C Programming

LECTURE NOTE
on
PROGRAMMING IN “C”

DVH IMSR, Vidyagiri, Dharwad

Introduction to C
C is a programming language developed at AT & T’s Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. It was
designed and written by a man named Dennis Ritchie. In the late seventies C began to replace the
more familiar languages of that time like PL/I, ALGOL, etc

ANSI C standard emerged in the early 1980s, this book was split into two titles: The original was
still called Programming in C, and the title that covered ANSI C was called Programming in ANSI
C. This was done because it took several years for the compiler vendors to release their ANSI C
compilers and for them to become ubiquitous. It was initially designed for programming UNIX
operating system. Now the software tool as well as the C compiler is written in C.

Major parts of popular operating systems like Windows, UNIX, Linux is still written in C. This is
because even today when it comes to performance (speed of execution) nothing beats C. Moreover,
if one is to extend the operating system to work with new devices one needs to write device driver
programs. These programs are exclusively written in C. C seems so popular is because it is reliable,
simple and easy to use. often heard today is – “C has been already superceded by languages like
C++, C# and Java.

Program

There is a close analogy between learning English language and learning C language. The classical
method of learning English is to first learn the alphabets used in the language, then learn to combine
these alphabets to form words, which in turn are combined to form sentences and sentences are
combined to form paragraphs. Learning C is similar and easier. Instead of straight-away learning
how to write programs, we must first know what alphabets, numbers and special symbols are used in
C, then how using them constants, variables and keywords are constructed, and finally how are these
combined to form an instruction. A group of instructions would be combined later on to form a
program.
 A
computer program is just a collection of the instructions necessary to solve a specific problem. The
basic operations of a computer system form what is known as the computer’s instruction set. And
the approach or method that is used to solve the problem is known as an algorithm.

So for as programming language concern these are of two types.

∙ Low level language

∙ High level language

Low level language:

Low level languages are machine level and assembly level language. In machine level language
computer only understand digital numbers i.e. in the form of 0 and 1. So, instruction given to the
computer is in the form binary digit, which is difficult to implement instruction in binary code. This
type of program is not portable, difficult to maintain and also error prone. The assembly language is
on other hand modified version of machine level language. Where instructions are given in English
like word as ADD, SUM, MOV etc. It is easy to write and understand but not understand by the
machine. So the translator used here is assembler to translate into machine level. Although language
is bit easier, programmer has to know low level details related to low level language. In the assembly
level language the data are stored in the computer register, which varies for different computer.
Hence it is not portable.
High level language:

These languages are machine independent, means it is portable. The language in this category is
Pascal, Cobol, Fortran etc. High level languages are understood by the machine. So it need to
translate by the translator into machine level. A translator is software which is used to translate high
level language as well as low level language in to machine level language.

Three types of translator are there:

 ∙ Compiler
∙ Interpreter
∙ Assembler

Compiler and interpreter are used to convert the high level language into machine level language.
The program written in high level language is known as source program and the corresponding
machine level language program is called as object program. Both compiler and interpreter perform
the same task but there working is different. Compiler read the program at-a-time and searches the
error and lists them. If the program is error free then it is converted into object program. When
program size is large then compiler is preferred. Whereas interpreter read only one line of the source
code and convert it to object code. If it check error, statement by statement and hence of take more
time.

Integrated Development Environments (IDE)

The process of editing, compiling, running, and debugging programs is often managed by a single
integrated application known as an Integrated Development Environment, or IDE for short. An IDE
is a windows-based program that allows us to easily manage large software programs, edit files in
windows, and compile, link, run, and debug programs.

On Mac OS X, CodeWarrior and Xcode are two IDEs that are used by many programmers. Under
Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio is a good example of a popular IDE. Kylix is a popular IDE for
developing applications under Linux. Most IDEs also support program development in several
different programming languages in addition to C, such as C# and C++.
Structure of C program

1) Comment line

2) Preprocessor directive

3) Global variable declaration

4) main function( )

Local variables;

Statements;

User defined function

}
 }

Comment line

It indicates the purpose of the program. It is represented as

/*……………………………..*/

Comment line is used for increasing the readability of the program. It is useful in explaining the
program and generally used for documentation. It is enclosed within the decimeters. Comment line
can be single or multiple line but should not be nested. It can be anywhere in the program except
inside string constant & character constant.
Preprocessor Directive:

#include<stdio.h> tells the compiler to include information about the standard input/output library. It
is also used in symbolic constant such as #define PI 3.14(value). The stdio.h (standard input output
header file) contains definition &declaration of system defined function such as printf( ), scanf( ),
pow( ) etc. Generally printf() function used to display and scanf() function used to read value Global
Declaration:

This is the section where variable are declared globally so that it can be access by all the functions
used in the program. And it is generally declared outside the function :

main( )

It is the user defined function and every function has one main() function from where actually
program is started and it is encloses within the pair of curly braces.

