Physical Science 1st Quarter Reviewer for Examination

Lesson 1: Formation of the element in the Universe

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson the student will be able to learn to:
1. Give evidence for and explain the formation of the light elements in the big bang
theory.
2. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution.
3. Write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars, which lead to the formation
of new elements.

•Physical science is the study of the inorganic world. That is, it does not study living
things. (Those are studied in biological, or life, science.) The four main branches of
physical science are astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences, which
include meteorology and geology.
What is Physical Science?
•Physical Science is the study of matter and energy, and the changes they undergo.
•Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
•Mass = the amount of the matter an object contains
•Energy is the ability to do work
•Physical science has two branches: Chemistry and Physics

Why is physical science important?

The intellect can be developed through studying science. Apart from the development of
the intellect, physical science also sets reasoning ability and logical reasoning in an
individual. When we understand various concepts, it encourages us to analyze
situations and make decisions wisely.

•What is physical science topics?

•Course Objective: Physical Science is the study of matter and energy and includes
chemistry and physics. ... Topics that will be studied include: matter, the periodic table,
elements, mixtures, compounds, chemical reactions, light and electromagnetic
spectrum, energy, heat, motion, Newton's laws, and momentum.
Nature -> Physical Phenomena -> Observation -> Discover Basic Laws
-Falling of an Apple from a tree
-Orbiting of the Moon around the earth
Newton Observed
Law of Gravitation and Laws of Motion

The Formation of the elements are:

 ● Fire
● Earth
● Water
● Air

Formation of Universe The Big Bang Theory - The best-supported theory of our
universe's origin centers on an event known as the big bang. This theory was born of
the observation that other galaxies are moving away from our own at great speed in all
directions as if they had all been propelled by an ancient explosive force.

What is the explanation of the Big Bang theory?

Image result for the formation of the big bang theory
Simply put, it says the universe as we know it started with an infinitely hot and dense
single point that inflated and stretched — first at unimaginable speeds, and then at a
more measurable rate — over the next 13.8 billion years to the still-expanding cosmos
that we know today. The important light elements are hydrogen and helium.

Evidence for Big Bang Theory

•3. The abundance of “Light” Elements
-Hydrogen and Helium are found everywhere in the observable universe
-First two elements were created after the Big Bang
Step 1: Proton and neutrons fuse to form a deuterium nucleus. Photon
Step 2: Two deuterium nuclei fuse to make hydrogen-3.
Step 3: Hydrogen-3 Fuse with deuterium to create helium-4.
Key: Neutron and Proton

Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates a new atomic nucleus from a preexisting
nucleon, which is a proton-neutron.
Primordial or Big Bang Nucleosynthesis refers to the process of producing the “light
elements” shortly after the Big Bang.

Through Nuclear Fusion, the light elements – Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), and small amounts of
Lithium (Li) and Beryllium (Be) were formed.
The Isotopes produced during the Big Bang Nucleosynthesis were H-1, H-2, H-3, H-4, and L-7.

An isotopes is a form of an element that has the same atomic number as the original element
but with different atomic mass or mass numbers.

Origin of Heavier Elements: Heavy Elements were formed only billions of years after
the formation of stars.
The density inside a star is great enough to sustain fusion for extended tie periods
required to synthesize heavy elements.

There are many nuclear synthetic pathways or nuclear fusions to produce heavy
elements:
•Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen Cycle
•Proton-Proton Fusion
•Triple Alpha Process

Layers near the core of stars have very high temperatures enough to nucleosynthesis
heavy elements such as silicon and iron.

A Supernova is the explosive death of a star.

In a supernova, a neutron capture reaction takes place, leading to the formation of

heavy elements.
In a neutron capture reaction, heavy elements are created by the addition of more
neutrons to existing nuclei instead of the fusion of light nuclei.
Adding neutrons to a nucleus doesn’t change an element. Rather, a more massive isotope of
the same elements is produced.
Elements higher than iron require a tremendous amount of energy to be formed. Thus, they
were produced from a neutron capture reaction in a supernova.

