are
important to the process of reproduction. The egg cell from the female organism
and the sperm cell from the male organism will meet in order to produce a new
organism.
Meiosis occurs in organisms that reproduce sexually. During meiosis, two cell
divisions follow DNA replication.
The stages of meiosis are as follows:
First Division Second Division
 interphase  prophase II
 prophase I  metaphase II
 metaphase I  anaphase II
 anaphase I  telophase II
 telophase I
Note: You may use different textbooks as reference.
28
Student Activity
COMPARING MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Option 1
In this activity, you will develop skills in analyzing and comparing the two types of
cell division, mitosis and meiosis. It is also expected that you will apply
cooperative and interactive learning.
Objectives
In this investigation, you will:

1. analyze the stages of meiosis; and
2. compare mitosis and meiosis cell divisions.
Resources
 diagram of meiosis or prepared slides
 microscope (if a slide is available).
 Manila paper
 colored pencils or markers
 reference materials in Biology
Procedure
1. With the use of a diagram or prepared slide, observe and analyze

the different stages of meiosis.
2. Using the distributed materials (brought by the students) and the
activity sheet, each group must write its observations and analysis
of the group presentation.
3. Prepare an illustration similar to the one below to show the
difference between mitosis and meiosis.
a.
Parent Cell Daughter Cell Daughter Cell

n n n
29
b.
Daughter Cell Daughter Cell

½n ½n
parent cell
n
daughter cell daughter cell
½n ½n
Where: n = no. of chromosomes
4. Again similar to the presentation made in procedure no. 2, other

members of the group may give their explanation to the class.
30
Student Activity
OBSERVING MEIOSIS
Option 2
Objective
In this investigation, you will demonstrate meiosis using beads,

centromeres and centrioles.
Procedure
1. Your cell should have a diploid of 2n=4.

2. You should go through all stages of meiosis, meaning Meiosis-I and
Meiosis-II.
3. Find a way to represent pairs of homologous chromosomes so that:
a. each pair is different from other pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
b. each chromosome in the pair is different from the rest in
some way to show that they come from different parents and
to better show crossing over (ex. color).
4. Show at least two crossing over events at the appropriate time.
5. Be ready to narrate what happens step by step. In particular, note
the time when all parts of the cell convert from diploid to haploid
and when the chromosomes change from double stranded to single
stranded.
Guide Questions
1. How did you distinguish different homologous pairs from each

other? In reality, how are homologous pairs different from each
other?
2. How did you distinguish each chromosome of a pair from each
other? In reality, how are chromosomes of a pair different from
each other?
3. In meiosis, when do haploid cells first exist?
4. In meiosis, when do chromosomes become single stranded?
5. How did your demonstration of meiosis differ from the
demonstration of mitosis?
31
6. Two chromosomes undergo a crossing over. Draw each of the

following results of crossing over that may have occurred.
A COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Number of parent cells
Type of reproduction
Number of cell divisions
Number of daughter cells

produced
Number of chromosomes
in daughter cells
compared to parent cells
Haploid or diploid number

produced in daughter
cells
Genetic similarity
between parent and
daughter cells
Importance in the animal

body
32
Lesson  4
ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory /Classroom/Large but safe enclosed area
OBJECTIVES

 discuss asexual and sexual reproduction in organisms;
 compare sexual and asexual reproduction; and
 explain the different methods of promoting reproduction in plants
and animals for economic purposes.
RESOURCES
 Activity Sheet 1: Yeast Budding

 Activity Sheet 2: Stem Cutting
 Activity Sheet 3: The Mating Game
 Activity Sheet 4: Simulating Sexual Reproduction
 Other activities chosen by the teacher
Note: Choose only the activities or activity that is suited for the class;
but it is advised that only one activity be performed for both
asexual and sexual reproduction.
PREREQUISITE
Before the activities, it is recommended that there be a detailed class

discussion on the two methods of reproduction: asexual and sexual.
Prepare also the needed materials for the chosen activities.
33
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Recall the following scientific questions. Ask the students:
 How do organisms make more of themselves?

 Why do people differ from each other?
 Is it possible that one day you will see an exact copy of
yourself?
2. Relate all answers of the students to the asexual division of cells.

Also, recall the processes of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
3. Discuss the two methods of reproduction: asexual and sexual. See

Teacher Notes.
4. Start with the discussion on sexual reproduction because it is

familiar to students, grabs their interest and motivates them to learn
more about the basic mechanisms of cellular reproduction. In a
short graphic and text note define sexual reproduction as the
process involved in producing non-identical offspring. Demonstrate
photographs of family resemblances. Review the concept of
meiosis as the reason for genetic variation, and how egg and sperm
cells are made.
Main Activity
1. Based on the chosen activity/activities, let the student leader of

each group get the needed materials. Refer to the activity sheet.
2. Remind the students to follow the procedure carefully and work
cooperatively.
3. Ask them to prepare for a group presentation. Questions will be
based on the presentation.
Discussion Ideas
 Which do you think would be more likely to die out, a group of

organisms that reproduce asexually only, or a group that
reproduces sexually only?
 Which is more advantageous, sexual or asexual reproduction? Give

advantages and disadvantages of both.
34
Extension Ideas
 Observe the different kinds of plants and animals in the garden or

community. Classify their methods of reproduction.
 A friend has a houseplant that you admire. She offers to give you
one and you can have either a cutting that will root itself, or a
handful of seeds. Which would you choose? Why?
Closing Activity
In conclusion, asexual reproduction is an important process used by

many plants to reproduce. Unfortunately, for many gardeners and
landscapers, the speed and ease of this process leaves many battling
the spread of weeds. For others, asexual reproduction allows for an
economical means of creating large gardens of strawberries,
blackberries, and other fruits and vegetables.
ASSESSMENT
1. Each method of reproduction has its advantages and

disadvantages. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
sexual and asexual reproduction? List as many as you can.
2. Choose one method of reproduction in plants and one method in
animals, and briefly give their economic importance.
HOMEWORK
Do you know any couple whose children are all girls or boys? What do
you think are the odds of this happening? What is the proportion of
boys and girls among children born at present?
REFERENCES
Rabago, et al. Science and Technology: Biology.

Reproduction:http://www.Sciencefinder.co.uk/reproduction.html pp. 1-3
Sexual and asexual reproduction. Understanding Biology Laboratory
Manual.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduction_of_plants#Advantages_an
d_disadvantages
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&l
ist_uids=8062455&dopt=Citation
35
Teacher Notes
Reproduction is the most important of all the seven characteristics of life. After
all, all living things are mortal, and without the ability to make more of the same
kind, a specie would soon be extinct.
In asexual reproduction, just one individual makes a duplicate of itself,

generally by some form of splitting such as the binary fission seen in such simple
organisms like amoeba and yeast. The offspring are genetically the same or
show no variation.
Sexual reproduction is a process of reproduction involving the merging of two

gametes from the same species to produce a new organism. In sexual
reproduction, two individuals are needed, a male and a female. The two sexes
make special cells. The gametes have a selection of chromosomes, and
therefore information from the parents. The offspring are never exactly like any
one of the parents but a combination of the characters of both.
Advantages of Asexual Reproduction
 Offers a variety of ways to reproduce

 Does not require participation of both a male and a female, while sexual
reproduction does.
 Reproduction is faster and requires less energy than sexual reproduction
because organisms that can reproduce asexually do not have to spend time
trying to find a mate. Instead, they can spend their time reproducing.
 Gives plants the ability to increase the numbers of a plant population more
quickly.
 From one parent it only takes one plant to decide to create a large colony of
plants; hence, the proliferation of weeds such as the dandelion. This helps to
introduce plants to new habitats.
 Produces an exact replica of the parent. Every time asexual reproduction
occurs, plants end up with the same set of genes over and over again.
 Since the gene sequence is not changed their chances of survival are,
therefore better because if the parent lived in the same environment and were
able to adapt to it, they too should be able to survive (Plant Biology, 259).
36
Advantages of Sexual Reproduction
 The rate of progressive evolution (the accumulation of beneficial mutations) is

faster in populations that reproduce sexually. The sexual population gets the
good gene faster than the asexual.
(Source:http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-10/uoc-va101701.php)
 The DNA of the offspring is significantly different from that of the two
gametes; this allows species to change more rapidly than through
mutation alone.
 Offers the opportunity to produce recombinant types that can make the
population better able to keep up with changes in the environment.
 The DNA is different because each contributing organism randomly and

independently donates half of their DNA to the sex cells in a process called
meiosis. These cells then, through a variety of processes and depending on
the particular species, meet and merge together to produce a new organism
with different DNA.
 The primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of visible organisms,
including almost all animals and plants, though the process is often
significantly different, especially for plants and trees.
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproduction)
37
Opening Activity
OBSERVING HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS
We will visit students in other classes, and find out how many have the following
traits.
Use a  Tongue Thumb Earlobe Hairline