The main( ) function can be anywhere in the program but in general practice it is placed in the first
position.

Syntax : main()

{
……..
……..
……..
}
The main( ) function return value when it declared by data type as
int main( )
{
return 0
}
 The main function does not return any value when void (means null/empty) as void main(void ) or
void main()
{
printf (“C language”);
}

Output: C language

The program execution start with opening braces and end with closing brace.

And in between the two braces declaration part as well as executable part is mentioned. And at the
end of each line, the semi-colon is given which indicates statement termination.

/*First c program with return statement*/

#include <stdio.h> int main (void)
{
printf ("welcome to c Programming language.\n"); return 0;
}

Output: welcome to c programming language.

Steps for Compiling and executing the Programs

A compiler is a software program that analyzes a program developed in a particular computer

language and then translates it into a form that is suitable for execution on a particular computer
system. Figure below shows the steps that are involved in entering, compiling, and executing a
computer program developed in the C programming language and the typical Unix commands that
would be entered from the command line.

Step 1: The program that is to be compiled is first typed into a file on the computer system. There
are various conventions that are used for naming files, typically be any name provided the last two
characters are “.c” or file with extension .c. So, the file name prog1.c might be a valid filename for a
C program. A text editor is usually used to enter the C program into a file. For example, vi is a
popular text editor used on Unix systems. The program that is entered into the file is known as the
source program because it represents the original form of the program expressed in the C language.

Step 2: After the source program has been entered into a file, then proceed to have it compiled. The
compilation process is initiated by typing a special command on the system. When this command is
entered, the name of the file that contains the source program must also be specified. For example,
under Unix, the command to initiate program compilation is called cc. If we are using the popular
GNU C compiler, the command we use is gcc.

Typing the line

gcc prog1.c or cc prog1.c

In the first step of the compilation process, the compiler examines each program statement contained
in the source program and checks it to ensure that it conforms to the syntax and semantics of the
language. If any mistakes are discovered by the compiler during this phase, they are reported to the
user and the compilation process ends right there. The errors then have to be corrected in the source
program (with the use of an editor), and the compilation process must be restarted. Typical errors
reported during this phase of compilation might be due to an expression that has unbalanced
parentheses (syntactic error), or due to the use of a variable that is not “defined” (semantic error).

Step 3: When all the syntactic and semantic errors have been removed from the program, the
compiler then proceeds to take each statement of the program and translate it into a “lower” form
that is equivalent to assembly language program needed to perform the identical task.

Step 4: After the program has been translated the next step in the compilation process is to translate
the assembly language statements into actual machine instructions. The assembler takes each
assembly language statement and converts it into a binary format known as object code, which is
then written into another file on the system. This file has the same name as the source file under
Unix, with the last letter an “o” (for object) instead of a “c”.

Step 5: After the program has been translated into object code, it is ready to be linked. This process
is once again performed automatically whenever the cc or gcc command is issued under Unix. The
purpose of the linking phase is to get the program into a final form for execution on the computer.
If the program uses other programs that were previously processed by the compiler, then during this
phase the programs are linked together. Programs that are used from the system’s program library
are also searched and linked together with the object program during this phase.

The process of compiling and linking a program is often called building.

The final linked file, which is in an executable object code format, is stored in another file on the
system, ready to be run or executed. Under Unix, this file is called a.out by default. Under Windows,
the executable file usually has the same name as the source file, with the c extension replaced by an
exe extension.

Step 6: To subsequently execute the program, the command a.out has the effect of loading the
program called a.out into the computer’s memory and initiating its execution.

When the program is executed, each of the statements of the program is sequentially executed in
turn. If the program requests any data from the user, known as input, the program temporarily
suspends its execution so that the input can be entered. Or, the program might simply wait for an
event, such as a mouse being clicked, to occur. Results that are displayed by the program, known as
output, appear in a window, sometimes called the console. If the program does not produce the
desired results, it is necessary to go back and reanalyze the program’s logic. This is known as the
debugging phase, during which an attempt is made to remove all the known problems or bugs from
the program. To do this, it will most likely be necessary to make changes to original source
program.
/* Simple program to add and subtract two numbers…………………….*/

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,d;
clrscr();
printf("enter any number\n");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("enter any number\n");
scanf("%d",&b);
c=a+b;
d=a-b;
printf("%d\n\n",c);
printf("%d\n\n",d);
getch();
}

Character set
A character denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol used to represent information. Valid
alphabets, numbers and special symbols allowed in C are

The
alphabets, numbers and special symbols when properly combined form constants, variables and
keywords.

