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LECTURE 5

Physiology of the vegetative (autonomic) nervous system and its role in

regulation of organism functions.
Anatomic-physiology features of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems. Peculiarities of the vegetative reflex arc. Mediators. Basic varieties of
receptive substances. Metasympathetic nervous system. Effects of sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems on specific organs. Kinds of the vegetative reflexes. Role
of the hypothalamus in regulation of vegetative functions.

The role of the vegetative nervous system consists in regulating of the

metabolism, excitability and automatism of the peripheral organs and of the central
nervous system itself. It regulates and changes the physiological condition of
tissues and organs, adapting them to the current activity of the organism as whole.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a set of efferent pathways from the

central nervous system (CNS) that innervate and regulate smooth muscles, the
cardiac muscle, glands and realise trophic innervation of the skeletal
musculature, receptors and in part of the nervous system itself.
The vegetative components however, are not as rule, controlled at will. On
these grounds, some investigators call it the autonomic nervous system or
involuntary system.
ANS is distinct from the somatic nervous system, which innervates skeletal
muscles.
ANS has three divisions: sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric
(metasympathetic).
DOUBLE INNERVATION
The majority of the organs supplied by the vegetative nervous system are
subordinated to both its parts, sympathetic and parasympathetic.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems produce opposite effects on
many organs, i.e. they are functionally antagonistic.

The sympathetic innervation is more spacious. Some organs have the only
sympathetic innervation. They are: sweet glands, nervous system and sensory
systems, cortex of adrenals, uterus, ureters, skeletal muscles, the most of vessels
with the exception of the vessels of salivary glands, tongue, and the corpora
cavernosa of the penis.
THE VEGETATIVE CENRES LOCATION
The centres of the vegetative nervous system are located in the brain stem
and spinal cord as follows.
In the mid-brain there is the mesencephalic portion of the parasympathetic
outflow, giving off vegetative fibres that form part of the oculomotor nerve (III).
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In the medulla oblongata is the bulbar portion of the parasympathetic

outflow; efferent (motor) fibres from this portion form part of the facial (VII),
glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X) nerves.
The thoracic and lumbal segments of the spinal cord contain the
sympathetic part of the vegetative nervous system.
The sacral segments of the spinal cord contain the sacral part of the
parasympathetic system, which gives off fibres forming part of the pelvic
splanchnic nerves.
All parts of the vegetative nervous system are subordinated to higher
vegetative centres situated in the diencephalon – hypothalamus and corpus
striatum, and coordinating the functions of many organs and systems of the
organism. They in turn are subordinated to the cerebral cortex.

Organization of the autonomic nervous system’s reflex arc.

1. Preganglionic neurons have their cell bodies in the lateral horns of the
spinal cord or in the brain stem and have synapses in autonomic ganglia.
2. Postganglionic neurons have their cell bodies in the autonomic ganglia
and synapses on effector organs (e.g., heart, blood vessels, sweat glands).
Their fibres are known as the preganglionic and postganglionic respectively.
Preganglionic fibres belong to type B. Postganglionic fibres belong to type C.

The main feature of the autonomic reflex arc is bineuronal structure of

vegetative nerves. The peripheral part of all sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous pathways consists of two successive neurons.
3. Synapses between neurons are made in the autonomic ganglia.
a. Parasympathetic ganglia are located in the effector organs or near them.
b. Sympathetic ganglia are located in paravertebral chains. They are
arranged on both sides of the vertebral column, forming two columns
known as sympathetic trunks.
Sympathetic preganglionic fibres are shorter than the postganglionic
ones. Parasympathetic preganglionic fibres are much longer than the
postganglionic.
The fact that the sympathetic postganglionic fibres are too long is the reason
of the generalization of the sympathetic visceral reactions. (Because in the C-
group fibres, which are unmyelinated, excitation can transmit from fiber to fiber).
Some of the preganglionic fibres pass through the trunk without interruption
and are interrupted in prevertebral ganglia. The prevertebral ganglia are situated
further away from the spinal column than the ganglia of the sympathetic trunk. The
prevertebral ganglia include the solar plexus, the superior and inferior mesenteric
ganglia.
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Functions of the vegetative ganglia.