Can Can’t Bent
Trait Roll Roll Back Straight Attached Detached Smooth Pointed
Student 1
Student 2
Student 3
Student 4
Student 5
Student 6
Student 7
Student 8
Student 9
Student 10
Student 11
Student 12
Student 13
Student 14
Student 15
Student 16
Student 17
Student 18
Student 19
Student 20
Student 21
Student 22
Student 23
Student 24
Student 25
38
Student 26
Student 27
Student 28
Student 29
Student 30
1. Share your data with the class on the overhead projector.
2. Calculate the percentage of students with each trait:
Tongue Thumb Earlobe Hairline

Can Can’t Bent
Roll Roll Back Straight Attached Detached Smooth Pointed
Percent
3. Which traits are most common in the students your surveyed?
4. Why do some students have one type of trait, while other students have the
other?
5. If a person with straight hair reproduced by the following methods, what would
the hair of the children look like?
a) By cloning ___________________
b) By having sex with a straight-haired person _______________
c) By having sex with a curly-haired person _________________
6. Make a bar graph showing the percentage of students with each type of trait.
39
Student Activity-1
YEAST BUDDING
In this activity, you will develop skills in comparing, explaining and experimenting
on the asexual and sexual reproduction of organisms. They will also apply the
values of cooperation and teamwork while performing the activities.
Objectives
In this investigation, you will observe asexual reproduction as it occurs

in yeast.
Resources
 distilled water  microscope

 1 g sugar cube  glass slides
 dry yeast  cover slips
 glass stirring rod  neutral red stain
 50-ml pyrex beaker
Procedure
1. Place approximately 25 ml of warm, distilled water into a clean

Pyrex beaker.
2. Dissolve 1g of sugar completely in the water.
3. Add about 5 ml of dry yeast to the sugar solution. Gently stir with
the rod. Set aside this yeast mixture for about 20 minutes.
4. Make a wet mount of 1 to 2 drops of yeast culture using a neutral
red stain.
5. Examine the yeast cells under the highest magnification possible.
Look for the large yeast cells. Try to identify the cell wall,
cytoplasm, nucleus and starch granules.
6. Make a labeled diagram of a typical yeast cell. Estimate the size of
a typical cell.
7. Allow the mixture to remain untouched for 24 hours.
8. Make a wet mount of some yeast as described in the preceding
steps.
40
9. Examine the yeast cells under the highest magnification possible.

Look for chains of cells of varying sizes. These are most likely to be
budding yeast cells.
10. Make a diagram of budding yeast cells.
Guide Questions
1. What indications of metabolic activity in the yeast culture did you

observe?
2. How is budding similar to binary fission?
41
Student Activity-2
STEM CUTTINGS
Objectives
In this investigation, you will observe how plants grow from stems.
Resources
 plants for making stem cuttings (i.e. geranium, begonia, san

francisco, rose, gumamela)
 scalpel or sharp knife
 250-ml beaker
Procedure
1. Select the tip of a healthy stem. About 6 cm. from the stem tip,
make a slanted cut at a node.
2. Remove the lower leaves from the cutting, but leave 2 or 3 leaves
at the tip.
3. Place the cutting in a beaker of water. Observe the beaker during
science class in the next few days.
Guide Questions
1. Did all the cuttings develop roots?

2. Exactly where did the new roots form?
3. How long did it take new roots to start growing?
4. Describe the new roots, or make a sketch of them.
5. How does a new plant start from a cutting?
6. What difference in the cuttings might explain why some of them
rooted more successfully than others?
42
Student Activity-3
THE MATING GAME
It is recommended that a detailed class discussion about the advantages and
disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction be conducted prior to the
activity.
Objective
In this activity, you will illustrate the risks and disadvantages of sexual
reproduction.
Resources
 noisemakers (two of each type). Examples: spoons, bells, rice

cups, beads, New Year paraphernalia
 rules of the game
Procedure
1. The mating game should be played in a gymnasium or a large, safe

enclosed area. In this activity, the students will be blindfolded.
Once the blindfolds are secure, the students will be randomly and
secretly given a noisemaker.
2. As there are two of each type of noisemaker, each student will have
the same noisemaker as someone else. Note that each pair of
noisemakers has a unique sound. You are not to make sounds with
the noisemaker until the game commences.
Rule: During the game, there should be no sounds other than

those from noisemakers. No peeking.
3. The last student in the group who will be the predator will also be
blindfolded.
4. Once all of you have one noisemaker each, you will be given 30
seconds to spread out in the area.
5. The teacher will signal the beginning of the game. Without talking,
start to make noises with your noisemaker and look for your mate
who is making the same noise. Meanwhile, the predator’s job is to
catch prey. If the predator catches someone, both the prey and the
predator are no longer part of the game.
43
Rule: Walk only. Absolutely no running.
6. Anyone who is caught will have to remove his/her blindfold and sit
in one side of the room.
7. Students with the same noisemaker who find each other are a
successful mating pair and will have fulfilled the requirements of the
game.
8. The teacher will signal the end of the game once everyone has
become part of a successful pair, or has been caught by the
predator.
9. Depending on the time available, the game may be repeated.
Guide Questions
1. Discuss in your group and then as a class how you felt during the
activity.
2. What risk(s) did you encounter in this activity?
44
Student Activity-4
SIMULATING SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Objective
In this investigation, you will observe the process of sexual
reproduction.
Resources
 small zip lock bags

 2 different colors of spiral or other small pasta (red and green are
easiest to find)
Procedure
a. Pair off the students.
b. Give each pair 2-zip lock bags, one with 4 pieces of green pasta,
the other with 4 pieces of red pasta.
c. Inform the students that the bag represents an organism while the
pasta represents genetic information regarding such organism.
d. Remind the students that in order for sexual reproduction to occur,

somehow the genetic material from the 2 organisms must mix.
e. Let the students find 4 ways to mix the genetic information in the
two bags. They may remove the pasta from the plastic bags during
the actual mixing.
f. After a couple of minutes, ask for a volunteer to demonstrate one

method of mixing. Diagram the method on the chalkboard.
45
STEPS
1. Instruct the students to insert the genetic

information from the “Red” organism into the
“Green” organism.
2. Tell them to put in Green deposits genetic material
into Red.
3. Let them deposit red to green and green to red

simultaneously.
4. Tell them to let red and green mix outside

both organisms.
46
Information Sheet
Steps (1), (2), and (3) represent internal fertilization, which almost always entails
a male’s depositing genetic materials into a female. A notable exception is the
seahorse, whose female deposits her eggs into a pouch in the male’s abdomen
where fertilization takes place. It is the male seahorse that gives “birth” to the
offspring. Hermaphrodism also usually involves the exchange of sperm, not
egg. See figure on the right:
Hermaphrodism
- Association of a streak ovary (left) and testis (right)
The third step represents either hermaphrodism, where each organism has both
male and female reproductive organs and 2 organisms exchange genetic
materials with one another, (e.g. snails, earthworms) or conjugation which
happens in some microorganisms (e.g. bacteria, protists). As a form of sexual
reproduction, conjugation is not generally considered sexual reproduction
because gametes (sex cells) are not usually involved and a zygote does not
form.
Step 4 represents external fertilization as seen in most fish and amphibians.

Water is usually the required medium for external fertilization to take place.
The event whereby genetic materials are mixed is generally known as

fertilization, except in the case of conjugation. Fertilization usually involves a
male sex cell or sperm, and a female sex cell or egg, which contain the actual
genetic materials that are to be mixed.
47
Lesson  5
THE MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Classroom / Laboratory
OBJECTIVES

 identify the parts of the male and female reproductive systems;
 give the functions of each part; and
 draw the parts of the male and the female reproductive systems.
RESOURCES
 Manila paper
 marker pen
 drawings/illustrations
PREREQUISITE
Before the lesson, divide the students into groups of five. Ask them to
research or interview their parents on how they were conceived.
PROCEDURE
Provide an unlabelled diagram of male and female human

reproductive structures, label key structures and take notes on
functions (testis, seminal vesicle, penis, urethra, uterus, ovary, vagina,
fallopian tube)
a. Ask the students to identify the parts of the male and

reproductive systems that they know.
b. Ask them to share the results of their research and interviews.
48
c. Instruct them to draw and label the male and female

reproductive systems.
d. Facilitate the presentation of group outputs.
e. Ask follow-up questions to deepen the knowledge of the
students.
Discussion Ideas
Emphasize the following key learning points:
 The life cycle of every organism involves being born, growing up,
reproducing, and finally, dying.
 Reproduction is important because without it, people as well as

every living organism would vanish from the earth.
 Men and women have different roles in the process of reproduction.

