PROCESS DESIGN ENGINEERING

MANUAL:
Part 1

Prepared by: Ankur Srivastava

Chemical Engineer

Email: ankurcheme@gmail.com

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. GETTING STARTED........................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 PROCESS ENGINEERING AND ROLE OF PROCESS ENGINEER ........................................................... 3
1.2 VARIOUS PACKAGES USED IN INDUSTRY ......................................................................................... 4
1.3 OVERVIEW OF VARIOUS UNIT OPERATIONS IN USED PROCESS INDUSTRIES .................................. 6
1.4 HAZOP AND HAZID ........................................................................................................................ 14
1.5 INTERNATIONAL CODES, STANDARDS AND PRACTICES OVERVIEW .............................................. 16
2. PROCESS DOCUMENTS.................................................................................................................. 18
2.1 PROCESS DESIGN BASIS ................................................................................................................. 18
2.2 OPERATING AND CONTROL PHILOSOPHY ..................................................................................... 21
2.3 LINE LIST ........................................................................................................................................ 24
2.4 PROCESS DATASHEET .................................................................................................................... 26
3 PROCESS DRAWINGS ..................................................................................................................... 28
3.1 BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM (BFD) ....................................................................................................... 28
3.2 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD) ................................................................................................... 28
3.3 PIPING & INSTRUMENT DIAGRAM (P&ID) ..................................................................................... 35
4 DETAILED DESIGN CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................ 42
4.1 HEAT & MATERIAL BALANCE (H&MB) ........................................................................................... 42
4.2 DETERMINATION OF PROCESS CONDITIONS................................................................................. 43
4.3 EMERGENCY DEPRESSURING SYSTEM........................................................................................... 47
4.4 PRESSURE PROTECTION & RELIEF ................................................................................................. 49
4.5 LINE SIZING.................................................................................................................................... 61

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1. GETTING STARTED
1.1 PROCESS ENGINEERING AND ROLE OF PROCESS ENGINEER

Process design is the design of processes for desired physical and or chemical transformation of
materials. Process design is central to chemical engineering and it can be considered to be the
summit of chemical engineering, bringing together all of the components of that field.
Process Engineering involves design of unit operations & equipment design.

Role of Process Engineer:

Chemical engineers (or process engineers) are responsible for developing new industrial processes
and designing new process plants and equipment or modifying existing ones. The processes that
they come up with are used to create products ranging from oil and gas, chemicals, petrochemicals,
speciality chemicals to food and drink.

It is a vocation wherein the process engineer is supposed to perform any one or all of the activities
as mentioned below to provide documentation for a safe, reliable and profitable design
 Design new equipment/unit/plant as per good and internationally accepted engineering
practices (Greenfield)
 Rate or check adequacy of existing equipment/unit/plant for changed operating conditions (e.g.
pressure, temperature, flow etc.) as per good and internationally accepted engineering practices
(Brownfield)

 Principal accountabilities:
 High level design option selection including economics.
 Optimization/evaluation of existing processes, including understanding feedstock composition,
heat/material balance implications.
 Troubleshoots existing plant systems.
 Understands, uses and champions engineering standards and work processes.
 Modelling of systems.
 Plant support when needed, Process Hazard analysis, Documentation of work.

 Responsibilities:
 Develops and evaluates plans and criteria for a variety of projects and problem solving activities,
including scale up design, optimization of chemical manufacturing processes and facilities.
 Develops/assesses the feasibility, soundness, and safety of engineering designs and solutions.
Provides conceptual design of process equipment systems.
 Identify and apply design and simulation tools for design, optimization and troubleshooting of
processes.
 Based on Client's requirements, develops Heat & Material Balances using simulation software.
 Develops Process Flow diagrams to show operations necessary to convert feedstock into on
specification products, in the most economical manner.
 Defines and sizes Equipment and Instrumentation to be implemented and issues relevant
Process Data sheets.
 Elaborates Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams.

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  Performs hydraulic and thermal calculations on piping systems, pipelines, flow lines in steady
state and transient operation.
 Defines the utilities requirements and designs the associated systems.
 Defines quantities and characteristics of effluents to be disposed to the environment.
 Participates to the preparation of Operating Manual, under Pre-commissioning department
supervision.
 Identify process hazards and participate in process safety review.