Identifiers

Identifiers are user defined word used to name of entities like variables, arrays, functions, structures
etc. Rules for naming identifiers are:

∙ name should only consists of alphabets (both upper and lower case), digits and underscore (_)
sign.
∙ first characters should be alphabet or underscore
∙ name should not be a keyword

since C is a case sensitive, the upper case and lower case considered differently, for example code,
Code, CODE etc. are different identifiers.

Identifiers are generally given in some meaningful name such as value, net_salary, age, data etc. An
identifier name may be long, some implementation recognizes only first eight characters, most
recognize 31 characters. ANSI standard compiler recognize 31 characters. Some invalid identifiers
are 5cb, int, res#, avg no etc.
Keyword

There are certain words reserved for doing specific task, these words are known as reserved
word or keywords. These words are predefined and always written in lower case or small letter.
These keywords cann’t be used as a variable name as it assigned with fixed meaning. Some
examples are int, short, signed, unsigned, default, volatile, float, long, double, break, continue,
typedef, static, do, for, union, return, while, do, extern, register, enum, case, goto, struct, char, auto,
const etc.
Data types

Data types refer to an extensive system used for declaring variables or functions of different types
before its use. The type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in storage and how the
bit pattern stored is interpreted. The value of a variable can be changed any time.

C has the following 4 types of data types basic built-in data types:

∙ int,
∙ float,
∙ double,
∙ char

Enumeration data type: enum

Derived data type: pointer, array, structure, union

Void data type: void

A variable declared to be of type int can be used to contain integral values only—that is, values that
do not contain decimal places. A variable declared to be of type float can be used for storing
floating- point numbers (values containing decimal places). The double type is the same as type
float, only with roughly twice the precision. The char data type can be used to store a single
character, such as the letter a, the digit character 6, or a semicolon similarly A variable declared
char can only store character type value.

There are two types of type qualifier in c

∙ Size qualifier: short, long

∙ Sign qualifier: signed, unsigned
When the qualifier unsigned is used the number is always positive, and when signed is used number
may be positive or negative. If the sign qualifier is not mentioned, then by default sign qualifier is
assumed. The range of values for signed data types is less than that of unsigned data type. Because in
signed type, the left most bit is used to represent sign, while in unsigned type this bit is also used to
represent the value. The size and range of the different data types on a 16 bit machine is given below:

Basic data Data type with type qualifier Size (byte ) Range
type

char char or signed char Unsigned char 1 -128 to 127

1 0 to 255
 int int or signed int unsigned int 2 -32768 to 32767
short int or signed short int 2 0 to 65535
unsigned short int long int or 1 -128 to 127
signed long int unsigned long int 1 0 to 255
4 -2147483648 to
4 2147483647
0 to 4294967295

float float 4 -3.4E-38 to

3.4E+38

double double Long double 8 1.7E-308 to

10 1.7E+308
3.4E-4932 to
1.1E+4932

Constants

Constant is a any value that cannot be changed during program execution. In C, any number, single
character, or character string is known as a constant. A constant is an entity that doesn’t change
whereas a variable is an entity that may change. For example, the number 50 represents a constant
integer value. The character string "Programming in C is fun.\n" is an example of a constant
character string. C constants can be divided into two major categories:

∙ Primary Constants
∙ Secondary Constants
These constants are further categorized as
 ∙ Numeric constant
∙ Character constant
∙ String constant

Numeric constant:

Numeric constant consists of digits. It required minimum size of 2 bytes and max 4 bytes. It may be
positive or negative but by default sign is always positive. No comma or space is allowed within the
numeric constant and it must have at least 1 digit. The allowable range for integer constants is
-32768 to 32767. Truly speaking the range of an Integer constant depends upon the compiler. For a
16-bit compiler like Turbo C or Turbo C++ the range is –32768 to 32767. For a 32-bit compiler the
range would be even greater. Mean by a 16-bit or a 32bit compiler, what range of an Integer
constant has to do with the type of compiler.

It is categorized a integer constant and real constant. An integer constants are whole number which
have no decimal point. Types of integer constants are:
Decimal constant: 0-------9(base 10)

Octal constant: 0-------7(base 8)

Hexa decimal constant: 0----9, A------F(base 16)

In decimal constant first digit should not be zero unlike octal constant first digit must be zero(as 076,
0127) and in hexadecimal constant first two digit should be 0x/ 0X (such as 0x24, 0x87A). By
default type of integer constant is integer but if the value of integer constant is exceeds range then
value represented by integer type is taken to be unsigned integer or long integer. It can also be
explicitly mention integer and unsigned integer type by suffix l/L and u/U.