Between ages of 10 to 16, the bodies of girls and boys change as
their reproductive systems develop.
Extension Ideas
Did you know that all oogonia (cells in females that produce primary
oocytes by mitosis) in the ovary of a newly born baby girl have entered
prophase of the first meiotic division? Hence, during each menstrual
cycle, upon sexual maturity, the primary oocyte simply resumes
meiosis to produce a mature egg or ovum.
An adult male, meanwhile, produces an average of 30 million sperms

per day. Ejaculated semen may contain about 400 million sperms. A
man with a low sperm count of 60 million per ejaculation is considered
sterile. Low sperm count has been linked to smoking and exposure to
harmful chemicals like DDT and PCB. Sterility may also be caused by
mumps. In fact 25 percent of cases of mumps in adult males result in
the inflammation of their testes and in permanent sterility.
Closing Statement
Human sexual reproduction involves three steps:

1) production of gametes
2) copulation
3) fertilization.
49
The human reproductive system is designed to facilitate the

performance of these three important steps. However, since females
assume the added role of conception and childbirth, the female
reproductive system is appropriately and structurally different from that
of a male.
ASSESSMENT
Rubric for assessing group presentations:

5 – exceptionally well done/cooperation of the group is observed
4 – accurate and detailed explanation
3 – partially detailed information
2 – less information and knowledge shared
1 – not well done
Matching Type
Write the appropriate letter which corresponds to the definition of each

of the following reproductive systems:
1. ___vagina or birth canal a) females have two of these; produce

female gametes or eggs and the hormone
2. ___oviduct (fallopian tube) estrogen
b) carries the egg away from the uterus;
3. ___uterus internal fertilization normally occurs here
c) implantation and development of the
4. ___ovary embryo and fetus before birth occurs here
d) entry point for sperm from the male and
5. ___penis exit tube for the baby when it is born
e) produces sperm and the hormone
6.___testis testosterone
7. ___vas deferens f) pouch enclosing the testis keeping the

sperm at an optimum temperature for
development
8. ___urethra
g) tube carrying sperm away from the testis
9. ___scrotum h) the largest of several glands which add
lubricating and other fluids to the sperm;
10. ___prostate gland this combination of sperm and fluids is
called semen
i) tube through the penis carrying sperm to
the outside of the body
j) adaptation for internal fertilization of the
female
50
Answer Key
1. d 6. e
2. b 7. g
3. c 8. i
4. a 9. f
5. j 10. h
HOMEWORK
Describe how an egg cell becomes fertilized.
REFERENCES
Rabago, Lilia M. Science and Technology II Biology. 338–341.
The Reproductive System: NFE Accreditation & Equivalency Learning
Materials by: Bureau of Nonformal Education, 5–11
http://healthinfo.carolinas.org/library/healthguide/en-
us/images/media/medical/hw/n5551221.jpg
51
Student Activity 1
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Objectives
In this investigation, your group will:
1. identify the parts of the male reproductive system;
2. give the functions of the different parts of the male reproductive
system;
3. draw and label the different parts of the male reproductive system.
Resources
 Manila paper
 marker pen
 reading materials on the male reproductive system
 crayons
Procedure
1. Each group should brainstorm while one member takes down notes.
2. Copy and complete the table below using Manila paper.
3. Read and perform the instructions per column.
YOU KNOW YOU WANT TO KNOW YOU LEARNED
 Write the parts and  Do you want to  Write what you learned
functions of the male know more about from the lesson today.
reproductive system the male
reproductive
 Draw the male system?
reproductive system
and label its parts
Guide Questions
1. What are the parts of the male reproductive system that most of
you know?
2. What are the parts of the male reproductive system that most of
you want to know about?
3. What are the parts of the male reproductive system that you
learned from the lesson today?
4. Why do we need to know the parts and functions of the male
reproductive system?
52
Student Activity 2
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Objectives
In this activity, your group will:

1. identify the parts of the female reproductive system;
2. give the functions of the different parts of the female reproductive
system;
3. draw and label the different parts of the female reproductive
system.
Resources
 Manila paper
 marker pen
 text materials
 crayons
Procedure
Brainstorm with your members while somebody takes down notes.

Complete the first and second columns of the table below. Copy the
table on Manila paper. Read and perform the instructions per column.
* Write the parts and * Do you want to know * Read the text/write-ups
functions of the female more? Why? and complete this third
reproductive system that column.
you are familiar with. * Enumerate the topics that
you want to know more of. * List down the parts and
* Based on the knowledge of functions of the female
the members of the group, reproductive system that
draw the female you learned about from
reproductive system and the handout.
label its parts.
* Based on the handout,
label the parts of the
female reproductive
system.
53
Guide Questions
1. What are the parts of the female reproductive system that most of
you KNOW about?
2. What are the parts of the female reproductive system that most of
you WANT TO KNOW about?
3. What are the parts of the female reproductive system that you
LEARNED of after reading the write-ups?
4. Why is it important to understand the functions of the different parts

of the female reproductive system?
54
Student Handout
WHAT IS REPRODUCTION?
The picture below shows an egg cell surrounded by many sperm cells. These
two types of cells are the human sex cells needed for reproduction. Males
produce sperm cells in their testes, while females produce egg cells in their
ovaries. An egg and a sperm cell unite in the process called fertilization. Under
normal conditions, the fertilized egg can grow and develop into a baby.
Men and women have

different roles in the
process of
reproduction. Between
the ages of 10 to 16,
the bodies of girls and
boys change as their
reproduction systems
develop.
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/systemspartreproductionmf.jpg
55
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Look at the diagram of the male reproductive system below and study its parts. It
has two main parts: the testes that produce the sperm cells or the male sex
cells, and the ducts or tubes that carry these sex cells.
Vas
deferens
(urethra)
http://www.prostatehealth.org.au/v1/images/sheet4-figure1.gif
What are the external organs of the male?
The external organs of the male reproductive system are the penis and the
scrotum. The penis is the male organ used during sexual intercourse to transfer
sperm to the female reproductive tract. The testicles are the two reproductive
glands that produce sperm. They are either internally or externally positioned.
The penis also contains the urethra through which urine passes. Behind it is the
scrotum or a sac of skin that encloses the testicles. In the testicles, sperm cells
cannot survive at regular temperature (32.50); however, they can survive at a
slightly cooler temperature (below 32.50) within the scrotum.
56
How are the sperm cells transported from the male reproductive system to
the female reproductive system?
Many organs help in producing, transporting and storing sperm cells inside the
male body. After sperm cells are produced, they travel from the testes through a
tube called epididymis that circles the bladder. The sperm ducts allow the
sperm cells to pass from the testes to the penis, then outside the male’s body.
In the diagram, you can trace the duct from each testis to the urethra. The
urethra is an organ where the ejaculatory ducts empty.
Sperm
ducts or
http://www.andrologyaustralia.org/images/malebodyoverparts.gif
The male reproductive system also has various glands. Chemicals from these
glands nourish the sperm cells and help them mature. Did you know that sperm
cells are good swimmers? Millions of sperm cells that are produced every day in
the testis swim in a fluid called seminal fluid, which comes from the sperm
ducts. As the sperm cells move through the ducts, chemicals from the glands are
added to the fluid. Together with the fluid, sperm cells and chemicals called
semen leave the body during sexual intercourse.
57
How are the production of sperm cells and the release of semen regulated?
The production of sperm cells and the release

of semen can be regulated by hormones or
special chemicals that come from the testis,
the brain and the pituitary gland (refer to the
diagram on the right). These hormones keep
the reproductive system properly functioning.
http://www.pituitary.org.uk/resources/images/prol-bodym.gif
The Female Reproductive System