Summary: These are 3 reactions that led to the formation of the elements:
nucleosynthesis, fusion, and neutron capture reaction.
● This reaction required a certain amount of energy to proceed, which was
obtained from the heat of the continuously expanding universe. Thus the energy
in the form of heat does not only produce work but also the elements that make
up the matter that we have today.
● The reaction involved in the formation of these elements is dependent on the
atomic mass of the elements. More energy, and thus higher temperature, is
needed to form heavier elements.
● Nucleosynthesis is formed by light elements, whereas fusion in stars formed
elements with an atomic mass that is within the range of beryllium and iron.

Lesson 2: Concept of the Atom from the Ancient Greek

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson the student will be able to learn to:
1. Describe the ideas of the ancient Greeks on the atom.
2. Describe the ideas of ancient Greek on the atom.
3. Describe the contribution of alchemists to the science of chemistry.

BELIEF OF EARLY GREEKS ABOUT ATOM:

History of Atomic Theory:
Democritus:
- 460-371 B.C.
- Ancient Greek Philosopher
- Believed all matter consisted of extremely small particles that could not be
divided
- Atoms, from the Greek word atomos, means “uncut” or “indivisible”
Aristotle:
- Believed all matter came from only four elements - earth, air, fire, and water

CONCEPT OF ATOM FROM ANCIENT GREEK TO THE PRESENT:

•Atomism (from Greek ἄτομον, atomon, i.e. "uncuttable, indivisible") is a natural
philosophy proposing that the physical universe is composed of fundamental indivisible
components known as atoms. ... The ancient Greek atomists theorized that nature
consists of two fundamental principles: atom and void.

Earliest Atomic Theory:

● 400B.C. - Democritus, a Greek philosopher, developed the first atomic
theory.
● He believed that matter was made up of tiny particles called atoms.
● He also believed that matter could not be created, destroyed, or further
divided.
● His theory was met with criticism from other influential philosophers such
as Aristotle.
● His theory was eventually rejected because it was not supported by
experimental evidence.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Experiment Based) 1803-1805

John Dalton:
1. All elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical.
3. Atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.
4. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged but
never changed into atoms of another element.

John Daltons Atomic Theory:

 ● All matter is composed of small particles called atoms.
● All atoms of a given element are alike.
● Compounds are formed when different atoms combine in fixed proportions.
● A chemical reaction involves the rearrangement of atoms.

J.J. Thomson's experiments with cathode ray tubes showed that all atoms contain tiny
negatively charged subatomic particles or electrons. Thomson proposed the plum
pudding model of the atom, which had negatively-charged electrons embedded within a
positively-charged "soup."

In 1911, Rutherford described the atom as having a tiny, dense, and positively charged
core called the nucleus. Rutherford established that the mass of the atom is
concentrated in its nucleus. The light, negatively charged, electrons circulated around
this nucleus, much like planets revolving around the Sun.

Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom in which the electron was able to occupy only
certain orbits around the nucleus. This atomic model was the first to use quantum
theory, in that the electrons were limited to specific orbits around the nucleus. Bohr used
his model to explain the spectral lines of hydrogen.

Schrödinger used mathematical equations to describe the likelihood of finding an

electron in a certain position. This atomic model is known as the quantum mechanical
model of the atom.

\
Subatomic Particles:
 ● Electron: Properties were discovered in 1897 by JJ Thompson.
● Proton: Isolated and identified in 1919 by Ernest Rutherford.
● Neutron: Discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) Philosophical Era

● The famous philosopher of the ancient Greeks

● Believe Matter was comprised of four elements
● Earth, Air, Fire, Water
● These elements had a total of four properties
● Dry, Moist, Hot, Cold
● People liked him - so this idea stayed

Nuclear Model of the Atom:

● Every atom contains an extremely small, extremely dense nucleus.
● All of the positive charge and nearly all of the mass of an atom are concentrated
in the nucleus.
● The nucleus is surrounded by a much larger volume of nearly empty space that
makes up the rest of the atom.
● The space outside the nucleus is very thinly populated by electrons, the total
charge of which exactly balances the positive charge of the nucleus.