1.2 VARIOUS PACKAGES USED IN INDUSTRY

 Conceptual And Feasibility Studies

When a client is thinking of investing money in a chemical process plant or chemical technology he
has more questions than answers. Some such questions would be:
 Is it technically feasible?
 What is the best possible chemistry and reaction for the process?
 Should it be a batch or continuous production process?
 How much would it cost to set up the unit?
 Is there a ready market available for selling the product?
 Is the technology environment friendly and safe?

What kind of process engineering activities and deliverables are expected during this phase?
 Evaluating the various process routes from economic, environment and safety view point and
selecting the best option.
 Develop preliminary process flow or block diagrams
 Develop preliminary material and energy balances based on a selected economic plant capacity.
 List of major equipment.
 Estimate cost of the project with a deviation of +50% / -30%.
 Identify weak areas in process design such as experimental design, insufficient laboratory or pilot
plant data, scale-up from pilot plant design and benchmarking against existing designs.

 Front End Engineering Design (FEED)

Process Engineering Information

 Raw Material Specifications
 Product Quality Specifications & Deviation Limits in case of specific products with specific end-
use
 Utility Specifications

Typical Process Engineering Deliverables:

 Process Design Basis
 Extensive Heat & Material Balance generally using process design simulators
 Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs) including major process control automation
 Utility Balance and Utility Flow Diagrams (UFDs)
 Piping & Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs)
 Process Safeguarding Diagrams

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  Material Selection Diagrams
 Line Designation List, Equipment List, Tie-in List
 Hazardous Area Classification Schedule
 Equipment (Static / Rotating) Process Datasheets
 Instrument Process Datasheets
 Relief Devices Datasheets and Relief Devices Summary Report
 Process Description
 Operating, Control and Safeguarding Philosophy, Process Control Narrative
 Hydraulic Calculations and Line Sizing Report
 Trip and Alarm Summary Report
 PHA / HAZID / HAZOP Reports
 Piping Material Specification
 Insulation Specification

 Detail Engineering Design

All the deliverables prepared during the FEED stage will be updated and upgraded during this phase.
In addition to this many documents and drawings specific to this phase are prepared which involve
engineering from other engineering disciplines such as Mechanical, Piping, Instrumentation,
Electrical and Civil.

List of Specific Deliverables Prepared during Detail Design

 Pre-commissioning and Commissioning Manual
 Operation and Maintenance Manual
 Pre-Construction HAZOP Review and Closeout Report
 Effluents and Emissions Summary
 Single Line Diagrams (SLDs)
 Instrument Loop Diagrams (ILDs)
 Material Requisitions (MRs) for Static Equipment (Tanks / Vessels / Columns)
 MRs for Rotary Equipment (Pumps / Compressors / Fans / Blowers)
 MRs for Electrical Items (Transformers / DG Sets / Switchgear / Cables / UPS System)
 MRs for Instrument Items (Flow / Pressure / Level / Temperature / Control Valves / Shut-down
Valves / DCS / PLC)
 MRs for Civil / Structural
 Piping Key Plan, Piping GA Drawings, Piping Isometric Drawings
 Piping Bulk Material Take-Off (MTO) (Valves / Pipe fittings / Pipe Supports)
 Instrument Bulk MTO (Tubing & Fittings / Cable Trays / Stanchion / Instrument Cables/ Cable
Glands / Multi Cable Transit)
 Electrical Bulk MTO (Cables / Conduits/ Cable Trays / Cable Ties / Connectors / Lugs)
 Bar Bending Schedule (Civil)
 Civil Bulk MTO (Earthwork Cut/Fill / Piles / Structural Steel / Concrete)
 Review of Vendor Documents / Drawings (All Disciplines)
 Technical Bid Analysis
 Specifications for Active and Passive Fire Protection
 Fire Fighting MTO

As-built design

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 During the construction phase of the project changes can occur due to the following reasons:
 Errors in the design phase.
 Changes demanded by the client due to changed business scenario and economics during the
construction phase (this is rare, but can happen).
 Cost-cutting and / or time-saving exercise for bulk items generally items such as valves and field
instrumentation.
 Field changes demanded by the commissioning / operating experts to facilitate plant
commissioning.

