UNIT 4 CELL BIOLOGY

4.1 Cell theory

How did the modern cell theory develop?
The discovery of cells is very recent and was dependent on the invention reliable microscopes.
Many biologists and other scientists contributed to the discovery of cells and the statement of
the very first cell theory. Some of the major contributors are the following.
Table 4.1 A timeline of historical development of the cell theory and its major contributors
Biologist Time Major contribution
Zaccharias 1595 A Dutch scientist who made the first compound microscope having two lenses –
Jansen the eyepiece and the objective lens combining to produce the final image.
Franso Redi 1626 Postulates that living things do not arise from spontaneous generation.
Robert Hooke 1665  Makes one of the earliest compound microscopes magnifying 30x.
 Could see tiny structures in cork he called cell and drew it.
Anton van 1674  Used his simple (one lens) microscope and was skilled at grinding lenses till
Leeuwenhoek achieve magnifications of 300×.
 Observed moving unicellular organisms (protistans, bacteria) in water and
teeth scraps. He called the moving organisms ‘animalcules’.
Rene 1824 A French biologist - concludes that all organisms are made of cells and discovered:
Dutrochet  Discovered stomata in the epidermis of leaves and the process of osmosis.
 Use of chlorophyll for photosynthesis to occur respiration occurs in both
animals and plants.
 He is the first to introduce cell theory and describe cells grow in volume or in
number.
Roberts Brown 1833 Describes the characteristic shape of cell nucleus to be in cells of plants (an orchid).
Matthias 1839 They are a botanist and a zoologist forwarded clearly stated cell theory first as:
Schleiden and  The cell is unit of structure, physiology & organization in living things().
Theodor  Cells retains dual existence – a cell is a distinct entity, &a ‘building block’ in
Schwann the formation of organisms) ().
 cells form by free-cell formation (spontaneous generation). (X)
Kolliker 1857  Describes mitochondria.
Rudolf 1858  Developed surgical techniques & promoted several fields of modern medicine.
Virchow  Declares - ‘Omnis cellula e cellula’- a cell can only arise from another cell.
 Completes the first accepted version of the cell theory:
 all organisms are made up of one or more cells.
 all cells come from pre-existing cells.
 the cell is the unit of structure, physiology and organization in living things.
 the cell retains a dual existence (a distinct entity + a building block)
Today, the cell theory is modified in light of genetics and cell biology as:
 All known living things are made up of cells.
 The cell is a structural and functional unit of all living things.
 All cells come from pre-existing cells by division (no abiogenesis of cells).
 Cells carry hereditary information passed from cell to cell during cell division.
 All cells have basically the same chemical composition.
 All energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry of life) occurs within cells.
Friedrich 1869 discovered DNA extracting a white substance from the nuclei of human cells and
Miescher fish sperm, and called the substance “nuclein,” – a nucleic acid or of the nucleus.
Walther Fleming 1879 describes chromosome behaviour during mitosis.
Camillo Golgi 1898 An Italian physician who first decribed Golgi bodies in cells.
2000  Human genome DNA sequence draft.
 How big are cells?
There is only one cell like vorticella and amoeba. The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be
considered a living entity. Cells differ in size, shape, number, type and functions. Life processes all depends on the
kind of cell. The smallest bacterial cells are over 100 nm in length  of the chicken’s egg size.
What units shall we measure cells in?
We could measure cells size in smaller more convenient units like micrometers or nanometers.
Three smaller units commonly used are millimeters, micrometers and namometers.
Table 4.2 - comparison of size ranges of different cells, viruses and certain molecules
 Animal cell are much bigger (10x10x 10x=1000x)
than a bacterium.
 Chicken egg about 80mm.
 Frog egg about 3mm.
 Most animal and plant cells from 10-100m.
 Red blood cell 7μm in diameter.
 Most bacteria, nucleus and mitochondrion from
1-10m.
 The smallest bacteria about 100nm.
 Viruses about 70nm.
 Ribosomes about 20nm.
 Proteins about 7nm.
 Lipids about 3nm.
Figure - size and scale in living things  Atoms 0.1nm.
To make a rough estimate of cell size
• Place a slide of cells (onion epidermis cells) under the microscope at about magnification ×100.
• Now take the slide away and replace it with a transparent plastic ruler at the same magnification.
• Focus on the millimeter scale on the ruler .
• Use this to estimate the width of ‘field of view’ under the microscope.
• Now replace your slide of the onion cells and refocus.
• Count how many cells fit lengthways and width ways into the field of view.
• If 8 cells fit across the field of view the width of each cell is 2 mm ÷ 8 = 0.25 mm (or 250 μm).
However, this is only one estimate and you should repeat the procedure in several areas of the slide and find the
average.
What are the consequences of the different sizes of cells?
A cube has equal 3 dimensions and 6 faces. When a linear dimensions of a cube doubles from cube 1 to cube 2 (as
shown below), the surface area and volumes of the cubes increase 4 and 8 times respectively. Cells may have the
same pattern when the increase in size or number.

