MITOSIS

Why do cells divide?

1. Repair or Replacement 3. Growth and Development
❑ Intestinal cells have to be replaced as they wear out. ❑ Tadpole must make new cells as it grows bigger and more
2. Reproduction complex.
❑ Yeast cells need to reproduce to keep their population growing. 4. Maintenance of Surface Area to Volume Ratio

MITOSIS
 It is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides to produce two new cells (the daughters) that are genetically
identical to itself. In the context of the cell cycle, mitosis is the part of the division process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus
is split into two equal sets of chromosomes.
 The “goal” of mitosis is to make sure that each daughter cell gets a perfect, full set of chromosomes. Cells with too few or too
many chromosomes usually don’t function well: they may not survive, or they may even cause cancer.
 Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Some textbooks list five, breaking
prophase into an early phase (called prophase) and a late phase (called prometaphase).

WHY NOT INCLUDE CYTOKINESIS?

 Mitosis is karyokinesis then followed by cytokinesis (or simultaneously occurring during telophase).
 Karyokinesis is the process of dividing the nucleus. It is actually the whole process of mitosis.
 Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cytoplasm. It completes the process of cell division resulting to two daughter cells.

PHASES OF MITOSIS
❖ Let’s start by looking at a cell right before it begins mitosis. This cell is in interphase and has:
o already copied its DNA:
o chromosomes in the nucleus which each consist of two connected copies, called
sister chromatids.
o Also made a copy of its centrosome so there are two centrosomes.

I. Prophase. In early prophase,

 The cell starts to break down some structures and build others up, setting the stage for division
of the chromosomes.
 The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull apart later on).
 The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure made of microtubules, strong fibers
that are part of the cell’s “skeleton.” Its job is to organize the chromosomes and move them
around during mitosis. The spindle grows between the centrosomes as they move apart.
 The nucleolus a part of the nucleus where ribosomes are made, disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is getting ready to
break down.
 Nuclear membrane disassociates into small vesicles. Membranous organelles fragment and disperse towards the periphery
of the cell.

II. Prometaphase. In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase),

 The mitotic spindle begins to capture and organize the chromosomes.
 The chromosomes finish condensing, so they are very compact.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.
 The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start to “capture” chromosomes.

III. Metaphase. In metaphase,

 The spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the middle of the cell, ready
to divide.
 all the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
❖ Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all the chromosomes are
at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules.
 IV. Anaphase. In anaphase,
 The sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled towards opposite ends of the
cell.
 The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together is broken down, allowing them to
separate. Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes of each pair are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell.
 Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart, separating the poles and
making the c ell longer.

V. Telophase. In telophase,
 The cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal structures as cytokinesis
(division of the cell contents) takes place.
 The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.
 Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear.
 The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their “stringy” form.

VI. Cytokinesis. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final
stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and finishes shortly
after telophase.
 Although the stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes
that have cell wall.
 In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like a coin purse with a drawstring. The
“drawstring” is a band of filaments made of a protein called actin, and the pinch crease is known as the
cleavage furrow.
 Plant cells can’t be divided like this because they have a cell wall and are too stiff. Instead, a structure called
the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, splitting it into two daughter cells separated by a new wall.
 When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells, each with a complete set of chromosomes identical
to those of the mother cell. The daughter cells can now begin their own cellular “lives,” and – depending on
what they decide to be when they grow up – may undergo mitosis themselves, repeating the cycle.

MEIOSIS
 Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, the union of two cells from two individual organisms. If those two cells each contain
one set of chromosomes, then the resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
 Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
 The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
 To continue the reproductive cycle, the diploid cell must reduce its number of chromosomes sets before fertilization can occur
again.
 To achieve reduction in chromosome number, meiosis consists of one round of chromosome duplication and two rounds of nuclear
division.
 There are two rounds of division, the major process and the stages are designated with a “I” or a “II”.

MEIOSIS I
o is the first round of meiotic division and consists of prophase I, prometaphase I, and so on.

MEIOSIS II
o in which the second round of meiotic division takes place, includes prophase II, prometaphase II,
and so on.

MEIOSIS I
 The G1 phase, which is also called the first gap phase, is the first phase of the interphase and is focused on cell growth.
 The S phase is the second phase of interphase, during which the DNA of the chromosomes is replicated.
 Finally, the G2 phase, also called the second gap phase, is the third and final phase of interphase, in this place, the cell undergoes
the final preparations for meiosis.
 PHASES OF MEIOSIS I
I. Prophase I
 Nuclear membrane breaks down
 Centrosome and centriole begin to move
 Spindle fiber start to assemble
 The duplicated chromosomes condense a homologous chromosomes begin to pair up

II. Metaphase I
 Spindle fiber align the homologous chromosomes in the metaphase plate
 Each side of the equator has chromosomes from both parents
 To summarize the genetic consequences of meiosis I, the maternal and paternal genes are recombined by
crossover events that occur between non-sister chromatids of each homologous pair during prophase I.

III. Anaphase I
 Paired homologous chromosomes separate from each other and moves toward the opposite
side of the cell
 Sister chromatids remain attached

IV. Telophase I
 Spindle fibers disassemble
 Cytokinesis

WHEN DID THE CENTROSOMES DUPLICATE?