The number of nerve cells in ganglia is much more than the number of
preganglionic fibres entering them. And that's why the postganglionic fibres
quantity is much more, than the preganglionic. This phenomena's name is
multiplication. The ganglia are the peripheral nerve centres which help to CNS in
its functioning.
1. A feature peculiar to the neurons of the vegetative system is the relatively
slow rhythm of the impulses generated by them (under ten or fifteen impulses per
second). There is transformation of impulse rhythm of decreased type in synapses.
2. The action potentials in sympathetic and parasympathetic fibres are
characteristically long (a single peak potential may last as long as 150 ms, which is
approximately 100 times more than in somatic fibres).
3. General feature of the vegetative reactions is their long latent period and
very long after potential (from some seconds to some minutes).
4. Stimulation of preganglionic fibres also clearly reveals the phenomena of
temporal summation of nerve impulses and after-action.
5. Stimulation with a single stimulus produces no effect, as a rule, even when
it is very intense. Such ability to produce an effect as a result of rhythmic
stimulation is known as iterativity.

METASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (intramural ganglia).

Metasympathetic nervous system comprises the plexuses rich in nerve cells lying
in the visceral organs.
Intramural plexuses exist in the muscular walls of many organs (for instance,
the heart, bronchi, middle and inferior thirds of the esophagus, stomach, intestine,
gall-bladder, urinary bladder). There are all the components of the reflex arcs
here. The peripheral or local reflexes may be realized in the organs as a local
contraction or a local secretion.
The intramural ganglia are controlled by the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems. There are about 20 different mediators in the metasympathetic
nervous system.

Mediators and receptor types in the autonomic nervous system.

1. Adrenergic (epinephrine) receptors (adrenoreceptors)
a. α1 Receptors
- are located on smooth muscles (except bronhial smooth muscles).
- produce excitation.
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- are equally sensitive to norepinephrine and epinephrine, but only

norepinephrine is present in concentrations that are high enough to activate
receptors.
- Mechanism of action: formation of inositol triphosphate (IP3) and
increase in intracellular [Ca2+]
b. α2 Receptors
- are located in presynaptic nerve terminals, platelets, fat cells, and
smooth muscles.
– often produce inhibition.
– Mecanism of action: inhibition of adenylate-cyclase and decrease in cyclic
adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
–
c. β1 Receptors
- are located in the heart
- produce excitation
- are sensitive to both norepinephrine and epinephrine, and are more
sensitive than the α receptors.
- Mechanism of action: activation of adenylate cyclase and production of
cyclic AMP

d. β2 Receptors
- are located on vascular smooth muscles, bronchial smooth muscles, and
in the gastrointestinal tract
- produce relaxation
- are more sensitive to epinephrine than to norepinephrine
- are more sensitive to epinephrine than the α receptors is.
For example, when small amounts of epinephrine are released from the adrenal
medulla, vasodilatation (β2) occurs; when larger amounts of epinephrine are
released from the adrenal medulla, vasoconstriction (α) occurs.
Mechanism of action: see β1 receptors.
Majority of the vitally important organs (heart, lungs, vessels of the
brain) have the dominant quantity of β 2 –receptors. Vasodilatation of the vitally
important organs vessels in the stress situations is very important for surviving of
organisms. It is interesting, that in old persons' heart quantity of α1 receptors
increases and risk of heart diseases grows.