Look at the diagram of the female reproductive system and study its parts. When
a female reaches puberty, egg cells start to develop in her ovaries that produce
the sex cells. Generally, only one egg cell matures at a time. The ovaries lie deep
within the abdomen.
http://www.uh.edu/~tgill2/image008.jpg
58
When a mature egg is released from an ovary, ovulation occurs. The released
egg travels through an oviduct, a tube connected to a fallopian tube which
allows the egg to go to either the uterus or outside the female’s body. The uterus
is a small, muscular, pear-shaped organ that lies between the ovaries. A fertilized
egg can grow and develop in it. The muscular walls of the uterus become thick
and soft as the fertilized egg divides and grows.
If an egg fails to become fertilized, it leaves a female’s body through an opening

called the vagina. This is not the vagina’s only function though. It is also where a
baby passes through during birth.
The female reproductive system, just like the male reproductive system is also
regulated by hormones. The follicles produce hormones that control the growth
and release of eggs from the ovaries. While other hormones prepare the uterus
so a baby can grow in it, still other hormones control the stretching of the uterus
during pregnancy.
http://www.pituitary.org.uk/resources/images/prol-bodyf.gif
59
The Menstrual Cycle
The female reproductive system undergoes a monthly cycle of changes called

the menstrual cycle, which involves the growth and release of a mature egg.
Refer to the diagram for further understanding of the stages of this cycle.
http://www.gynaesurgeon.co.uk/anatomy/images/menstrual_r1_c1.gif
Menstrual Cycle Stages
1. follicle stage (10-14 days average duration)

 production of ova/eggs occurs in tiny cavities in the ovary called follicles
 enlarging follicle produces estrogen which causes the uterus to get
ready for embryo implantation (uterus lining thickens)
2. ovulation (1 day)
 follicle enlarges and ruptures ovary wall
 egg is released to the oviduct (usually only 1 is released at a time)
3. corpus luteum stage (10 -14 days average duration)

 yellow tissue fills the follicle after ovulation; this is called the corpus
luteum
 "yellow body" secretes progesterone which maintains the thickness of the
uterus in case a pregnancy take place
60
4. menstruation (3-5 days average duration)
 periodic shedding of the thickened lining of the uterus which occurs if

fertilization does not take place
On the first day of the menstrual cycle, a hormone signals an immature egg to
begin to mature. A few days later, other hormones signal the lining of the uterus
to grow and thicken. In about two weeks, the egg is mature and ovulation
occurs. The egg then takes a three-day journey through the oviduct.
After reaching the uterus, the egg and the thick lining of the uterus begin to break
down. The egg and the uterus lining are shed from the body through the vagina
as menstrual flow. The blood in the menstrual flow results from the breakdown of
capillaries in the lining of the uterus—a normally safe development. This flow of
menstrual flow is called menstruation, which usually lasts three to five days. In
some women it is shorter and in others it is longer. When menstruation begins,
hormones trigger another egg to mature. Thus, the cycle is repeated.
The length of the menstrual cycle varies from woman to woman. In some women
the cycle is repeated every 21 days or so. In other women, a normal cycle may
be 35 days or so. The average cycle is 28 days. Keeping a record of the days
can help a woman determine her normal cycle.
If a mature egg and sperm are in an oviduct at the same time, the egg and the
sperm may unite. If this happens, the fertilized egg divides, continues to the
uterus and burrows into its thick lining. When this happens a woman becomes
pregnant and the menstrual cycle stops.
A girl can start menstruating between ages 10 to 15 and will continue doing so
until the ages 45 to 51. Menopause is the period in a woman’s life when
menstruation stops and pregnancy is no longer possible.
http://www.fhi.org/pic/mencycle.gif
61
Lesson 6
FERTILIZATION
TIME
One session
SETTING
Classroom / Laboratory
OBJECTIVES

 describe how an egg becomes fertilized; and
 explain the major events in the development of an embryo and a
fetus.
RESOURCES
 Manila paper
 marker pen
 drawings/illustrations
PREREQUISITE
Before the lesson, divide the students into groups of five. Ask them to
research or interview their parents on how they were conceived.
PROCEDURE
1. Ask the students to recall the parts of the male and the female
reproductive systems.
2. Tell them to share the results of their research and interviews on
how they were conceived within small groups. See Student Activity
sheet.
3. Facilitate the presentation of the group output.
4. Take a graphic and text note of the key events in pregnancy
(intercourse, ovulation, fertilization, implantation, first, second and
third trimester, birth, also terms: zygote, embryo, fetus).
62
5. Read the information handout on identical twins, and answer short

comprehension questions about human pregnancy and questions
on the text given.
6. Show the Miracle of Life video, if available. Pause video in places

to allow students to answer questions on what they have seen,
building an understanding of human development. For the post-
activity, see Worksheet on Miracle of Life.
7. Use a Pregnancy and Birth instructional poster to illustrate key

phases of the process as reinforcement.
8. Complete a study of fetal development using images in the

textbook. Results are recorded on a worksheet table.
Discussion Ideas
Imagine what happens inside the womb of a pregnant woman. Do you

know what changes take place inside her womb in the span of nine
months?
Extension ideas
In some cases, two eggs leave the ovary at the same time. If both
eggs are fertilized and developed, twins are born. When two different
sperms fertilize two different eggs, the two babies are called fraternal
twins. They may be two girls, two boys, or a boy and a girl. If both
babies were developed from the same egg and sperm, they are called
identical twins. They may either be two girls or two boys. These twins
look exactly alike.
Closing Activity
The ovum enters the open end of the oviduct or fallopian tube. If
sperms have been introduced into the female system, they travel
upward until they reach the lower portion of the oviduct. Hundreds of
sperms surround the ovum. It is believed that the sperms have
enzymes which dissolve the thick outer layers of the ovum until one
sperm is able to fertilize it. Immediately after fertilization, the zygote
forms a membrane around itself. This prevents the entrance of outer
sperms.
63
Pregnancy is a sequence of events that normally includes fertilization,

implantation, embryonic growth, and fetal growth that terminates in
birth. Even though there are many events that take place in the
reproductive cycle, we cannot include every detail in this lesson.
However, the following information will contain descriptive events of
what goes on in the uterus prior to birth. This information will also help
you recognize potential problems and intervene in the nursing care
process.
The embryo (or fetus) may encounter risks from faults in its genes and
from its mother's exposure to environmental factors such as an
inadequate diet, the use of alcohol, tobacco, drugs, other toxins, or
infections.
ASSESSMENT
Rubrics to assess the group presentation

2 – less information/knowledge shared
1 – not well done
HOMEWORK
Answer these questions:

1. What are population, population explosion and overpopulation?
2. What factors contribute to population growth?
REFERENCES
M. Rabago, Lilia M. et al. Science and Technology II Biology. 341–344.

The Reproductive System: NFE Accreditation & Equivalency
Learning Material by: Bureau of Non-formal Education p. 16
64
Worksheet: Miracle of Life

Watch the video, and answer these questions while you are watching. If you miss
something, do it afterwards.
THE PATH TRAVELED BY THE EGG
The egg travels through the ____________________ after being released from
the __________________. The fertilized egg contains ____________________
from both parents. The egg is surrounded by a cloud of___________________.
These hairs, called ____________________ move the egg along towards the
uterus. It takes the egg ____ days to travel _______________ inches along the
fallopian tube. The egg must join with a sperm within _____ hours in order for
conception to take place. If no sperm is present the egg ___________________.
WHEN SPERM ENTERS THE FEMALE BODY
Nearly ____ of the sperm will die almost immediately after entering the woman’s
body. Sperm will remain viable (able to survive) for only _____ hours. The sperm
has one goal: _________________________________________. There are
many barriers (things to overcome) for a sperm to reach the egg. Some of these
are:
1. ________________________________________
2. ________________________________________
3. ________________________________________
SPERM ENTER THE FALLOPIAN TUBE

The fallopian tube has ____ openings; one leads to the _______ and the other to
________. Of the 200 million sperms that enter, only about _____ ever reach the
egg. Only ____ sperm will enter and fertilize the egg. Once inside the egg, the
sperm undergoes a big change, it ____________________. The genetic material
is released from the ____________________. Within ____ hours, the new cell
begins to divide.
65
THE EMBRYO DEVELOPS INTO A FETUS

Once it has begun to divide, the fertilized egg is called a ___________________.
As the zygote divides, it moves along the fallopian tube toward the ___________.
Number of
weeks Appearance of embryo/fetus
since
fertilization
Has elongated (grown long); it is barely 1/10th of an inch long.
Has arm buds, and is curled; it has the beginning of eyes.

Nose begins to take shape.
Leg buds appear. Embryo is less than _____ inch long.
It floats inside the fluid filled amniotic sac; its ________________
is clearly visible.
Embryo is ¾ of an inch long, can move its _______, where there

are clearly defined fingers. Its ____________ are visible.
Eye lenses are formed.
Fingers are clearly seen. The ____________________ of the feet

are clearly visible.
Embryo is 2 ½ inches long.
It can bring its hands together and suck its thumb.
Organs of senses are nearly formed.