Real constant is also called floating point constant. To construct real constant we must follow the
rule of:
∙ real constant must have at least one digit.
∙ It must have a decimal point.
∙ It could be either positive or negative.
∙ Default sign is positive.
∙ No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant. Ex.: +325.34, 426.0,
-32.76

To express small/large real constant exponent(scientific) form is used where number is written in
mantissa and exponent form separated by e/E. Exponent can be positive or negative integer but
mantissa can be real/integer type, for example 3.6*105=3.6e+5. By default type of floating point
constant is double, it can also be explicitly defined it by suffix of f/F.
Character constant

Character constant represented as a single character enclosed within a single quote. These can be
single digit, single special symbol or white spaces such as ‘9’,’c’,’$’, ‘ ’ etc. Every character constant
has a unique integer like value in machine’s character code as if machine using ASCII (American
standard code for information interchange). Some numeric value associated with each upper and
lower case alphabets and decimal integers are as:
A------------ Z ASCII value (65-90)

a-------------z ASCII value (97-122)

0-------------9 ASCII value (48-59)

; ASCII value (59)

String constant

Set of characters are called string and when sequence of characters are enclosed within a double
quote (it may be combination of all kind of symbols) is a string constant. String constant has zero,
one or more than one character and at the end of the string null character(\0) is automatically placed
by compiler. Some examples are “,sarathina” , “908”, “3”,” ”, “A” etc. In C although same characters
are enclosed within single and double quotes it represents different meaning such as “A” and ‘A’ are
different because first one is string attached with null character at the end but second one is character
constant with its corresponding ASCII value is 65.
Symbolic constant

Symbolic constant is a name that substitute for a sequence of characters and, characters may be
numeric, character or string constant. These constant are generally defined at the beginning of the
program as

#define name value , here name generally written in upper case for example

#define MAX 10

#define CH ‘b’

#define NAME “sony”

Variables
Variable is a data name which is used to store some data value or symbolic names for storing
program computations and results. The value of the variable can be change during the execution.
The rule for naming the variables is same as the naming identifier. Before used in the program it
must be declared. Declaration of variables specify its name, data types and range of the value that
variables can store depends upon its data types.

Syntax:

int a; char c; float f;

Variable initialization

When we assign any initial value to variable during the declaration, is called initialization of
variables. When variable is declared but contain undefined value then it is called garbage value. The
variable is initialized with the assignment operator such as

Data type variable name=constant;

Example: int a=20;

Or int a; a=20; statements

Expressions

An expression is a combination of variables, constants, operators and function call. It can be

arithmetic, logical and relational for example:-

int z= x+y // arithmatic expression a>b //relational

a==b // logical

func(a, b) // function call

Expressions consisting entirely of constant values are called constant expressions. So, the expression
121 + 17 – 110 is a constant expression because each of the terms of the expression is a constant
value. But if i were declared to be an integer variable, the expression 180 + 2 – j would not represent
a constant expression.

Operator

This is a symbol use to perform some operation on variables, operands or with the constant. Some
operator required 2 operand to perform operation or Some required single operation.

Several operators are there those are, arithmetic operator, assignment, increment , decrement,
logical, conditional, comma, size of , bitwise and others.

1. Arithmatic Operator

This operator used for numeric calculation. These are of either Unary arithmetic operator, Binary
arithmetic operator. Where Unary arithmetic operator required only one operand such as +,-, ++, --,!,
tiled. And these operators are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. Binary arithmetic
operator on other hand required two operand and its operators are +(addition), -(subtraction),
*(multiplication), /(division), %(modulus). But modulus cannot applied with floating point operand
as well as there are no exponent operator in c.

Unary (+) and Unary (-) is different from addition and subtraction.

When both the operand are integer then it is called integer arithmetic and the result is always integer.
When both the operand are floating point then it is called floating arithmetic and when operand is of
integer and floating point then it is called mix type or mixed mode arithmetic . And the result is in
float type.

2. Assignment Operator

A value can be stored in a variable with the use of assignment operator. The assignment operator(=)
is used in assignment statement and assignment expression. Operand on the left hand side should be
variable and the operand on the right hand side should be variable or constant or any expression.
When variable on the left hand side is occur on the right hand side then we can avoid by writing the
compound statement. For example,

int x= y; int Sum=x+y+z;

3. Increment and Decrement

The Unary operator ++, --, is used as increment and decrement which acts upon single operand.
Increment operator increases the value of variable by one .Similarly decrement operator decrease the
value of the variable by one. And these operator can only used with the variable, but cann't use with
expression and constant as ++6 or ++(x+y+z).

It again categories into prefix post fix . In the prefix the value of the variable is incremented 1st, then
the new value is used, where as in postfix the operator is written after the operand(such as m++,m--).

EXAMPLE

let y=12; z= ++y; y= y+1; z= y;

Similarly in the postfix increment and decrement operator is used in the operation . And then
increment and decrement is perform.

EXAMPLE

let x= 5; y= x++; y=x; x= x+1;

4. Relational Operator

It is use to compared value of two expressions depending on their relation. Expression that contain
relational operator is called relational expression.