Figure – shows the how change in dimensions changes the surface area and volumes and then the surface area to volume ratio.
Linear dimension Surface area one Total surface area of Volume (lwh) Surface-area-to-
face (lw) the 6 faces (6lw) volume ratio
1 1 6 1 6
2 4 24 8 3
3 9 54 27 2
4 16 96 64 1.5
5 25 150 125 1.2
6 36 216 216 1
7 49 294 343 0.85
8 64 384 512 0.75
9 81 486 729 0.67
10 100 600 1000 0.6
 Does it matter if the surface-area-to-volume ratio changes?
A cell respires to release energy to drive all the other cellular processes. If can’t the cell may die. For
respiration, cell needs oxygen, which enters through the surface of the cell.
The surface area- refers to the surface (area) of the cell through which materials supplied to cells. It
determines the amount of oxygen delivered into the cell. Surface area of cells (a cube discussed above)
grows less than the volume.

The volume - shows how much activity is in a cell. A large cell will have more processes happening, or at
least the same processes happening faster, than a smaller cell. It determines ‘demand’ for oxygen and
the amount of energy must be released by respiration.

A large surface-area-to-volume ratio is taken to analyze supply and demand. The ratio decrease with
increase in cell size or number. As cells increase in size, the volume increases faster than the surface
area, and the surface-area-to-volume ratio decreases. This means smaller organisms (with large SA/V)
can supply materials to a cell or cells easily than bigger organisms.

4.2 Types of cells

There are two basic kinds of cells; prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes
The word prokaryotes derived from Greek ‘pro’ - before and ‘karyon’ – nucleus. Prokaryote (procaryote) any
organism in which the genetic material is not enclosed in a cell nucleus.
 Believed to be the first type of cells to be formed when life first evolved.
 Cells are much smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells; but can run life processes as eukaryotic cells do.
 Have no nucleus, (but have nuclear region called nucleoid) internal compartments and membrane bounded
organelles.
 Rapid proliferation and large populations allowed prokaryotes to survive.
 Thrive under inhospitable conditions, such as anoxia and temperatures >100°C as in deep-sea hydrothermal
vents.
 Includes domain bacteria(eubacteria), archaea (archaebacteria) & cyanobacteria(blue green algae)

Eukaryotes
Molecular phylogenies indicate that multiple eukaryotic lineages diverged from “last eukaryotic
common ancestor (LECA) at an uncertain date between 2.1 and 0.9 billion years ago and diversified
rapidly. Organisms whose cells have a nucleus are called eukaryotes (from the Greek words eu, meaning
“well” or “true,” and karyon, a “kernel” or “nucleus”).