Turning inside the mother.
Now a fetus that is 5 ½ inches long. Eyes are closed, but the
fetus can see. The ____________________ is the fetus’ link to its
mother, the source of its life.
All of its important features have been developed, but it will take another ____
weeks before it can survive outside its mother.
66
Student Activity
KEY EVENTS IN PREGNANCY
Objectives

1. describe how an egg becomes fertilized,
2. explain the major events in the development of an embryo and a
fetus.
Resources
 Manila paper
 marker pen
 illustrations and hand-outs
Procedure
Each group will give its ideas, thoughts and opinions by brainstorming
while the documentor records the important discussion points. Using
Manila paper, fill in the columns of the table below. Each group will
present its output.

 Based on the  What do you want  What you learned
knowledge of the to know more from today’s
members, write about? Why? lesson
something on
fertilization
Guide Questions
1. What is fertilization?
2. Use the Diagram below to answer the following questions.
a. What process is occurring at number one?
b. What is cell two called and what is its chromosome number?
c. All the cell divisions following stage 3 are what kind of cell
divisions?
d. The stage at number 6 (called a gastrula) is developing cells and
tissues with specific functions. What is this process called?
67
1 2 3 4 5 6
Diagram-1
FETAL DEVELOPMENT
3. Examine the illustration below (Diagram 2).
http://www.chclibrary.org/pictures/grey/fetus_growth.gif
Diagram 2
4. Measure the length of each fetus using a ruler from the CROWN of
its head to the RUMP, and multiply each measurement by 5.5 to
get the actual length. Then complete the table using the
information. See Student Handout.
68
Measured Actual length

length = measured
Fetus (mm) length x 5.5 Events
Guide Questions
1. What are the main differences between a fetus age 9 weeks and one age 38
weeks in terms of:
a) eyes
b) body hair
c) sex-related features
69
4. Make a graph of fetal age in months (x axis – horizontal) and length of fetus in
mm (y axis – vertical). Plot the points, and then join them using a straight
line.
5. Mark on the graph with a curly bracket the time that the length of the fetus is
increasing the fastest. What events are happening to the fetus during this
time?
6. Make a list of factors that can harm a developing embryo or fetus:
7. Think Critically. A woman may not realize that she is pregnant during the
first month of her pregnancy. How could this put the embryo/fetus at risk?
70
Student Handout
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Fertilization Stage
Steps 1-2) If sperm cells are in an oviduct when the egg cell is moving to the
uterus, fertilization may occur. The single cell that results from the
union is called a zygote or fertilized egg.
Figure 1) Fertilization and Initial Development of the Embryo

1 2 3 4 5 6
http://regentsprep.org/Regents/biology/units/reproduction/development.cfm
Step 3-5) The zygote then divides as it moves through the oviduct. Several more
divisions take place, forming a small clump of cells.
Step 6) About A Week After Fertilization
The small clump of cells called the gastrula goes down the oviduct
and grows into the lining of the wall of the uterus. Some of these cells
form the embryo, which is the developing organism that forms tissues.
In humans, the embryonic development of essential organs occurs in

the early stages of pregnancy. The process that changes this cell mass
into a human baby is called prenatal development. Prenatal means
“before birth”.
71
Step 7) The First Three Months (First Trimester)
During the first three months of human development, organs begin to

form. The human embryo is usually referred to as a fetus when
human-like features become visible in its structure.
The placenta forms when the clump of cells grow into the uterus. The
placenta contains blood vessels from the pregnant woman and the
embryo. Food and oxygen pass from the mother-to-be to the embryo
through the placenta. Wastes from the embryo are carried away into
the expectant mother’s blood through the placenta. The umbilical
cord is the structure that connects the embryo to the placenta of the
mother-to-be.
During the first three months, the head and brain of the embryo
develop rapidly, but the body is small. The eyes and ears also begin to
form. Bumps develop where the arms and legs will be. The heart
forms and begins to beat.
After two months, the embryo is about five cm long. It begins to look
like a human and is now called a fetus.
By the end of three months all the body systems are present, but
most of them do not function yet. The fetus is about nine cm long and
weighs about 15 g.
http://www.pamf.org/pregnancy/healthinfo/index.cfm?section=healthinfo&page=articl
e&sgml_id=tp13618
72
Step 8) The Second Three Months (Second Trimester)
During the next three months, the growth of the body catches up with
the head. Fetal heartbeat can be heard and the developing skeleton
can be seen in x-rays. Most pregnant women begin to feel the fetus
kick. The fetus can even have hiccups.
By the end of six months the fetus will be about 30 cm and can weigh
about 700g. If the fetus is born at this time, it can survive, but only with
a great deal of medical help
By the end of the sixth month, all organs and body features are
developed. This is the time when the fetus puts on a great deal of
weight. It gets too large to move freely within its mother’s womb. The
expectant mother can get uncomfortable because the fetus presses on
her internal organs.
http://www.pamf.org/pregnancy/healthinfo/index.cfm?section=healthinfo&page=article
&sgml_id=tp13614
73
Step 9) The Last Three Months (Third Trimester)
During the last three months of pregnancy, organs and features

develop well enough to function after birth. At this time, the fetus needs
large amounts of calcium, iron and protein. These nutrients are
necessary for the proper development of bones, bloods and nerves.
So again, a pregnant woman must continue to be careful about her
diet. At the end of nine months the fetus is about 45 cm and can weigh
about 3000 g.
http://www.pamf.org/pregnancy/healthinfo/index.cfm?section=healthinfo&page=article
&sgml_id=tp13610
74
Lesson 7
PROBLEMS ON FERTILITY
TIME
One session
SETTING
Classroom / Laboratory / Outdoors
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the session, students should be able to:
 identify some problems on fertility;

 explain each problem on fertility (causes); and
RESOURCES
 crayons
 marker pen
 Manila paper
 research materials
 envelope with one picture of a couple with children and one picture
of a couple with no children
PREREQUISITE
Prior to this lesson, ask students to interview/research on the problems

of fertility and the causes of infertility.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
Sexual reproduction is one of the most important functions in the life of
human beings. It is a function that protects the species from possible
extinction. It is also a source of variations so that the population can
produce different combinations of traits that may be useful in dealing
with a changing environment. But for human society, reproduction is
more than a life process; it is also a social and ethical issue.
75
Main Activity
1. Form small groups to brainstorm on the problems of fertility and the

causes of infertility.
2. Let one member record the problems and causes cited by the
members.
3. Ask one member per group to present the group’s output.
4. Facilitate the smooth interaction and discussion about the topic.
Discussion Ideas
Fertility per se is a family problem. What infertile couples do to solve

this problem is what raises social and ethical questions.
Extension Ideas
If in the future you are faced with the problem of infertility or any
situation that can put you at risk of AIDS, what will you do? Think hard.
Pray that you may be enlightened. Then act according to your
conscience.
ASSESSMENT
Choose the best answer.
1. An equally serious problem for couples who have not been blessed
with children is________:
a. AIDS c. fertility
b. infertility d. overpopulation
2. What is the normal sperm count among human males?

a. 1 million cells/semen c. 100 million cells/semen
b. 10 million cells/semen d. 1000 million cells/semen
3. What does it mean if a male has a sperm count of 10 million to 60

million per ejaculation?
a. too low to get his wife c. too high
pregnant
b. just normal d. very fertile
76
4. A solution to infertility whereby a doctor introduces the husband’s or

a donor’s semen into the woman’s vagina
a. ejaculation c. in vitro fertilization

b. artificial insemination d. fertilization
5. What solution do you prefer for solving the problem of infertility?
HOMEWORK
Give some implications of rapid population growth.
REFERENCE
Rabago, Lilia M. Science and Technology II. 344–345.
77
Student Activity
ADDRESSING FERTILITY
Objectives
1. identify some perceived problems on fertility; and
2. give solutions for fertility problems.
Resources
 Manila paper
 envelope with two pictures
 marking pen
Procedure
1. Open the envelope and bring out its contents.

2. Brainstorm on the problems of fertility and the causes of infertility.
3. Give possible solutions to the problem.
4. Assign a reporter to discuss the output of your group.
Fertility Causes of Infertility Possible Solutions

Problems
Male
Female
Guide Questions
1. What causes of infertility have you identified?

2. How did you arrive at your solutions?
78
Lesson 8
POPULATION GROWTH
TIME
One session
SETTING
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the session, students should be able to:
 define the following terms: population, population explosion and

overpopulation; and
 identify the factors that contribute to population growth.