Here the value is assign according to true or false value.

a.(a>=b) || (b>20)

b.(b>a) && (e>b)

c. 0(b!=7)

5. Conditional Operator

It sometimes called as ternary operator. Since it required three expressions as operand and it is
represented as (? , :).

SYNTAX

exp1 ? exp2 :exp3

Here exp1 is first evaluated. It is true then value return will be exp2 . If false then exp3.

EXAMPLE

void main()
{
int a=10, b=2;
int s= (a>b) ? a:b;
printf(“value is:%d”);
}

Output:

Value is:10

6. Comma Operator
Comma operator is use to permit different expression to be appear in a situation where only one
expression would be used. All the expression are separator by comma and are evaluated from left to
right.
EXAMPLE

int i, j, k, l;

for(i=1,j=2;i<=5;j<=10;i++;j++)

Size of Operator

Size of operator is a Unary operator, which gives size of operand in terms of byte that occupied in
the memory. An operand may be variable, constant or data type qualifier.

Generally it is used make portable program(program that can be run on different machine) . It
determines the length of entities, arrays and structures when their size are not known to the
programmer. It is also use to allocate size of memory dynamically during execution of the program.

EXAMPLE
main( )
{
int sum;
float f;
printf( "%d%d" ,size of(f), size of (sum) );
printf("%d%d", size of(235 L), size of(A));
}

7. Bitwise Operator

Bitwise operator permit programmer to access and manipulate of data at bit level. Various bitwise
operator enlisted are one's complement

(~) bitwise AND (&) bitwise OR (|) bitwise XOR (^) left shift (<<) right shift (>>)

These operator can operate on integer and character value but not on float and double. In bitwise
operator the function showbits( ) function is used to display the binary representation of any integer
or character value.
In one's complement all 0 changes to 1 and all 1 changes to 0. In the bitwise OR its value would
obtaining by 0 to 2 bits.
As the bitwise OR operator is used to set on a particular bit in a number. Bitwise AND the logical
AND.
It operate on 2operands and operands are compared on bit by bit basic. And hence both the operands
are of same type.

8. Logical or Boolean Operator

Operator used with one or more operand and return either value zero (for false) or one (for true). The
operand may be constant, variables or expressions. And the expression that combines two or more
expressions is termed as logical expression.

C has three logical operators :

Operator Meaning

&& AND

|| OR

! NOT

Where logical NOT is a unary operator and other two are binary operator. Logical AND gives result
true if both the conditions are true, otherwise result is false. And logial OR gives result false if both
the condition false, otherwise result is true.

Precedence and associativity of operators

Operators Description Precedence level Associativity

() function call 1 left to right
[] array subscript

==> arrow operator

. dot operator
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- + unary plus 2 right to left
unary minus
++ increment
-- decrement
! logical not
~ 1’s complement
& address (data type) type cast size of size in byte

* multiplication 3 left to right / division % modulus

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
+ addition 4 left to right
- subtraction
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- << left shift 5 left to right
>> right shift
<= less than equal to 6 left to right
>= greater than equal to
< less than
 > greater than
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- == equal to 7 left to right
!= not equal to
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- & bitwise AND 8 left to right
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- ^ bitwise XOR 9 left to right
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
bitwise OR 10 left to right
&& logical AND 11
|| logical OR 12
?: conditional operator 13
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- =, *=, /=, %= assignment operator 14 right to left
&=, ^=, <<=
>>=
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- , comma operator 15
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Control Statement

Generally C program statement is executed in a order in which they appear in the program. But
sometimes we use decision making condition for execution only a part of program, that is called
control statement. Control statement defined how the control is transferred from one part to the other
part of the program. There are several control statement like if...else, switch, while, do....while, for
loop, break, continue, goto etc.
Loops in C

Loop:-it is a block of statement that performs set of instructions. In loops repeating particular portion
of the program either a specified number of time or until a particular no of condition is being
satisfied.

There are three types of loops in c

1 .While loop

2 .do while loop

3.for loop

While loop

Syntax:-
 while(condition)
{
Statement1;
Statement 2;
}
Or while(test condition)
Statement;

The test condition may be any expression .when we want to do something a fixed no of times but not
known about the number of iteration, in a program then while loop is used.

Here first condition is checked if, it is true body of the loop is executed else, If condition is false
control will be come out of loop.