Eukaryotes or eukaryotic cells:

 Have much more division of labour because of compartments in cells and membranous organelles.
 Include different types of cells like cells of Protista, fungi, plants and animals.
 much more complex cells than the prokaryotic cell.
 Have many more different membrane-bound organelles such as: endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplasts (if present), lysosomes and Golgi apparatus.
 Function more efficiently because each organelle is enclosed by a membrane (one or two
membranes) and the reactions is not affected by other cellular reactions.
 membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum separate areas of the cytoplasm and allow them to
function independently.
Theories of evolution of eukaryotes
Endosymbiont theory
 Endosymbiont theory was theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells first proposed by the US biologist Lynn
Margulis. The ‘modern’ eukaryotic cell was formed when several primitive prokaryotic cells ‘got
together’.
1. Over millions of years, prokaryotes plasma membranes became more and more ‘infolded’, and
evolve into the endoplasmic reticulum (EPR) of eukaryotic cells.
2. These membranous cells, engulfed other smaller prokaryotic cells respiring organic molecules. These
‘engulfed’ prokaryotes evolve into the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. The cells become
heterotrophic forerunners of animal, fungal and protoctistan cells.
3. Some of these cells with ‘primitive mitochondria’ also engulfed other, smaller, prokaryotic cell that
could photosynthesise and through time evolve into chloroplasts. They become autotrophic and the
forerunners of plant cells.
Common features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Both prokaryotes and eukaryote cells:
 Have common ancestry, an identical genetic language, and common metabolic pathways.
 Bounded by plasma membranes barrier between the living and nonliving worlds.
 Cell walls have similar functions.
 Genetic information encoded in DNA using identical genetic code with similar mechanisms for
transcription and translation of genetic information.
 Similar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP plasma membrane or mitochondria.
 Similar mechanism of photosynthesis and synthesizing and inserting membrane proteins.

What are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Table 4.2 A summary of the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Features Prokaryotes cells Eukaryote cells
Size 1–10 μm 10–100 μm
Nucleus No membranous nucleus Nucleus surrounded by nuclear envelope
Membranous Absent Have cytoplasmic organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
organelles complex, lysosomes, endosomes, peroxisomes and glyoxisomes
Cell  Reproduce Asexually  Reproduce sexually and asexually.
reproduction  Mostly binary fission.  Mitosis, meiosis or both.
Chromosome  Nearly all contain a single, circular  A number of separate chromosomes.
chromosome.  composed of DNA and associated proteins structures.
DNA  In a continuous loop.  Linear DNA.
 Not associated with protein  Associated with histone proteins in chromosomes
Genetic  contain less genetic info Contain more genetic information(e.g. baker’s yeast cell contains
information more DNA with 12 million base pairs encoding for 6200 proteins)
Evolved 3.5 billion years ago. About 2 billion years ago.
Chloroplast Absent Present in some cells (some plant cells and some algal cells.
Ribosoms Present, but smaller than in Present, but larger than in prokaryotic cells (80S).
eukaryotic cells (70S)
Cell wall  Always present made from  Present in plant cells, algal cells and fungal cells, and made of
peptidoglycan. cellulose in plant cells, various materials in other cells.
Cell  No compartments  Have. The cells are divided nuclear envelope, and others.
compartment  Transport by simple diffusion  This enabled intracellular communication and transport
Respiration in mesosomes (invagination of the In the mitochondria
plasma membrane)
Flagella Some have flagella, but it lacks 9+2 Eukaryotes have complex flagella and cilia with definite 9+2
fibril (microtubule) structure. arrangement of fibril (microtubule ).

1.3 Parts of the cell and their functions

1. Cell membrane
What is the plasma membrane like?
Table 4.3 shows some key events in developing the current model of membrane structure.
Year Scientist Event
1665 Robert Hooke Discovers cells, but only sees dead cells and has no idea of a cell membrane.
1895 Charles O verton Shows that the cell membrane is composed of some kind of lipids.
1905 Langmuir Proposes a lipid monolayer as the basic membrane structure.
1910– Evidence accumulates to show that the lipid in the membrane must be a
1920 phospholipid.
1925 E Gorter and G Suggest that the plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer.
Grendel
1935 Davson and Danielli Knew that proteins are also found in plasma membranes and suggest a ‘sandwich’
model.
1959 Davson–Danielli Based on electron microscope evidence that appears to support the They
model, J D proposes the unit membrane model – he suggests that all membranes are
Robertson essentially the same.
1972 S J Singer and G L Propose the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure. As more and more
Nicholson supporting evidence accumulates, this is essentially the model we accept today.