Lavoisier: The Law of Conservation of Mass

Early 1700’s Lavoisier: Lw of Conservation of Mass
During a chemical change, the matter is neither created nor destroyed.
- 100.00 grams of mercuric oxide
- 92.61 grams of mercury
- 7.39 grams of oxygen

Proust: The Law of Definite Proportions

● 1799, Proust: Law of Definite Proportions
- A compound always contains the same elements in certain definite proportions.

Table of the subatomic particles in an atom

Symbol Charge Mass
 Proton p or p+ +1 1amu

Electron e- -1 1/1837amu

Neutrons n 0 1amu
The Atom may come in one of three forms:
Elements = # of p+ = # of e- a neutral atom
Ions = # of p+ is not = # of e- a charged atom
Isotopes = # of neutrons vary changes the mass of the atom

Lesson 3: Matter

Chemistry Notes - Matter

Matter - Anything that has mass and volume.
- Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms and molecules.
- Phases of the matter: solid, liquid, gas.
- Heat is the cause of phase changes. More heat means faster moving particles,
less attraction between particles, and more space between particles.

→What is a matter of short answer?

→Matter is a substance that has inertia and occupies physical space.
→ According to modern physics, matter consists of various types of particles, each with
mass and size. ... Matter can exist in several states, also called phases. The three most
common states are known as solid, liquid and gas.

The matter is anything that occupies space and possesses mass. It can be felt by one
or more of our senses. Examples are Milk, Coke, Bell, Balloons, pears, Books, Hot Air
Balloons, and Pen.

The matter is made up of atoms and molecules. Molecules are atoms of more than two
elements that are chemically bonded together. Each atom is a certain element that
becomes a compound/molecule when bonded with other atoms. So matter is made up
of one type of element or combinations of elements (atoms or molecules).

What is the relationship between atoms and elements?

Atoms:
● Are the building blocks of all matter
● Are made up of three particles protons, neutrons, and elentrons.
Elements:
● Made up of one singular type of atom
● Pure substances that cannot be broken down.
Stages of Matter:
● What are the 4 states of matter that describe each?
● The four states of matter are solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Solids have definite
shapes and definite volumes. Gas has no definite shape or a definite volume.
Plasma is gas that glows due to heating or electric charge.

States of Matter: Atom, Nucleus, and Electron

DIFFERENCES OF THE 3 STAGES OF MATTER:

 Solids Liquids Gases
● Strong attraction ● Moderate attraction ● Very weak
between the between particles ● Particles are much
particles ● Particles still very further away from
● Particles are very close together but each other.
close together and not neatly arranged. ● The particles move
neatly arranged. ● Particles are able to all around and bump
● Particles vibrate in slide passed each into each other.
place. other.

● Definite shape ● Indefinite shape ● Indefinite shape

● Definite volume ● Definite volume ● Indefinite volume

PROPERTIES OF MATTER:
● What are physical and chemical properties give an example of each?
● Physical properties are those that can be observed without changing the identity of the
substance. The general properties of matter such as color, density, and hardness, are
examples of physical properties.
● Flammability and corrosion/oxidation resistance are examples of chemical properties.

EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER:

Chemical Properties are oxidation states, chemical bonding, coordination number, the
heat of combustion, toxicity, flammability, corrosivity, reactivity, and rusting metal.
Physical Properties are seeing, hearing, feeling, touching, smelling, measuring, color,
solubility, odor, hardness, density, melting point, and boiling point.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER

1. Extensive or Extrinsic - physical properties that depend on the amount of the
sample being examined. Ex: Volume, mass, length
2. Intensive or Intrinsic - physical properties that do not depend on the quantity of
the sample being examined. Ex: Temperature, odor, density, and freezing point.
EXAMPLES OF INTENSIVE VS EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
Intensive Properties are boiling point, color, temperature, luster, and hardness.
Extensive Properties are volume, mass, size, weight, and length.
INTRENSIVE AND EXTRENSIVE
1. BOILING POINT – Intrensive
2. DENSITY – Extrensive
3. WEIGHT – Extrtensive
4. LENGTH – Extrensive
5. VOLUME – Extrensive
6. TEMPERATUR – Intrensive
7. MASS – Extrensive
8. CONCENTRATION – Extrensive
9. SURFACE TENSION – Extrensive
10. ODOR – intrensive
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. SULFUR IS YELLOW – Physical
2. IRON REACTS WITH SULFUR TO GIVE AND FLAME – Chemical
3. BAKING SODA WITH ACID PRODUCE BUBBLE GAS – Physical
4. METAL CAN ROLL INTO FLAT SHEET – Physical
5. OXYGEN IS COLOR AND TASTELESS – Chemical
6. NITROGEN DIOXIDE GAS A CHOKING SMELL - Physical
7 HELIUM IS LESS DENSE, BALLON FLOAT – Physical
8. WAX CANDLE BURNS IN OXYGEN – Chemical
9. AN APPLE ROTS DUE TOFUNGI – Chemical
10. MERCURY METAL IS A LIQUID – Chemical

Lesson 4: Chemical Change Takes Place

—What are 10 chemical changes examples?
—Image result for chemical changes taking place
—Here is some examples of chemical changes:
—Burning wood.
—Souring milk.
—Mixing acid and base.
—Digesting food.
—Cooking an egg.
—Heating sugar to form caramel.
—Baking a cake.
—Rusting of iron.

● Where does a chemical change take place?

● Chemical changes occur when bonds are broken and/or formed between
molecules or atoms. This means that one substance with a certain set of
 properties (such as melting point, color, taste, etc) is turned into a different
substance with different properties.
CHANGES DURING CHEMICAL REACTION
● What changes occur during a chemical reaction?
● In a chemical change, the atoms in the reactants rearrange themselves and bond
together differently to form one or more new products with different
characteristics than the reactants. When a new substance is formed, the change
is called a chemical change.

5 SIGNS OF CHEMICAL REACTION has takes place:

● Light Release
● Temperature Change
● Production of a gas
● Formation of a precipitate
● Color change

● Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new
substance, called chemical synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition
into two or more different substances. These processes are called chemical
reactions and, in general, are not reversible except by further chemical reactions.
Chemical Changes in Matter:
● New Matter is formed
- Burning
- Rusting
- Cooking
- Film Processing

INDICATION OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

Indications of a Chemical Reaction:
● Bubbles - gas is given off
● Change in energy - becomes warm-exothermic
● Becomes cool - endothermic light is given off
● A precipitate (solid) forms
● Sometimes a change in color.
NEW SUBSTANCE FORMED
How are new substances formed in a chemical reaction?
A chemical reaction happens when substances break apart or combine to form one or
more new substances. New substances form when bonds break and new bonds form.
The chemical properties of the new substances are different from those of the original
substances. A precipitate is a solid substance that forms in a solution.

SUBSTANCE FORMED IN REACTION

—What substances are formed in a reaction?
—Image result for how new substance formed in reaction
—A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances, also called
reactants, are converted to one or more different substances, known as products.
Substances are either chemical elements or compounds.

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION:

—How fast a chemical reaction takes place?
—The reaction rate or rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes
place, defined as proportional to the increase in the concentration of a product per unit
time and to the decrease in the concentration of a reactant per unit time. Reaction rates
can vary dramatically.
FACTORS AFFECT THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION:
—What are the 4 factors that affect the rate of reaction?
—Image result for the rate of a chemical reaction
—The factor that affects reaction rates is
—the surface area of a solid reactant.
—concentration or pressure of a reactant.
—temperature.
—nature of the reactants.
—presence/absence of a catalyst.
Reaction Rate Factor:
1. The nature of the reactants
2. Concentration
3. Surface Area
4. Addition of a catalyst
5. Increasing the temperature
T ↑ K ↑ Rate ↑
IMPORTANT FOR RATE REACTION:
—Why is the rate of reaction important?
—The rate of a reaction is a powerful diagnostic tool. By finding out how fast products
are made and what causes reactions to slow down we can develop methods to improve
production. This information is essential for the large-scale manufacture of many
chemicals including fertilizers, drugs, and household cleaning items.