Example:-
OUTPUT
/* wap to print 5 times welcome to C” */
#include<stdio.h> void main() Welcome to C Welcome to C Welcome
{
int p=1; to C Welcome to C Welcome to C
While(p<=5)
{
printf(“Welcome to C\n”);
P=p+1;
}}

So as long as condition remains true statements within the body of while loop will get executed
repeatedly.

do while loop

This (do while loop) statement is also used for looping. The body of this loop may contain single
statement or block of statement. The syntax for writing this statement is:

Syntax:-
Do
{
Statement;
} while(condition);

Example:
 #include<stdio.h> void main() { int X=4; do
{
Printf(“%d”,X);
X=X+1;
}while(X<=10);
Printf(“ ”);
}

Output: 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Here firstly statement inside body is executed then condition is checked. If the condition is true again
body of loop is executed and this process continue until the condition becomes false. Unlike while
loop semicolon is placed at the end of while.
There is minor difference between while and do while loop, while loop test the condition before
executing any of the statement of loop. Whereas do while loop test condition after having executed
the statement at least one within the loop.
If initial condition is false while loop would not executed it’s statement on other hand do while loop
executed it’s statement at least once even If condition fails for first time. It means do while loop
always executes at least once.

Notes: Do while loop used rarely when we want to execute a loop at least once.
for loop

In a program, for loop is generally used when number of iteration are known in advance. The body of
the loop can be single statement or multiple statements. Its syntax for writing is:
Syntax:-
for(exp1;exp2;exp3)
{
Statement;
}
Or
for(initialized counter; test counter; update counter)
{
Statement;
}

Here exp1 is an initialization expression, exp2 is test expression or condition and exp3 is an update
expression. Expression 1 is executed only once when loop started and used to initialize the loop
variables. Condition expression generally uses relational and logical operators. And updation part
executed only when after body of the loop is executed.

Example:
 void main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<10;i++)
{
Printf(“ %d ”, i);
}
}

Output:-1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Nesting of loop

When a loop written inside the body of another loop then, it is known as nesting of loop. Any type
of loop can be nested in any type such as while, do while, for. For example nesting of for loop can be
represented as :
void main()
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<2;i++) for(j=0;j<5; j++)
printf(“%d %d”, i, j);
}

Output: i=0

j=0 1 2 3 4 i=1 j=0 1 2 3 4

Break statement(break)

Sometimes it becomes necessary to come out of the loop even before loop condition becomes false
then break statement is used. Break statement is used inside loop and switch statements. It cause
immediate exit from that loop in which it appears and it is generally written with condition. It is
written with the keyword as break. When break statement is encountered loop is terminated and
control is transferred to the statement, immediately after loop or situation where we want to jump out
of the loop instantly without waiting to get back to conditional state.

When break is encountered inside any loop, control automatically passes to the first statement after
the loop. This break statement is usually associated with if statement.

Example :
void main()
{
int j=0; for(;j<6;j++) if(j==4) break;
}
Output:

0123
Continue statement (key word continue)

Continue statement is used for continuing next iteration of loop after skipping some statement of
loop. When it encountered control automatically passes through the beginning of the loop. It is
usually associated with the if statement. It is useful when we want to continue the program without
executing any part of the program.

The difference between break and continue is, when the break encountered loop is terminated and it
transfer to the next statement and when continue is encounter control come back to the beginning
position.

In while and do while loop after continue statement control transfer to the test condition and then
loop continue where as in, for loop after continue control transferred to the updating expression and
condition is tested.

Example:
void main()
{
int n;
for(n=2; n<=9; n++)
{ if(n==4) continue; printf(“%d”, n);
}
}
Printf(“out of loop”);
}

Output: 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 out of loop

if statement

Statement execute set of command like when condition is true and its syntax is
If (condition)

Statement;

The statement is executed only when condition is true. If the if statement body is consists of several
statement then better to use pair of curly braces. Here in case condition is false then compiler skip
the line within the if block.
 void main()
{
int n;
printf (“ enter a number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
If (n>10)
Printf(“ number is grater”);
}

Output:

Enter a number:12

Number is greater

if…..else ... Statement

it is bidirectional conditional control statement that contains one condition & two possible action.
Condition may be true or false, where non-zero value regarded as true & zero value regarded as
false. If condition are satisfy true, then a single or block of statement executed otherwise another
single or block of statement is executed.

Its syntax is:-

if (condition)
{
Statement1;
Statement2;
}
else
{
Statement1; Statement2;
}

Else statement cannot be used without if or no multiple else statement are allowed within one if
statement. It means there must be a if statement with in an else statement.