2. Cholinergic receptors (cholinoreceptors)

a. Nicotinic receptors
- are located in the autonomic ganglia and in the neuromuscular
junctions. The receptors at the two locations are similar but not
identical.
They are activated by acetylcholine (Ach) or nicotine and produce
excitation.
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Their ganglionic blockers (e.g. hexamethonium, trimethaphan)

They block the nicotinic receptor for Ach in the autonomic ganglia but not in
the neuromuscular junction.
Mechanism of action: nicotinic Ach receptors are ion channels for Na + and
K+.
b. Muscarinic receptors
- are located in the heart, smooth muscles (except vascular
smooth muscles), and glands.
They are activated by Ach or muscarine.
They are inhibitory in the heart and excitatory in smooth muscles and
glands.
Atropine blocks the muscarinic receptors for Ach.
Mechanism of action:
(1) Heart SA node: inhibition of adenylate cyclase and opening of K+
channels, which slows the rate of spontaneous depolarization and decreases
the heart rate.
(2) Smooth muscles and glands: formation of IP3 and increase in
intracellular [Ca2+].

Otto Loewi’s experiment.

Existence of mediators as chemical compounds, formed in the nerve endings,
was demonstrated by O. Loewi (1920). The experimenter took two frog’s hearts
and two-horn cannula, filled by the Ringer’s solution. Then he connected the hearts
with the cannula’s openings so, that the Ringer’s solution could diffuse from one
heart to the other. The n.vagus and sympathetic of the hearts were prepared.
O. Loewi stimulated n. vagus of the first isolated heart and then the fluid
passed from that heart to another one, which had not been subjected to nerve
stimulation. The reaction of the second isolated heart was identical to that
produced in response to stimulation of the nerves. After this he repeated
experiment by stimulation of sympathetic nerve of the first heart.
Consequently, stimulation of the first heart nerves led to production of the
corresponding mediator into the nutrient fluid, which diffused to the second heart
and changed its work.

EFFECTS OF SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC

STIMULATION ON SPECIFIC ORGANS:
The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems produce opposite effects on
many organs, i.e. they are functionally antagonistic.
The Heart.
In general, sympathetic stimulation increases the overall activity of the
heart. This is accomplished by increasing both the rate and force of the
heartbeat.
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Parasympathetic stimulation causes mainly the opposite effects, decreasing

the overall activity of the heart (rate and force of the heartbeat).
However, sympathetic stimulation unfortunately also greatly increases the
metabolism of the heart while parasympathetic stimulation decreases its
metabolism and allows the heart a degree of rest.
The Lungs.
In general, the structures in the lungs do not have extensive sympathetic or
parasympathetic innervation. Therefor, most effects of stimulation are mild.
Sympathetic stimulation can dilate the bronchi and mildly constrict the blood
vessels. On the contrary, parasympathetic stimulation can cause mild
constriction on the bronchi and can perhaps mildly dilate the vessels.
The gastrointestinal system (GIT).
Parasympathetic stimulation, in general, increases the overall degree of
activity of the gastrointestinal tract (for ex. n. vagus (X)) by promoting peristalsis
and relaxing the sphincters, thus allowing rapid propulsion of contents along the
tract.
The glands of the body.
The nasal, lacrimal, salivary and many gastrointestinal glands are all
strongly stimulated by the parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic stimulation has a slight direct effect on glandular cells in
causing formation of a concentrated secretion.
Systemic Blood Vessels
Most blood vessels, especially those of the abdominal viscera and the skin of
the limbs, are constricted by sympathetic stimulation. Under some conditions,
the β stimulatory function of the sympathetic nerves causes vascular dilatation.
(Effect depends on the receptor's kind- α or β).
Parasympathetic stimulation generally has almost no effect on blood
vessels but does dilate vessels blush area of the face and organs, where
parasympathetic efferent innervation takes place (vessels of salivary glands,
tongue, and the corpora cavernosa of the penis).
Bladders. In general, most of the entodermal structures, such as the ducts of
the liver, the gallbladder, the ureter, and the bladder, are inhibited by sympathetic
stimulation but excited by parasympathetic stimulation. Sympathetic stimulation
constricts the sphincters and relaxes the body of bladders, but
parasympathetic stimulation causes an opposite effect. It causes relaxation of
the sphincters and constriction of the bladder body, what leads to the extraction of
the contents.
The eye.
Sympathetic stimulation contracts the mediodorsal fibres of the iris and
therefore dilates the pupil, while parasympathetic stimulation contracts the
circular muscle of the iris to constrict the pupil.
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Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic stimulation on other

Functions of the Body.