Models of cell membrane

Generally, cell membrane mainly has two main models explaining about their composition and structures.
A. The Davson – Danielli model – The sandwich model
In 1935, Hugh Davson and James Danielli knew the structures plasma membranes to contain both proteins &
phospholipids. The phospholipid bilayer (the filling) is sandwiched between protein molecules (the bread). The
Davson – Danielli model:
 It based on their knowledge of the proportions of the two substances, protein & phospholipid.
 Was without any direct microscopic observational evidence.
 They revised the model in 1954 to have protein-lined pores.
 Has rejected because it had 2 drawbacks identified by many cell biologists in late 1960s:
o They concluded every cell membrane has similar composition. However, membranes with different
functions differ in structure and chemical composition.
o The water insoluble amphipathic membrane proteins would be layered on the surface of the
membrane in aqueous surroundings.

Figure - shows the Davson–Danielli models of 1935 (the left) and 1954(the right).

B. Singer and Nicholson – The fluid mosaic-model

The fluid mosaic-model was proposed by S. J. Singer and G. Nicolson in 1972. It states that membrane
proteins reside in the phospholipid bilayer with their hydrophilic regions protruding.
The fluid mosaic-model:
 Retained the idea of a phospholipid bilayer, but rejected the sandwiched arrangement.
 Suggested the non-static fluid & constantly changing arrangement of cell membrane.
 The membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
 Is currently accepted model of cell membrane by evidences of freeze - fracture (a method of
preparing cells for electron.
 Figure - The current fluid mosaic model of membrane structure

Structure and functions of cell membrane

Phospholipids are compounds of lipids containing fatty acids, glycerol and phosphoric acid. About 50%
to 60% of cell membranes comprise lipid (phospholipids) bilayer which is about 5.0 nm thick. It makes
huge aggregate by self-assembling to give rise to a double-layered sheet called a “bilayer.
Phospholipids are found in both plant and animal tissues and make up its amphipathic hydrophobic tail
and hydrophilic head. The two hydrophobic fatty acid tails together face inwards and the two
hydrophilic heads point outwards to the aqueous solutions inside and outside of the cell.

What is the importance of the cell membrane?