Example:-
 /* To check a number is eve or odd */
void main()
{
int n;
printf (“enter a number:”);
sacnf (“%d”, &n);
If (n%2==0)
printf (“\neven number”); else
printf(“\nodd number”);
Return( );
}

Output: enter a number:121

odd number

Nesting of if …else

When there are another if else statement in if-block or else-block, then it is called nesting of if-else
statement. Syntax is :-

if (condition)
{
If (condition) Statement1; else
statement2;
}
Statement3;

If….else LADDER

In this type of nesting there is an if else statement in every else part except the last part. If condition
is false control pass to block where condition is again checked with its if statement. Syntax is :-

if (condition)
Statement1;
else if (condition)
statement2;
else if (condition)
statement3;
else
statement4;

This process continue until there is no if statement in the last block. if one of the condition is satisfy
the condition other nested “else if” would not executed.
But it has disadvantage over if else statement that, in if else statement whenever the condition is true,
other condition are not checked. While in this case, all condition are checked.
ARRAY

Array is the collection of similar data types or collection of similar entity stored in contiguous
memory location. Array of character is a string. Each data item of an array is called an element. And
each element is unique and located in separated memory location. Each of elements of an array
share a variable but each element having different index no. known as subscript.

An array can be a single dimensional or multi-dimensional and number of subscripts determines its
dimension. And number of subscript is always starts with zero. One dimensional array is known as
vector and two dimensional arrays are known as matrix.

ADVANTAGES: array variable can store more than one value at a time where other variable can
store one value at a time.

Example:

int arr[100];

int mark[100];

DECLARATION OF AN ARRAY :

Its syntax is :
Data type array name [size]; int arr[100];

int mark[100];

int a[5]={10,20,30,100,5}

The declaration of an array tells the compiler that, the data type, name of the array, size of the array
and for each element it occupies memory space. Like for int data type, it occupies 2 bytes for each
element and for float it occupies 4 byte for each element etc. The size of the array operates the
number of elements that can be stored in an array and it may be a int constant or constant int
expression.

We can represent individual array as :

int ar[5];

ar[0], ar[1], ar[2], ar[3], ar[4];

Symbolic constant can also be used to specify the size of the array as:
#define SIZE 10;

INITIALIZATION OF AN ARRAY:

After declaration element of local array has garbage value. If it is global or static array then it will be
automatically initialize with zero. An explicitly it can be initialize that

Data type array name [size] = {value1, value2, value3…}

Example:

in ar[5]={20,60,90, 100,120}

Array subscript always start from zero which is known as lower bound and upper value is known as
upper bound and the last subscript value is one less than the size of array. Subscript can be an
expression i.e. integer value. It can be any integer, integer constant, integer variable, integer
expression or return value from functional call that yield integer value.

So if i & j are not variable then the valid subscript are

ar [i*7],ar[i*i],ar[i++],ar[3];

The array elements are standing in continuous memory locations and the amount of storage
required for hold the element depend in its size & type.

Total size in byte for 1D array is:

Total bytes=size of (data type) * size of array.

Example : if an array declared is:

int [20];

Total byte= 2 * 20 =40 byte.

ACCESSING OF ARRAY ELEMENT:
/*Write a program to input values into an array and display them*/
#include<stdio.h> int main()
{
int arr[5],i; for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf(“enter a value for arr[%d] \n”,i); scanf(“%d”,&arr[i]);
}
printf(“the array elements are: \n”); for (i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf(“%d\t”,arr[i]);
}
return 0;
}
OUTPUT:

Enter a value for arr[0] = 12

Enter a value for arr[1] =45 Enter a value for arr[2] =59 Enter a value for arr[3] =98 Enter a value
for arr[4] =21

The array elements are 12 45 59 98 21

Example: From the above example value stored in an array are and occupy its memory addresses
2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 respectively.

a[0]=12, a[1]=45, a[2]=59, a[3]=98, a[4]=21

ar[0] ar[1] ar[2] ar[3] ar[4]

12 45 59 98 21

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Example 2:
/* Write a program to add 10 array elements */
#include<stdio.h> void main()
{
int i ; int arr [10]; int sum=o; for (i=0; i<=9; i++) {
printf (“enter the %d element \n”, i+1); scanf (“%d”, &arr[i]);
}
for (i=0; i<=9; i++) { sum = sum + a[i]; }
printf (“the sum of 10 array elements is %d”, sum);
}

OUTPUT:

Enter a value for arr[0] =5

Enter a value for arr[1] =10 Enter a value for arr[2] =15 Enter a value for arr[3] =20 Enter a value
for arr[4] =25 Enter a value for arr[5] =30 Enter a value for arr[6] =35 Enter a value for arr[7] =40
Enter a value for arr[8] =45 Enter a value for arr[9] =50 Sum = 275

while initializing a single dimensional array, it is optional to specify the size of array. If the size is
omitted during initialization then the compiler assumes the size of array equal to the number of
initializers. For example:-

int marks[]={99,78,50,45,67,89};

If during the initialization of the number the initializers is less then size of array, then all the
remaining elements of array are assigned value zero . For example:-

int marks[5]={99,78};
Here the size of the array is 5 while there are only two initializers so After this initialization, the
value of the rest elements are automatically occupied by zeros such as

Marks[0]=99 , Marks[1]=78 , Marks[2]=0, Marks[3]=0, Marks[4]=0 Again if we initialize an array

like int array[100]={0};

Then the all the element of the array will be initialized to zero. If the number of initializers is more
than the size given in brackets then the compiler will show an error.