The sympathetic system ensures intensive activity of the organism under

conditions requiring exertion, whereas the parasympathetic system helps to restore
the reserves expended during this exertion. The tone of the parasympathetic
nervous system is heightened during sleep. "At night is a reign of the nervus
vagus". There is the theory of the adaptational-trophic function of the
sympathetic system (after Orbeli). According to this theory, the sympathetic
system regulates the metabolism, nutrition, and excitability of all organs and
tissues of the body.

VEGETATIVE REFLEXES
Vegetative reflexes can be evoked by stimulating either exteroceptors or
interoceptors. During vegetative reflexes impulses are transmitted to the peripheral
organs from the central nervous system by way of sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerves. The reflexes are differentiated according to the
localization of the receptors whose stimulation triggers them and of the effector
organs taking part in the final reaction.
Viscero-visceral reflexes are reactions aroused by stimulation of receptors
located in the visceral organs and terminated by a change in the activity of the
latter.
They include reflex changes in cardiac activity, vascular tone, reflex stoppage
of the heart upon stimulation of the organs of the abdominal cavity (Goltz' reflex);
reflex contraction of the smooth muscles of urinary bladder, and relaxation of the
sphincter, with an increase in the pressure inside it, and many others.
Viscero-cutaneous reflexes are elicited by stimulation of visceral organs, and
are manifested by changes in perspiration, in the electrical resistance of the skin,
and in its sensitivity in circumscribed areas of the body surface.
Viscero-muscular reflexes are elicited by stimulation (or inflammation) of
visceral organs and have grate diagnostic importance. For ex. Intestine
inflammation causes changing of the abdominal muscles tone.
Cutano-visceral reflexes are expressed in vascular reactions and changes in
the activity of certain visceral organs when definite areas of the skin are
stimulated. Certain therapeutic procedures, such as local heating or cooling of the
skin (or acupuncture) for changing of the visceral organs functioning, are based on
them.
Several vegetative reflexes are used in practical medicine to judge the
condition of the vegetative nervous system (vegetative functional tests). They
include Aschner's oculo-cardiac reflex (slowing of the pulse when pressure is
applied to the eyeballs), the respiratory-cardiac reflex or the so-called respiratory
arrhythmia (slowing next inspiration), the orthostatic reaction (quickening of the
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pulse and an increase in arterial pressure in changing from a recumbent to an erect

position), etc.

FUNCTIONS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS.

The hypothalamus is situated under the thalamus and is an aggregation of 32
pairs of nuclei, which can be divided into three groups, anterior, middle, and
posterior.
Hypothalamus is higher vegetative, endocrine center and center of
regulation of behavioral reactions. It takes an important part in adaptation of all
the systems of organism to the environment.
There are some features of the hypothalamus, which give it an opportunity to
be higher vegetative and endocrine center. They are:
1. The hypothalamus are abundantly supplied with blood; its capillary
network is several times larger than in the other divisions of the central nervous
system. Its capillaries permeability is higher than that of the other capillaries of the
CNS.
2. Neurons of the hypothalamus have ability to the neuroreception
(osmoreceptors, thermoreceptors, glucoreceptors).
3. Neurons of the hypothalamus have ability to the neurosecretion.
Stimulation of the hypothalamus causes complex reactions whose nervous
component is supplemented with a hormonal one. Its neurons product rilising-
factors, which regulate production of the tropic-hormones by the adenohypophysis.
The centers of thermoregulation and regulation of a daily rhythms there are
here. Stimulation of some hypothalamic centers provokes the behavioral reactions.
Hypothalamus regulates all the visceral functions.

LIMBIC SYSTEM is involved in regulation of the visceral functions too.