Cell membrane sometimes called the cell surface membrane/ plasma membrane/semi-permeable
membrane/selectively permeable membrane. It has different crucial roles.
a) Surrounds cells in all cells (prokaryotes and eukaryotes), whilst allowing exchange of necessary with
environment selectively. This keeps the vital differences between the composition of the
extracellular fluid and that of the cytosol.
b) Control entry and exit of substances into and out of cells. Substances move in and out of it by:
– simple diffusion – active transport
– facilitated diffusion – Endocytosis
– osmosis – exocytosis
c) Cell signaling - various molecules in the membrane allow the cell to be recognized by hormones (in
animals and plants) the immune system.
d) Anchoring of the appendages like flagella.
e) Take part in maintenance and mechanical support.
f) Production of ATP in bacteria.
g) Attachment with extra cellular matrix and other cells.
h) Production of enzymes e.g. membranes of the gut and epithelial linings.
Structure of cell membrane
This fluid-mosaic cell membrane is composed of different compounds such as:
A. The phospholipid bilayer - as the basis for the membrane
B. Integral / intrinsic/ trans-membrane proteins - span the membrane (phospholipid layers) and act as
a shuttles, channels, or pumps for transporting molecules and ions through a membrane. The main
types of integral transport proteins are:
 Channel proteins– proteins with pores specific ions to pass through cell membrane, and
different for different ions.
 Carrier proteins – proteins move larger molecules through the membrane by facilitated
diffusion or active transport. Carriers proteins involve in active transport are called pumps.
They move medium sized particles across.
C. Peripheral (extrinsic) proteins- that span only one layer or less of the membrane. They can be
enzymes, anchor integral proteins to the cytoskeleton.
D. Glycoproteins and glycolipids – proteins molecules that have carbohydrate or lipid chains attached
to them. They often serve as signals to other cells and act as receptor sites for hormones and drugs.
E. Cholesterol – is component of animals’ cell membrane. Reduces the fluidity of the membrane at
relatively high temperatures at 37 C, and hinders the close packing of phospholipids at low temp.
 Membrane proteins
Most membrane functions are carried out by membrane proteins. In animals, proteins constitute about
50% of the mass of most plasma membranes and the remaining lipid + small amounts of carbohydrate.
Some membrane proteins serve many functions.
 Transport particular nutrients, metabolites, and ions across the lipid bilayer.
 Anchor the membrane to macromolecules on either side.
 Each type of cell membrane contains a different set of proteins, reflecting the specialized functions
of the particular membrane. In this section.
 Transport proteins are thought to allow hydrophilic substances to move through the membrane
without coming into contact with its hydrophobic.
How do substances cross the plasma membrane?
All particles cannot pass through a plasma membrane due to nature of lipid. To move by simple diffusion
particles must be:
 Small
 Lipid soluble
 Neutral or not charged. So charged particles (ions), water soluble substances(e.g. sugars, amino
acids) and large particles such as proteins cannot moved by diffusion through the cell membrane. .
The processes by which substances cross plasma membranes into and out of are of two main types:
Passive processes – The movement of a substance by a mechanism that does not require metabolic
energy. It relies only on the kinetic energy of the particles of the substances and on concentration
gradients.
Examples:
 Transport of water or glucose from the blood into most body cells.
 Gases (such as O2 and CO2), small uncharged polar molecules (urea, ethanol)
 Osmosis and a few other small uncharged molecules, such as glycerol, to cross cellular
membranes.
Active processes – The movement of a substance across a cell membrane against its concentration or
electrochemical gradient, mediated by specific transport proteins by expenditure of energy. Active
transport step couples ATP hydrolysis within a single protein complex. In secondary active transport the
movement of one species is coupled to the movement of another species down an electrochemical
gradient established by primary active transport.
Examples:
 Sodium potassium pump
 Uptake of cholesterol by the cell
 Phagocytosis by amoebae cells.
Table 4.4 summarises the transport processes.
Passive processes Active processes
Process Brief description Process Brief description
Simple Particles move from a high Active Particles move from a low concentration to
diffusion concentration to a low concentration. transport a higher concentration using a carrier
protein (pump).
Facilitated Particles move from a high Endocytosis Large particles are engulfed by the plasma
diffusion concentration to a low concentration membrane invagination and forming a
through an ion pore or carrier protein. vesicle.
Osmosis Water molecules move from a high Exocytosis Large particles are secreted by a vesicle in
water potential to a lower one. the cell merging with the plasma membrane
to release the substance.

Passive processes
Simple diffusion
In fluids (liquids and gases) their particles are free to move around. This kinetic energy is what drives
diffusion. If particles are concentrated in a small area, the particles ‘spread out’ and occupy all the space
that is available to them. This is a result of random particular motion.
  Diffusion need not involve a membrane.
 Diffusion across a plasma membrane needs concentration difference between the two sides of
the membrane (a concentration gradient) to drive the process.
 At equilibrium, there is no further net diffusion - the particles still move across the membrane
equally in both directions and there will be no overall effect.
The rate at which diffusion across a membrane takes place is influenced by:
A. The concentration gradient – a bigger difference in concentration results in faster diffusion than a
smaller gradient.
B. The thickness of the membrane – as all plasma membranes are the same thickness, this is not really
an issue when considering diffusion into and out of cells, but for other situations where particles
must cross some kind of barrier, a shorter distance results in faster diffusion.
C. Temperature - diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures because the particles have more
kinetic energy and so move faster.
D. The surface area of the membrane – clearly if there is more membrane where diffusion can take
place, diffusion will happen faster.
These features are all related in an equation called Fick’s law of diffusion:

Rate of diffusion ∝

Facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is a process of passive transport by which substances are conveyed across cell
membranes faster than would be possible by diffusion alone. It is helped to diffuse by a carrier protein
or a channel protein with an ion pore.