CHEMICAL ENERGY WORK:

—How is chemical energy harnessed?
—Chemical energy may be released during a chemical reaction, often in the form of
heat; such reactions are called exothermic. The chemical energy in food is converted by
the body into mechanical energy and heat. The chemical energy in coal is converted
into electrical energy at a power plant.
Lesson 5: How did we come to realize that the
REALIZING THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE
žHow did we come to realize that the Earth is not the center of the universe?
ž' 'On the 27th of February, four minutes after the first hour, the stars appeared in this
configuration: The easternmost was ten minutes from Jupiter; the next, thirty seconds. '
Galileo had seen three of Jupiter'''s four largest moons, effectively proving the Earth
was not the center of the universe.

What is the Greek view of the universe?

žAristotle's model of the universe was also geocentric, with the Sun, Moon, planets, and
stars all orbiting the Earth inside of Eudoxus' spheres. Aristotle believed the universe is
finite in space but exists eternally in time.

What did Greek philosophers believe about the universe?

žHe thought Earth was the center of the universe and that the Sun, Moon, planets, and
all the fixed stars revolved around it. Aristotle's ideas were widely accepted by the
Greeks of his time.
How did the ancient Greek view the Earth's motion?
žAmong the first Greek philosophers to suggest a geocentric system: Earth was a flat
disk (cylinder) fixed and unmoving at the center. Sun, Moon & Stars were affixed to
rotating crystalline spheres centered on the Earth. Sun, Moon & Stars were physical
objects.

How did the Greeks think the universe began?

žFrom Love came Light and Day. Once there was Light and Day, Gaea, and the earth
appeared. Then Erebus slept with Night, who gave birth to Ether, the heavenly light, and
to Day the earthly light. Then Night alone produced Doom, Fate, Death, Sleep, Dreams,
Nemesis, and others that come to man out of the darkness.

Is the universe made of matter?

žThe Universe is thought to consist of three types of substance: normal matter, 'dark
matter, and 'dark energy. Normal matter consists of the atoms that make up stars,
planets, human beings, and every other visible object in the Universe.

Competing model of the universe by Eudoxus

žEudoxus' model placed a spherical Earth at the center of the universe. The Sun,
planets, and stars were then placed in giant transparent spheres surrounding it. A
model of the universe that has the Earth at the center is known as a geocentric model of
the universe.
COMPETING MODEL OF UNIVERSE BY ARISTOTLE
žAristotle's model of the universe was also geocentric, with the Sun, Moon, planets, and
stars all orbiting the Earth inside of Eudoxus' spheres. Aristotle believed the universe is
finite in space but exists eternally in time.
COMPETING MODEL OF UNIVERSE BY ARISTARCHUS
ž270 BC
žThe first person known to have proposed a heliocentric system was Aristarchus of
Samos (c. 270 BC). Like his contemporary Eratosthenes, Aristarchus calculated the
size of the Earth and measured the sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon.
What were Aristarchus' three theories about the universe?
žHis hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the earth revolves
about the sun on the circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that
the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same center as the sun, is so great that the
circle in which he supposes the ...

MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE

žWhat is the model of the universe?
žA cosmological model is a mathematical description of the Universe that attempts to
explain its current behavior and evolution over time. Cosmological models are based on
direct observations.
COSMOLOGICAL MODEL,
žWhat is the current cosmological model?
žThe current Standard Model of Cosmology (SMC), also called the “Concordance
Cosmological Model” or the “ΛCDM Model,” assumes that the universe was created in
the “Big Bang” from pure energy, and is now composed of about 5% ordinary matter,
27% dark matter, and 68% dark energy.
PTOLEMY MODEL OF UNIVERSE
žWhat was Ptolemy's model of the universe called?
žgeocentric system
žPtolemaic system also called the geocentric system or geocentric model, mathematical model
of the universe formulated by the Alexandrian astronomer and mathematician Ptolemy about
150 CE and recorded by him in his Almagest and Planetary Hypotheses.