Engineering Activities and Deliverables during As-Built Design

 Maintaining a site “Management of Change” dossier wherein the construction phase changes
are planned, reviewed from design, cost and most importantly from the HSE view point,
approved and actioned. (This is a construction engineering activity).
 P&ID updation based on red-line mark-ups done by the construction / commissioning team.
 Piping Gas / Isometrics updation by the piping contractor based on red-line mark-ups
 Instrument Loop Drawings again based on red-line mark-ups.
 Pre-commissioning / Commissioning Manual Updation.
 Plant Operation Manual Updation.

1.3 OVERVIEW OF VARIOUS UNIT OPERATIONS IN USED PROCESS INDUSTRIES

 Fluid flow processes, including fluids transportation, filtration, and solids fluidization.
 Heat transfer processes, including evaporation.
 Mass transfer processes, including gas absorption, distillation, extraction, adsorption, and
drying.
 Thermodynamic processes, refrigeration.
 Mechanical processes, sieving.

 Fluid flow processes, including fluids transportation, filtration, and solids fluidization

o Fluid Transportation
Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods or material through a pipe. Liquids and gases are
transported in pipelines and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline.
Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels – such as oil, natural gas and
biofuels – and other fluids including sewage, slurry, water, and beer. Pipelines are useful for
transporting water for drinking or irrigation over long distances when it needs to move over hills,
or where canals or channels are poor choices due to considerations of evaporation, pollution, or
environmental impact. Pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to transport solid
capsules.

Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried. The oil is moved through
the pipelines by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are lightly
pressurised into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs). Natural gas pipelines are constructed
of carbon steel. Hydrogen pipeline transport is the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe.
District heating systems use a network of insulated pipes which transport heated water, pressurized
hot water, or sometimes steam to the customer.

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 Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety
concerns and there have been various accidents. Pipelines can be the target of theft, vandalism,
sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. In war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks.

o Filtration:
Filtration is any of various mechanical, physical or biological operations that separate solids from
fluids (liquids or gases) by adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass. The fluid that
passes through is called the filtrate. In physical filters oversize solids in the fluid are retained and in
biological filters particulates are trapped and ingested and metabolites are retained and removed.
However, the separation is not complete; solids will be contaminated with some fluid and filtrate
will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size, filter thickness and biological activity).

Filtration occurs both in nature and in engineered systems; there are biological, geological, and
industrial forms. For example, in animals (including humans), renal filtration removes wastes from
the blood, and in water treatment and sewage treatment, undesirable constituents are removed
by absorption into a biological film grown on or in the filter medium, as in slow sand filtration.

o Fluidization
Fluidization (or fluidisation) is a process similar to liquefaction whereby a granular material is
converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid
(liquid or gas) is passed up through the granular material.

When a gas flow is introduced through the bottom of a bed of solid particles, it will move upwards
through the bed via the empty spaces between the particles. At low gas velocities, aerodynamic drag
on each particle is also low, and thus the bed remains in a fixed state. Increasing the velocity, the
aerodynamic drag forces will begin to counteract the gravitational forces, causing the bed to expand
in volume as the particles move away from each other. Further increasing the velocity, it will reach a
critical value at which the upward drag forces will exactly equal the downward gravitational forces,
causing the particles to become suspended within the fluid. At this critical value, the bed is said to be
fluidized and will exhibit fluidic behavior. By further increasing gas velocity, the bulk density of the bed
will continue to decrease, and its fluidization becomes more violent, until the particles no longer form
a bed and are "conveyed" upwards by the gas flow.

When fluidized, a bed of solid particles will behave as a fluid, like a liquid or gas. Like water in a bucket:
the bed will conform to the volume of the chamber, its surface remaining perpendicular to gravity;
objects with a lower density than the bed density will float on its surface, bobbing up and down if
pushed downwards, while objects with a higher density sink to the bottom of the bed. The fluidic
behaviour allows the particles to be transported like a fluid, channelled through pipes, not requiring
mechanical transport (e.g. conveyor belt).