RESOURCES
 Manila paper
 marker pen
 activity sheet
 World Population Data Sheet to find the birth and death rates.
PREREQUISITE
Prior to this lesson, ask the students to observe thickly populated

areas in their communities. Let them read about the factors affecting
population growth. Divide them heterogeneously into six groups. Ask
each group to bring relevant materials on population growth for the
activity.
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Review the concept of fertilization and relate this with population

growth. Ask the students to illustrate the concept of population
growth rate.
79
2. What is the birth rate for the world? The death rate? Have students
find growth rates for two different communities.
Time No. of Years World Population

00_1850 MILLIONS 1 Billion
1850-1930 80 2 Billion
1930-1975 45 4 Billion
1975-1987 12 5 Billion
1987-2000 15 6 Billion
*We currently are adding 90 million annually and will continue to do so

through 2015.
3. Population growth occurs when the birth rate exceeds the death
rate. Tell students that worldwide, the human birth rate is currently
three times the death rate. To demonstrate this concept, allow them
to demonstrate the relationship between birth and death rate, and
population growth within a finite space.
a. Fill a bucket with water and add food coloring so it will be more
visible in a clear container. Place the empty, clear container
with a towel under it in front of the class.
b. Ask for two volunteers from the class to assist. Designate

number 1 for one student and number 2 for the other. Each
student should tape the appropriate number tag to the student.
c. Hold up the empty, clear container.
This will represent the world, while the colored water in the bucket
will represent people. Number 1 will add people to the world by
pouring dippers of water into the container. Number 2 will be taking
people from the world by scooping water out of the clear container
and pouring it back into the bucket.
At this time, the world's birth rate is three times the death rate.
Based on that fact, who should receive the large dipper? Who
should use the small dipper?
80
Guide Questions
1. Why did the water level rise steadily?
2. What would this mean if the clear container really was the
world?
Key Learning Points

Population refers to a group of individuals of the same species within a
specified area where the individuals are able to reproduce with each
other. The area of the place can be a community, municipality, province,
city, country or the entire world. Human populations tend to increase in
size with time. In this lesson, you will discover the factors that contribute
to our rapidly increasing population.
Main Activity: POPULATION EXPLOSION

1. Ask the students to share the results of their research and
interviews in thickly populated areas concerning the implications of
rapid population growth.
2. Facilitate the presentation of outputs.
3. Ask follow-up questions. Instruct the students to do the same.
Discussion Ideas
Populations are constantly changing in character and in size. Look at the

people around you. Can you find two individuals who are exactly alike?
Do identical twins show physical differences? Individuals that make up
populations show variations in hereditary traits amidst an ever-changing
environment.
Human population size has continually increased in Metro Manila and

other major cities of the Philippines and in other countries. Knowledge of
population size can help predict the rate of population increase.
A comparison of the growth in human population in urban areas with that

in rural areas is used to better understand our socioeconomic problems.
For example, if we knew that, of the 73 million Filipinos in the entire
country in 1995, more than 10 percent or 9.3 million lived in the already
congested Metro Manila, we would not be surprised at how serious our
housing, health, garbage and traffic problems are. At the moment the
country’s population stands at 85 million, while our population growth
rate of 2.8 percent is one of the highest in the world. (Source: NSO
http://www.census.gov.ph/)
81
Extension Ideas
Present the following situation to the students:
You love children and would like to have a large family. You are
aware, however, that the world's population is expected to double in
the coming century. You are also aware of the financial and
environmental cost of a large family. What would you do and why?
Would you:
1. plan to have a large family

2. decide not to have children
3. limit yourself to one or two children
4. get involved with youth groups, scouts, tutoring, teaching,
etc. emergency foster care, to still be around groups of
youngsters?
5. others
ASSESSMENT
1 – not well done
HOMEWORK
Identify the risk of contamination from various sexually transmitted

diseases, especially AIDS.
REFERENCES
Bureau of Nonformal Education. Fighting Overpopulation: NFE

Accreditation and Equivalency Learning Material. 4–5.
Manual about Population Growth
Rabago, et al. Science and Technology II: Biology. 38–40.
People and the Planet, Zero Population Growth, Inc. Wash., D. C.
1996.
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1998/7/98.07.02.x.html#f
82
Student Activity 1
POPULATION EXPLOSION: CAUSES AND EFFECTS

Objectives
1. define the terms - population, population explosion and
overpopulation; and
2. identify the factors that contribute to population growth.
Resources
a. Manila paper
b. marker pen
c. activity sheet
Procedure
1. Get the needed materials for the activity and carefully read the
questions below.
2. Look at the two boxes below and compare what you see.
A B
83
3. Answer the questions that follow on Manila paper:
a. What are the differences between the number and arrangement

of the gray circles in boxes A and B?
b. If boxes A and B represent two different countries and the black

circles represent the people in each country, what are the
differences between the number and distribution of people in
each country?
c. What do you think may happen to the country represented by

box B if the number of people continues to increase? Why?
d. Which of the two boxes better represents the Republic of the

Philippines? Why?
e. Give the causes of rapid population growth in the country.
f. Population refers to the total number of people in a community,

municipality, province, city, country or the world.
Over population is defined as the condition of having more

people than can live on earth in comfort, happiness and health
and still leave the world a fit place for future generations.
Population Explosion is a phrase used to describe rapid

population growth in this century. This is caused by the world
birth rate’s being much higher than the world’s death rate.
(Source: www.kzpg.com/Lib/Pages/Tools/glossary.html)
g. Name five countries with big populations aside from the

Philippines.
4. Present the output of your group to the class.
84
Student Activity 2
OVERPOPULATION
Situation A: FAMILY SETTING
A large human population has a variety of consequences, both direct

and indirect. One of the consequences easiest to see in our daily life is
crowding. With population growth, the average population density will
increase. For example, in your three-room house an increase from 3
children to 4 children can make a difference. This means that you will
need to share your space with other members of your household.
Procedure
In this activity you will talk about the pros and cons of adding a
member to the household, in school and in the community.
Guides Questions
1. What are the consequences of adding new members to your family?
2. What are the benefits?
Situation B: CLASSROOM SETTING

Procedure
1. Imagine that the number of students in your classroom has doubled.
2. List down the effects of this.
3. Make sure that both positive and negative impacts are discussed.
4. Vote by secret ballot on whether you would like to have more, fewer
or the same number of students in the class as there are now.
5. A class member will be asked to tally and announce the results to
the class.
Guide Questions
1. What services are easier to provide for an area of high
population density?
2. What qualities are desirable about areas of lower population
density?
3. If population continues to grow locally, what is the impact on
population density?
85
Lesson 9
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs)
TIME
One session
SETTING
Classroom activity
OBJECTIVES

 describe the various sexually transmitted diseases (STDs); and
 identify ways of preventing the acquisition of sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs).
RESOURCES
 drawings/pictures of STD available at DOH
 Manila paper
 marker pen
 information sheets
PREREQUISITE
Prior to this lesson, the students are asked to conduct a research or an

interview on Sexually Transmitted Diseases. They will be divided
heterogeneously into six groups. Each group is tasked to bring the
necessary materials for the activity.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
STDs or sexually transmitted diseases are infections passed or

transmitted from person to person through sexual contact or
intercourse. It is important that you learn to identify the symptoms of
these diseases so that you can have them treated immediately if ever--
which we hope not--you acquire such diseases. These infections may
lead to serious complications if not treated right away.
86
The students will develop skills in describing and identifying ways to

prevent acquiring sexually transmitted diseases.
Main Activity
a. Ask the students to identify some sexually transmitted diseases.

b. Tell them to share the results of their research or interview.
c. Instruct them to perform the activity you gave.
d. Facilitate the presentation of group outputs.
e. Formulate follow-up questions to deepen knowledge.
Discussion Ideas
STDs are primarily transmitted through sexual contact; as such, risky

sexual behaviors should be avoided. Avoid having sex with people you
are not really familiar with and who may have STD.
Meanwhile, AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), a fatal

condition, is cause by a virus. The virus primarily attacks the white
blood cells, making the body’s immune system defenseless against
infection. The virus also destroys the brain tissue.
How to destroy the AIDS virus once it infects the body has not been
determined. At the same time, no vaccine has yet been discovered to
protect humans against the AIDS virus. Researchers are currently
finding out more about AIDS, including its possible cure.
Most bacterial and viral diseases are very contagious. Some may
affect not only a household but an entire community. Without proper
health care and environmental sanitation, an epidemic may occur.
Extension Ideas
Having multiple sex partners can be risky, as they may have engaged
in sex with people who have STD and may therefore have already
been infected. What are the disadvantages of having STD?
87
ASSESSMENT
5– exceptionally well done/cooperation within the group has been

observed
1 – not well done
HOMEWORK
What is genetics?
REFERENCES
Bureau of Non-formal Education. Reproductive Health: NFE

Accreditation and Equivalency Learning Material. 10–18.
Rabago et al. Science and Technology II: Biology. 348–349.
88
Student Activity
PREVENTING SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
Objectives
 describe various sexually transmitted diseases; and

 identify ways to prevent them.
Resources
 drawings/pictures of STDs (available at DOH)

 Manila paper
 marker pen
 hand-outs/information sheets
Procedure
1. The leader will facilitate the brainstorming process with the group
members while the secretary/documentor takes down notes.
2. Read the information sheet distributed earlier.
3. After reading the text solve the crossword puzzle below. Let’s see
how much you have learned from the text you just read.
1
2 3
4 5 6
7 8
9
89
Across
1. The cause of herpes.