BELIEVE THAT EARTH IS THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE:

žWhy did Ptolemy believe the Earth was the center of the universe?
žPtolemy argued that the Earth was a sphere in the center of the universe, from the
simple observation that half the stars were above the horizon and half were below the
horizon at any time (stars on rotating stellar sphere), and the assumption that the stars
were all at some modest distance from the center of the …

COPERNICUS PROPOSED MODEL:

žWhat model of the universe did Copernicus propose?
žheliocentric system
žIn a book called On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies (which was published as
Copernicus lay on his deathbed), Copernicus proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was
the center of the Solar System. Such a model is called a heliocentric system.

The Copernican Model: A Sun-Centered Universe (1543)

New views of the heavens
● Sun Centered
● Stars do not revolve around the Earth
● Earth located in 24 hours
But…
Planets still have perfectly cluster orbits and cycles are still needed
Retrograde motion and the burying brightness of planets in the Heliocentric
Model
Copernican Heliocentric Universe:
What model of the universe did Brahe believe in?
žBrahe believed in a model of the Universe with the Sun (rayed disk) orbiting the Earth
(black dot), but the other planets (symbols) orbiting the Sun. In an attempt to prove his
theory, Brahe compiled extensive astronomical records, which Kepler eventually used to
prove heliocentrism and to calculate the orbital laws.

Tycho Brahe’s Model:

● Earth at the center of the “Universe” (because parallax is not seen)
● The sun travels about the Earth in a perfect circle
● The planets move around the Sun in perfect circles.
KEPLER’S MODEL OF UNIVERSE:
žWhat is Kepler's model?
žKepler's geometric model of a heliocentric planetary orbit is summed up in his three well-known
laws of planetary motion. According to Kepler's first law, all planetary orbits are ellipses that are
confocal with the sun and lie in a fixed plane.

KEPLER DISCOVERED
žWhat did Kepler discover about the universe?
žIn 1609, Kepler published the first two of his three laws of planetary motion, which held
that planets move around the sun in ellipses, not circles (as had been widely believed
up to that time) and that planets speed up as they approach the sun and slow down as
they move away.

What are Kepler's 3 laws?

žThere are actually three, Kepler's laws that are, of planetary motion: 1) every planet's
orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at a focus; 2) a line joining the Sun and a planet sweeps
out equal areas in equal times; and 3) the square of a planet's orbital period is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its ...Feb 11, 2010
Why Kepler's law is important?
žKepler's laws of planetary motion mark an essential turning point in the transition from
geocentrism to heliocentrism. They provide the first quantitative connection between the
planets, including earth. But even more, they mark a time when the important questions
of the times were changing.

Who created the universe?

žMany religious persons, including many scientists, hold that God created the universe
and the various processes driving physical and biological evolution and that these
processes then resulted in the creation of galaxies, our solar system, and life on Earth.

KEPLER’S LAW CONCLUDED:

žThe centripetal force acting on the planet, According to Kepler's third law which states
that the square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the sun is directly
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit i.e.

PROVED THAT THE EARTH IS NOT THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE:

žWho proved that the Earth was not the center of the universe?
žGalileo had seen three of Jupiter'''s four largest moons, effectively proving the Earth
was not the center of the universe.

How is the Earth not the center of the universe?

žPolish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus's 1543 book, On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres, moved Earth from being the centre of the Universe to just another
planet orbiting the Sun.
Why the Earth is not the center of the solar system?
žThe sun's gravity pulls on the earth, and the earth pulls back on the sun at the same
time. This is why the center of the solar system is not the center of the sun. As one
gravitational body gets bigger than the other, it circles closer to the center of the system
(shown in red).

EVIDENCE FOUND BY GALILEO

žWhat evidence found by Galileo showed the Earth could not be the center of the
solar system?
žHe discovered that the sun has sunspots, which appear to be dark in color. Galileo's
discoveries about the Moon, Jupiter's moons, Venus, and sunspots supported the idea
that the Sun - not the Earth - was the center of the Universe, as was commonly believed
at the time.