 In some organisms, the centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and II, even though DNA is not copied during this period. For
instance, the centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and II during spermatogenesis, sperm production, in humans. The diagram
below, which shows two centrosomes at the start of meiosis II, assumes that the centrosomes were duplicated between meiosis
I and II.
 In other organisms, however, the centrosomes do not duplicate at all between meiosis I and II. Instead, the two centrioles that
make up a single centrosome separate, and each act as a separate spindle pole during meiosis II. This pattern of centriole
separation is seen in insect spermatogenesis

PHASES OF MEIOSIS II
I. Prophase II
 The centrosomes and centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell and spindle fibers start to assemble
 Chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down

II. Metaphase II
 The chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate

III. Anaphase II
 The sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite poles of the
cell.

IV. Telophase II
 Nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis
splits the chromosome sets into new cells, forming the final products of meiosis: four haploid cells in which
each chromosome has just one chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.

HOW MEIOSIS "MIXES AND MATCHES" GENES?

 The gametes produced in meiosis are all haploid, but they're not genetically identical. For example, take a look the meiosis II
diagram above, which shows the products of meiosis for a cell with 2n = 42n=42, n, equals, 4 chromosomes. Each gamete has a
unique "sample" of the genetic material present in the starting cell.
 As it turns out, there are many more potential gamete types than just the four shown in the diagram, even for a cell with only
four chromosomes. The three main reasons we can get many genetically different gametes are:
 o Crossing over (prophase I). The points where homologues cross over and exchange genetic material are chosen more
or less at random, and they will be different in each cell that goes through meiosis. If meiosis happens many times, as in
humans, crossovers will happen at many different points.
o Random orientation of homologue pairs (metaphase I). The random orientation of homologue pairs in metaphase I
allows for the production of gametes with many different assortments of homologous chromosomes.
o Random fertilization.
 In a human cell, the random orientation of homologue pairs alone allows for over 8 million different types of possible gametes.
When we layer crossing over on top of this, the number of genetically different gametes that you—or any other person—can
make is effectively infinite.

SPERMATOGENESIS
Stages of Spermatogenesis
1. With the onset of puberty, when a boy is 11 to 14 years old, dormant, unspecialized
germ cells, called Type A (pale) spermatogonia
(Spermatogonium – singular), are activated by secretions of testosterone
2. Each spermatogonium divides through mitosis to produce two daughter cells, each
containing the full complete of 46 chromosomes.
3. One of the daughter cells is a spermatogonium, which continues to produce
daughter cells. The other daughter cell is a primary spermatocyte, a large cell that
moves toward the lumen of the seminiferous tubule.
4. The primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis to produce two smaller secondary
spermatocytes, each with 23 chromosomes: 22 body chromosomes and 1 X or 1 Y sex chromosome
5. Both secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to form four final primitive germinal cells, the spermatids,
which still have only 23 chromosomes.
6. The spermatids develop into mature sperm without undergoing any further cell division. Each sperm has 23 chromosomes. The
entire process of spermatogenesis takes about 64 days.

OOGENESIS
Stages of Oogenesis
1. The oogonium, the diploid precursor cell of the ovum, is enclosed in a
follicle within the ovary.
2. The oogonium develops into a primary oocyte, which contains 46
chromosomes. The primary oocyte undergoes meiosis, which produces
two daughter cells of unequal size.
3. The large of the daughter cells is the haploid secondary oocyte. It is
perhaps a thousand times as large as the other cell and contains most
of the primary oocyte’s cytoplasm, which provides nourishment for the
developing ovum.
4. The smaller of the two daughter cells is the first polar body. It may divide again, but eventually it degenerates.
5. The large secondary oocyte leaves the ovarian follicle during ovulation and enters the uterine tube. If the secondary oocyte is
fertilized, it begins to go through a second meiotic division, and a second polar body is “pinched off”. It too is destined to die. Its
fertilization does not occur, menstruation follows shortly, and the cycle begins again.
6. During the second meiotic division, the secondary oocyte is completely reduced to haploid number of 23 chromosomes and is
called ootid. When the haploid sperm and ovum nuclei are finally ready to merge, the ootid is considered to have reached its final
stage of nuclear maturity as a mature ovum.
7. The haploid nuclei of the ovum and sperm unite, in a process called fertilization, to form diploid zygote.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS FOR SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

 Mitosis is important for sexual reproduction indirectly. It allows the sexually reproducing organism to grow and develop from a
single cell into a sexually mature individual. This allows organisms to continue to reproduce through the generations.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS AND CHROMOSOME NUMBER:

 Chromosomes are the cell's way of neatly arranging long strands of DNA. Non-sex cells have two sets of chromosomes, one set
from each parent. Meiosis makes sex cells with only one set of chromosomes. For example, human cells have 46 chromosomes,
with the exception of sperm and eggs, which contain only 23 chromosomes each. When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, the 23
chromosomes from each sex cell combine to make a zygote, a new cell with 46 chromosomes. The zygote is the first cell in a new
individual.