For example:-

int arr[5]={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8};//error

we cannot copy all the elements of an array to another array by simply assigning it to the other array
like, by initializing or declaring as int a[5] ={1,2,3,4,5}; int b[5]; b=a;//not valid
(note:-here we will have to copy all the elements of array one by one, using for loop.)
Single dimensional arrays
/*program to pass array elements to a function*/
#include<stdio.h> void main()
{
int arr[10],i;
printf(“enter the array elements\n”); for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
scanf(“%d”,&arr[i]); check(arr[i]);
} } void check(int num)
{ if(num%2=0)
{
printf(”%d is even \n”,num);
}
else {
printf(”%d is odd \n”,num);
}
}

C PROGRAMS

1)Program to find Simple Interest

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int y;

floata,ir,t,ta;
clrscr();

printf(“Enter the amount:-”);

scanf(“%f”,&a);

printf(“\nEnter the Interest Rate %:-”);

scanf(“%f”,&ir);

printf(“\nEnter the year:-”);

scanf(“%d”,&y);

t=a*y*ir/100;

printf(“\nSimple Interest :-%f”,t);

ta=t+a;

printf(“\nTotal Amount:-%f”,ta);

getch();

}
Output:-

2) Programto Biggest and Smallest among three integers

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

inta,b,c,big,small;
clrscr();

printf("Enter any three numbers: ");

scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);

if(a>b && a>c)

big = a;

else if(b>c)

big = b;

else

big = c;

printf("Largest number is: %d",big);

if(a<b && a<c)

small = a;

else if(b<c)

small = b;

else

small = c;

printf("\nSmallest number is: %d",small);

getch();
}

Output:-

3) Program to reverse the given Number and find whether the number is palindrome

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

{
int n, reverse=0, rem, temp;

clrscr();

printf("Enter an integer: ");

scanf("%d", &n);

temp=n;

while(temp!=0)

rem=temp%10;

reverse=reverse*10+rem;

temp/=10;

printf("\nthe reverse number is %d",reverse);

if(reverse==n)

printf("\n%d is a palindrome.",n);

else

printf("\n%d is not a palindrome.",n);

getch();

Output:-
4) Program to generate Fibonacci

Series #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

Int k, r,f irst=0,second=1;

longint next;

clrscr();

printf("Enter the number

range:"); scanf("%d",&r);

printf("First %d terms of fibonacciseries",r);

if(r>=2)

printf("\n0 1");

else

printf("\n0");

for(k=2;k<r;k++)

if(k<=1)

next=k;

else

next=first+second;
first=second;

second=next;

printf(" %ld",next);
}

getch();

Output:-

5)Program to find the Factorial of given number

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int i=1,num;

float f=1;

clrscr();

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d",&num);

while(i<=num)

f=f*i;

i++;

printf("Factorial of %d is: %f",num,f);

getch();

Output:-
6) Program to Generate Electricity

Bill #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int units;

float at=0,sch,tx,total;

clrscr();

printf("Enter number of units

"); scanf("%d",&units);

printf("\nfuelsurchage %");

scanf("%f",&sch);

printf("\nGovt. Tax %");

scanf("%f",&tx);

if(units<=50)

at=units*2.50;

else if(units>50 &&

units<=150)

at=125+((units-50)*3);

else if(units>150 &&

units<=250)

at=425+((units-150)*3.75);

else if(units>250)

at=800+((units-250)*4.50);

sch=(sch*at)/100;
tx=(tx*at)/100;
total=at+sch+tx;

printf("------------------------------\n");

printf("TOTAL Units %d \n",units);

printf("Unit charges %f Rs\n",at);

printf("fuel surchage %f Rs\n",sch);

printf("Govt. Tax %f Rs\n",tx);

printf("------------------------------\n");

printf("Total Amount %f Rs\n",total);

printf("------------------------------");

getch();

Output:-
7) Program to Calculate Salary of an

Employee #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

floats,hra,da,gs,ta,ma;

clrscr();

printf("\nEnter the basic Salary of Employee:");

scanf("%f",&s);

printf("\nHouse Rent Allowance

%:"); scanf("%f",&hra);

printf("\nDearness Allowance %:");

scanf("%f",&da);

printf("\nTransport Allowance %:");

scanf("%f",&ta);
printf("\nMedical Allowance %:");

scanf("%f",&ma);

hra=s*(hra/100);

ta=s*(ta/100);

da=s*(da/100);

ma=s*(ma/100);

gs=s+ta+da+hra+ma;

printf("\nNet Salary:%f",gs);

getch();
}

Output:-