2. The cause of hepatitis B.
4. A symptom of AIDS surfaces drastically.
7. The major symptom of hepatitis B.
9. The cause of AIDS.
Down
1. STD that causes blisters in the mouth and sex organ.

3. Cause of gonorrhea.
5. An effect of herpes.
6. A symptom of syphilis that is often painless.
8. An STD that eventually weakens and attacks the body’s immune
system.
Guide Question
How can sexually transmitted diseases be prevented?
90
Information Sheet
The following are some diseases that can be transmitted through sexual contact:
 gonorrhea
 hepatitis b
 herpes
 syphilis
 HIV Infection/AIDS
Let’s discuss each of them.
GONORRHEA
Gonorrhea is an infection caused by bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It is

transmitted through sexual contact (either vaginal, oral or anal) with an infected
person. Sexual contact transfers the bacteria from one person to another.
Gonorrhea can be detected through laboratory testing of urine samples.
What are its symptoms?
Many women and men with gonorrhea have no noticeable physical symptoms.
This means that one cannot detect if a person has gonorrhea just by looking at
him or her.
Symptoms in women include:

 bleeding after intercourse;
 bleeding between periods
(This means that you
experience bleeding even if it
is not your menstrual
period.); and
 increased frequency of
urination.
In women, untreated gonorrhea can spread to the pelvic area and infect the
uterus, fallopian tube, and ovaries. This may cause permanent damage to the
woman’s reproductive organs and can lead to infertility.
91
In men, symptoms of gonorrhea include:
 yellowish-white discharge from the penis;

 pain when urinating; and
 swollen or painful testicles
In men, untreated gonorrhea can affect the

testicles, leading to swelling and pain. It can
likewise lead to infertility.
HEPATITIS B
Hepatitis B is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It can be

transmitted sexually or from contact with infected blood or body fluids. Body
fluids include blood, semen, vaginal secretions and breast milk. Hepatitis B can
thus be transmitted through the use of contaminated tattooing needles, drug
paraphernalia (syringes) and the like. When we say “contaminated” we mean that
the material contains traces of the blood or body fluids of an infected person.
Although there is no cure for hepatitis B, there is a safe and effective vaccine that
can prevent the disease. Hepatitis B can be diagnosed through blood tests.
Many people with hepatitis B experience only

mild symptoms or no symptoms at all. However,
some people experience flu-like symptoms or
may develop jaundice (yellowing of the eyes and
skin).
Majority of those with hepatitis B will eventually

develop anti-bodies to the disease. However,
when left untreated, some of those with hepatitis
B may develop liver disease or cirrhosis of the
liver. Their risk of developing liver cancer is
much higher.
92
HERPES
Herpes is a common infection cause by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). It

causes blisters on the mouth, face, sex organ or around the anus. Once a person
is infected with herpes, he/she remains infected for life.
Herpes spreads through intimate skin contact (for example, contact with lesions
of an infected individual). Since the blisters and lesions can occur in the mouth,
face and sex organ, herpes can be transmitted through both kissing and sex.
Herpes can be diagnosed only by taking and analyzing a sample from a blister.
This is because there is no available blood test for the virus that causes herpes.
Many individuals infected with herpes do not

experience any symptoms and do not know that
they are infected. Herpes can be accompanied by
flu-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue,
headaches, muscle aches and swollen glands in
addition to blisters and ulcers on and around the
genitals, thighs, buttocks and anus, or the lips,
mouth, throat, tongue and gums.
In case of a genital infection, the person may experience itching or a burning,

painful sensation when urinating.
If left untreated, herpes increases the risk of transmitting or acquiring HIV

infection. This is because of the presence of blisters and sores on the mouth or
sex organs.
93
SYPHILIS
Syphilis is caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum. Most of those who have
syphilis develop sores in their sex organs. These sores contain the bacteria
which is transmitted through direct contact with infected people. Syphilis can be
cured by the antibiotic penicillin. One way of detecting syphilis is through blood
tests.
The first symptom of syphilis infection is usually the

appearance of small, painless sores in the penis or
vagina, anus or mouth. The sore usually appears
about two to six weeks after sexual contact with an
infected person. The sore may then disappear within
a few weeks, although the bacteria will remain in the
body if left untreated.
Without proper treatment, the disease can cause

heart ailments, blindness, paralysis and even death.
AIDS
AIDS is a disease caused by HIV or the human immunodeficiency virus. HIV is

found in body fluids such as blood, semen, vaginal secretions and the breast milk
of persons infected with the virus. A major cause of HIV infection is sexual
contact with an infected person.
HIV weakens a person’s immune system, thereby limiting the body’s natural
ability to fight other infections and diseases.
Persons infected with HIV may not experience any symptoms, and thus may not
be aware that they are carrying the virus. A person can be infected with HIV for
a long time (even up to 10 years) before he or she develops AIDS. AIDS stands
for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. The disease weakens a person’s
immune system, thereby making him or her vulnerable to different kinds of
infections.
94
Symptoms that begin to develop

may include:
 an unexplained loss of weight

lasting at least one month;
 diarrhea for several weeks or
more;
 enlarged or sore glands in the
neck, armpit and/or other parts
of the body;
 cough that persists for more
than one month;
 persistent fever and/or night
sweats; and
 persistent vaginal yeast
infections.
An AIDS test can detect the presence of HIV or full-blown AIDS (HIV that has
developed into AIDS). Currently, there is no known cure for HIV infection.
However, with the combined use of special antiviral and antibiotic drugs, it is
possible to prolong and improve the quality of life of people with the disease.
These antiviral drugs slow down the spread of HIV infection or the onset of full-
blown AIDS.
Since there is no known cure for AIDS, it eventually leads to death.
95
Unit Integration Plan

SEMINAR ON HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE ISSUES
Objective
Students, in teams, will investigate an issue involving reproductive

technologies and evaluate the implications for social decision-making.
They will also investigate careers that require an understanding of
reproductive biology.
The students will implement an action plan to educate others about the
risks and/or benefits of an aspect of reproductive technology.
Procedure
The implementation of the action plan involves creating:

(a) a class handout or poster;
(b) preparing and giving a class presentation; and
(c) participating in a debate to show defense of a position.
Additionally, the class may complete a test on reproductive

technologies based on the education products produced by both their
team and the other students.
1. Ask students to use the Internet and other resources to research on

the latest issues in human reproduction.
2. Introduce the research assignment at the beginning of the first

lesson in order to avoid panic and stress on the part of the student.
3. Allow students to choose their topic from a list of careers and

reproductive technology topics.
Examples
Cloning, in vitro, artificial fertilization, adoption, egg and sperm

freezing, sperm banks, surrogate mothers, birth control, etc…
Each group is entitled to research on only one topic. On Day 3,

decisions on group members and topics must be made.
96
4. Allow the students a work period in the library or computer room in

order to research on the Net, and also in other resources (they
should also be reminded that most textbooks include such
information). Then have them submit a written report of a page or
so, and present or share this with the class.
5. Conduct a seminar based on a social or health issue related to the

unit assignment. Each group is expected to give a 12-minute
presentation of its findings based on the issue that they have
researched.
Some seminar topics could be:
 Alcohol and how it affects the fetus

 Should we legalize abortion?
 Birth control and the burgeoning population
 Why does cancer happen?
 Should there be mandatory labeling of Genetically Modified
Foods (GMF)?
 Should there be legislation (laws) to ban human reproductive
cloning?
 Should human Embryonic Stem Cell (ESC) research be
banned?
 Should parents have the right to have their minor children
tested for adult-onset diseases?
6. Please note that the Internet assignment and the seminars do not
have to necessarily be at the end of this topic, they could occur at
other instances.
7. All students are assumed to have access to a computer with email

and Internet; otherwise modifications to the project design may be
required to accommodate exceptionalities.
Assessment
1. Students could be evaluated on content, questions raised to start

class discussions, creativity, and resources used.
97
2. Individual work will account for 50 percent of the overall project

mark (individual research, test). Teamwork will account for 50
percent of the project mark (handout/brochure/poster,
presentation).
 Individual research will be graded using a checklist.