Both simple and facilitated diffusion:

 Depends on a concentration gradient.
 The particles are moving from a high concentration to a low concentration.
 Rate is affected by the same factors.
 Increasing the concentration gradient will increase the rate of diffusion.

Figure - Facilitated diffusion through A an ion pore and B a carrier protein.

Table 4.5 – the differences between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion
 The particles diffuse across the  The particles helped or ‘facilitated’ to diffuse across the
membrane along the membrane by carrier or channel protein with an ion pore.
concentration gradient.
 Does not need carrier  The carrier protein must undergo a conformational change
molecules. (in shape) to move particles through the membrane.
 Channels form a hydrophilic “tube” or passageway across
the membrane water molecules or ions pass
 Surface area of the membrane  Surface area of the membrane doesn’t affect the rate.
affects rate of diffusion.  Number of carrier (channel) proteins present affects.
 Rate increase until diffusion  Rate increases until all the carrier proteins are saturated.
equilibrium.
 Osmosis
Osmosis is the process by which water moves across a partially permeable membrane. It is the diffusion
of water. Here we say water potential instead of concentration of water molecules.
Water potential is the chemical potential (i.e. free energy per mole- is the energy that may be extracted
from a system at constant temperature and pressure) of water in plants.

Water potential (Ψw) is the sum of solute potential (Ψs) and pressure potential (Ψp), thus, Ψw = Ψs +
Ψp. Pure water contains only water molecules and has water potential of zero . Addition of a solute
reduces the number of (free) water molecules in the system and so the water potential is reduces into
negative.
Osmosis is the movement of water from a system with a high (less negative) water potential to one with
a lower (more negative) water potential, across a partially permeable membrane
All other systems (cells, solutions and suspensions) have low water potential than pure water so their
water potential values must be negative. So osmosis defined accurately as:

The rate at which osmosis proceeds is influenced by the same factors as simple diffusion:
Table 4.6 Comparison of the status of animal and plant cells with respect to the three solutions.
Type of Description Effect in animal cells (e.g. Effects in plant cells
solution red blood cells)
Isotonic  a solution having the  Water diffuses across the  Water diffuses across the
same water potential as membrane at the same membrane at the same rate in
the cell. rate in both directions. both directions.
 The volume of an animal  No net water enters, and the
cell is stable. cells become flaccid (limp).
Hypertonic  A solution having a lower  The cell will lose water,  The cell loses water by osmosis.
(more negative) water shrivel, and probably die.  Then, cytoplasmic pressure on
potential than the cell.  It’s the way increase in cell wall drops and the cell is
 It’s concentrated to water salinity kill animals flaccid. If the cytoplasm shrinks
cause osmotic shrinkage and microbial infection further the cell wall, it’s
of cells. controlled. plasmolysed. If no water, the
plant will wilt.
Hypotonic  a solution having a  The cell takes up water  The cells gain water by osmosis
higher (less negative) and it’s hazardous to and swell. When watered
water potential than the animal cell. continually, the cell remains
cell.  The cell develops pressure turgid because of the cell wall.
 The concentration of and will eventually burst  Turgidity is vital in supporting
non-membrane- the plasma membrane: young, non-woody plant stems.
penetrating solutes is this is called haemolysis.
lower than in the cytosol

Although most protozoans (like animal cells) do not have a rigid cell wall, many contain a contractile
vacuole that permits them to avoid osmotic lysis. A contractile vacuole takes up water from the cytosol
and, unlike a plant vacuole, periodically discharges its contents through fusion with the plasma
membrane.