Lesson 6: Electric Structure of Atoms

Atoms:
● The basic component of all matter.
● The smallest particle of an element that has all of the chemical properties of that
element.
● Consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons.

Parts of an Atom:
Electron Theory
All materials are made up of very small particles called atoms. Atoms themselves are
made up of even smaller particles called: Protons, Neutron, and Electrons.

Electrons:
● Negatively charged subatomic particle
● Located outside the nucleus.
● Does not contribute to the atom’s mass.
● 1 Electron = 1/2000 atomic mass unit (amu)
● In a neutral atom the number of protons and electrons are equal.

ELECTRONIC ATOM
—The electronic structure of atoms and molecules is the series of energy levels that it
are possible for a bound electron to occupy. This electronic structure determines many
of the defining characteristics of an atom or molecule, including their chemical, optical,
and electrical properties.
—Electrons in an atom are grouped around the nucleus into shells. Shell (electron): A
grouping of electrons in an atom according to energy. The farther a shell is from the
nucleus, the larger it is, the more electrons it can hold, and the higher the energies of
those electrons.
Structure of the Atom:
Nucleus:
● Core of the atom
● 99.9% of atom’s mass
● Made up of protons and neutrons
Protons:
● Positively charged
● All protons are identical
● Atomic number - Number of Protons
Neutrons:
● Neutral Charge (No Charge)
● All are identical
● Mass number - # of protons + # of neutrons
Energy Level:
● Represents the most likely location in the electron could in which an e- can be
found.
Electrons have higher energy the farther they are from the Nucleus.

HISTORY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOM MODEL

Development of Atomic Models:

Rutherford Model - 1911 New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford fins that an atom has
a small, dense, positively charged nucleus. Electrons move around the nucleus.
Bohr Model - 1913 in Niels Bohr’s model, the electron moves in a circular orbit at fixed
distances from the nucleus.
1923 French physicist Louis de Broglie proposes that moving particles like electrons
have some properties of waves. Within a few years, experimental evidence supports the
ideas.

QUANTUM MECHANICA MODEL

● The cloud is most dense where the probability of finding the electron is highest.
● The boundary of the “electron cloud” encloses the area that has a 90%
probability of containing electrons.
Electron Orbit Model - Originally, electrons were thought to orbit around the nucleus in
defined paths.
Electron Cloud Model - It was discovered that electrons move in waves in a defined
space called an electron cloud.

Dalton - 1803 - Billiard Ball Model

Dalton proposed the indivisible unit of an element is the atom.
Thompson - 1904 - Plum Pudding Model
Thompson discovers electrons, believed to reside within a sphere of uniform positive
charge (the plum pudding model).
Rutherford - 1911 - Rutherford Model
Rutherford demonstrates the existence of a positive that contains nearly all the mass of
an atom.
Bohr - 1913 - Bohr Model
Bohr proposes fixed circular orbits around the nucleus for electrons.
Schrodinger - 1926 - Electron Cloud Model
In the current model of the atom, electrons occupy regions of space (orbitals) around
the nucleus determined by their energies.
SCHRONDINGER’S THEORY:
—In the world's most famous thought experiment, physicist Erwin Schrödinger described
how a cat in a box could be in an uncertain predicament. The peculiar rules of quantum
theory meant that it could be both dead and alive until the box was opened and the cat's
state measured.
SCHRODINGER MODEL:
—What does the Schrodinger model state?
—Essentially a wave equation, the Schrödinger equation describes the form of the probability
waves (or wave functions [see de Broglie wave]) that govern the motion of small particles, and it
specifies how these waves are altered by external influences.

Schrodinger: Electron cloud model (1926)

 ● In the quantum mechanical model of atomic structure, electrons do not travel
along fixed paths like planets around the sun.
● Instead, electrons can be found the most frequently in certain areas around the
nucleus.

Bohr Model - Isotopes of hydrogen, helium, lithium, and sodium

Electron Cloud Model