 Team hand-out/brochure/poster will be graded using a marking
scheme. If necessary, the hand-out/brochure/poster will be
returned to the team for re-submission.
 Using a marking scheme, team presentation will be graded by
both the teacher and classmates. All team members must
participate.
3. Each student will complete a self-assessment on the project.
4. Comments on improvements and changes to the project, or to any

of the assessment tools are welcome. Please see the teacher if you
have any questions or difficulties with this project.
5. Each individual will complete a test on biotechnology. The test will

contain generic questions on biotechnology. Approximately 75
percent of the test will consist of questions on all of the topics
presented, 25 percent of the test will consist of questions on your
project.
Career/Learning Connections
 Knowledge in reproduction
 Language arts: research and bibliography practiced concurrently.

Students will practice writing a short science essay and using the
library and Internet for research purposes.
 Soft/employability skills: cooperative learning and teamwork,

presentation, critical thinking, planning and organization skills are
practiced concurrently.
 Information Technology
Students will use the library, and Internet for research purposes
and PowerPoint software for presentation, including the overhead
projector or multimedia projector, if available.
98
Student Activity
SEMINAR ON HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE ISSUES
Objectives
At the end of the culminating activity, you should be able to:
1. examine the different careers that require an understanding of
reproductive biology;
2. investigate the various reproductive technologies; and
3. discuss social and health issues related to human reproduction.
Resources
 Library
 Computer room in order to research on the Net
 Science textbooks
Procedure: GROUP ASSIGNMENT
1. Use the Internet and other resources to research on the following:
 Different careers related to reproduction and the

reproductive technologies
 Latest issues in human reproduction
2. Choose a human reproduction topic, such as:
Cloning, in vitro, artificial fertilization, adoption, egg and sperm

freezing, sperm banks, surrogate mothers, birth control, etc.
Each topic may only be researched by one group. Confirm your

choice with the teacher. Decisions on group members and
topics must be made by Day 3.
3. You are allowed to work in the library or computer room in order to

research on the Net, but also in other resources. Most textbooks
include such information.
4. Submit a written report of a page or so, and present or share this

with the class through a seminar. The seminar should be based on
a social or health issue related to the unit assignment.
99
5. Your group is expected to give a 12-minute presentation of your

findings based on the issue that you have researched.
6. Develop a title for your presentation. Some seminar topics could

be:
 Alcohol and how it affects the fetus
 Should we legalize abortion?
 Birth control and the burgeoning population
 Why does cancer happen?
 Should there be legislation (laws) to ban human reproductive
cloning?
 Should human Embryonic Stem Cell (ESC) research be
banned?
 Should parents have the right to have their minor children
tested for adult-onset diseases?
7. You may create a poster, visual aid, pamphlets and diagrams to

support your presentations.
Guidelines
Research
Each individual will submit one abstract (2-3 paragraph description of content)
with bibliographic information for one source of information (reference). In
addition to the description of content, the student must state in one short
paragraph how this reference will be used for the project (e.g., scientific
background, ethical argument, economic argument) and from what point of
view (e.g., one of the points of view described in the individual question
handouts). Please submit in typed format.
Hand-out/Poster/Brochure
Each team will submit one educational hand-out/poster/brochure for the class.
The handout will include 5 sections:
(1) Scientific background information to allow others to understand the area

of biotechnology
(2) Key issues pertaining to the question described using the points of view
or perspectives of the individuals involved.
100
(3) Current implementation in the Philippines as this pertains to the question
(4) Debate Position (Pro) will restate the question as a statement and provide
at least one (or more) argument(s) with evidence for this position plus the
risks and benefits of this position.
(5) The hand-out will be of mixed format using sentences, paragraphs and
bullets or numbers (point form), where appropriate. The handout will also
contain a bibliography. It should be a single-spaced typed page of 12 pt.
font. The bibliography will be completed on a separate page.
Presentation
Each team will present its findings to the class within 12 minutes. This
presentation should include information similar to that in the hand-
out/brochure/poster but in summary form. The presentation should be
completed using either presentation software (e.g., PowerPoint) or
overheads. Questions will be taken from the class after the presentation.
Team members should coordinate, cooperate, organize and communicate.

Ask
 What are the tasks that need to be completed?

 Who will complete these and when?
 What do I know/What do I need to know?
101
Unit Summary
Species are maintained in existence through the life spans process
of reproduction. Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring
from a single parent cell. The process of mitosis is associated with asexual
reproduction, and the growth and repair of cells in sexually reproducing
organisms.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that have a combination of

genes inherited from the two parents’ sex cells or gametes. These gametes are
produced by the process of meiosis. The single cell formed by the union of the
egg and the sperm is called a zygote. The zygote contains all the information
necessary for growth, development, and eventual reproduction of the organism.
Human sexual reproduction occurs in a manner very similar to other sexually

reproducing animals. Both males and females contain specialized reproductive
structures designed to produce gametes and facilitate development. Both the
male and female have specialized chemicals or hormones which aid this
process as well.
The development of humans and other sexually reproducing organisms is a

highly regulated process involving mitosis and differentiation.
Reproduction and development are subject to environmental impact. The general
process of birth, human development, and aging involves a predictable series of
events.
Reproductive technology has medical, agricultural, and ecological applications.

This technology has also stirred ethical concerns as well, especially where this
technology applies to humans.
REFERENCES
http://educ.queensu.ca/~science/main/concept/biol/b12/B12LALL4.htm
http://educ.queensu.ca/~science/main/concept/biol/b12/B12CDSF2.doc
102

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BIOLOGY

Lesson 1 – The Cell Cycle ................................................................................................................ 1

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

 transparency (overhead projector) or Manila paper

Arrange the students in groups of 6 or 8. Before the activity, ensure

1. Introduce the session by asking the students:

2. Relate their responses to asexual or sexual division of cells:

Reproduction is an important biological function. It allows

At the cellular level, eukaryotic cells reproduce by mistosis. This

4. Give a drawing of an animal cell, and label the following organelles:

Main Activity: THE CELL CYCLE- WHAT IS IT?

1. A copy of the diagram entitled “Cell Cycle” should be distributed to

2. Develop an overview of mitosis. Also provide reminder definitions of

The Cell Cycle: Interphase

The cell is engaged in metabolic activity and in

2. Students can perform an experiment with onions to see if various

4. Using the Internet, students can research on cell cycle control

1. Some people say it is natural to gain weight as one gets older.

The nucleus is the most important structure in cell reproduction because it

The chromosomes contain important proteins and the hereditary chemical

The stages pictured on the left, are

The G1 stage stands for “GAP 1”.

The S stage stands for “Synthesis”.

The G2 stage stands for “GAP 2”.

The M stage stands for “mitosis”, and is

Cytoplasmic (cytokinesis) division occurs simultaneously with the last stage of

The non-dividing stage, which is devoted largely to cell growth, is called

THE CELL CYCLE

Prepare the diagram of mitosis in plant and animal cells, or slides if

3. Tell them to prepare for a group presentation.

4. Ask some questions like:

Other organisms undergo similar processes. How do these happen?

Mitosis refers to how cells make identical copies of themselves. This is

_____________ 1. The first stage of mitosis when chromosomes

_____________ 2. Which of the following features of cell division

_____________ 3. Which of the following statements is not true of

c. The daughter nuclei are genetically identical to

_____________ 4. How would you differentiate mitosis in plant and in

Prepare a visual presentation depicting mitosis. Take a yarn or thick

Cell: The Basic Unit of Life: NFE Accreditation and Equivalency

Quelal-lan, R M, et al. Science and Technology: Laboratory Manual.

Rabago, et al. Science and Technology: Biology. 228–231.

The function of mitosis is to duplicate the nucleus—its chromosome sets.

The paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and

New membranes form around the daughter nuclei while the

Student Activity (Option 1)

THE ONION ROOT TIP

Assuming that you are an ornamental horticulturist, your occupation

 prepared slide of onion root tip mitosis (allium, longitudinal section)

1. Obtain a prepared onion root tip slide and a microscope.

7. Return the microscope and slide to your teacher.

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total

Student Activity (Option 2)

In this activity, you will investigate the activity of chromosomes during

 red and blue playdough

b. Obtain a small quantity (ball approximately 4 cm in diameter) of red

c. Using half of each color of the playdough make the following:

 red chromosome 10 cm in length