 Heat transfer processes, including evaporation and heat exchange

o Evaporation
Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the
gaseous phase before reaching its boiling point. The surrounding gas must not be saturated with
the evaporating substance. When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer energy to each
other based on how they collide. When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy to

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 overcome the vapor pressure, it will "escape" and enter the surrounding air as a gas. When
evaporation occurs, the energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the temperature of
the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.

On average, only a fraction of the molecules in a liquid have enough heat energy to escape from
the liquid. The evaporation will continue until equilibrium is reached when the evaporation of the
liquid is the equal to its condensation. In an enclosed environment, a liquid will evaporate until the
surrounding air is saturated.

 Mass transfer processes, including gas absorption, distillation, extraction, adsorption, and drying

o Absorption:
Absorption is the one of the most commonly used separation techniques for the gas cleaning
purpose for removal of various gases like H2S, CO2, SO2 and Ammonia. Cleaning of solute gases is
achieved by transferring into a liquid solvent by contacting the gas stream with liquids that offers
specific or selectivity for the gases to be recovered. Unit operation and is mass transfer
phenomena where the solute of a gas is removed from being placed in contact with a non-volatile
liquid solvent that removes the components from the gas.
Solvent: Liquid applied to remove the solute from a gas stream.
Solute: Components to be removed from entering streams.

o Distillation:
The liquid mixture that is to be processed is known as the feed and this is introduced usually
somewhere near the middle of the column to a tray known as the feed tray. The feed tray divides the
column into a top (enriching or rectification) section and a bottom (stripping) section. The feed flows
down the column where it is collected at the bottom in the reboiler.

Heat is supplied to the reboiler to generate vapour. The source of

heat input can be any suitable fluid, although in most chemical
plants this is normally steam. In refineries, the heating source may
be the output streams of other columns. The vapour raised in the
reboiler is re-introduced into the unit at the bottom of the column.
The liquid removed from the reboiler is known as the bottoms
product or simply, bottoms

The vapour moves up the column, and as it exits the top

of the unit, it is cooled by a condenser. The condensed
liquid is stored in a holding vessel known as the reflux
drum. Some of this liquid is recycled back to the top of
the column and this is called the reflux. The condensed
liquid that is removed from the system is known as the
distillate or top product.

Thus, there are internal flows of vapour and liquid within the column as well as external flows of
feeds and product streams, into and out of the column.

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o Adsorption
Adsorption technology is now used very effectively in the separation and purification of many gas
and liquid mixtures in chemical, petrochemical, biochemical and environmental industries and is
often a much cheaper and easier option than distillation, absorption or extraction. Some of the
major applications of adsorption are gas bulk separation, gas purifications, liquid bulk separation,
and liquid purifications.

One of the most effective method for recovering and controlling emissions of volatile organic
compounds is adsorption Some of the commercial adsorbent s are silica gel, activated carbon,
carbon molecular sieve, charcoal, zeolites molecular sieves, polymer and resins, clays, biosorbents
some of the key properties of adsorbents are capacity, selectivity, regenerability, kinetics,
compatibility and cost. Some of the methods used for regeneration of adsorbent are thermal swing,
pressure swing, vacuum (special case of pressure swing), purge and gas stripping, steam stripping
[Crittenden, 1988].

Some of the important criteria of good adsorbent are as below.

o It must selectivity concentrate one or more components called adsorbate to from their fluid
phase levels
o The ability to release adsorbate so that adsorbent can be reused,
o As high as possible delta loading the change of weight of adsorbate per unit weight of
adsorbent between adsorbing and desorbing steps over a reasonable range of pressure and
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is based on the principle of relative adsorption strength, is a
milestone in the science of gas separation. Some of the commercial application of PSA are air
drying, hydrogen purification, bulk separation of paraffins, air separation for oxygen and
nitrogen production,
o
Chromatography is a sorptive separation process. In chromatography feed is introduce in column
containing a selective adsorbent (stationary phase) and separated over the length of the column by
the action of a carrier fluid (mobile phase) that is continually supplied to the column following the
introduction of the feed. The separation occurs as a result of the different partitioning of the feed
solutes between the stationary phases. The separated solutes are recovered at different time in the
effluent from the column.

Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Liquid –liquid extraction has been commonly used in petroleum and petrochemical industry for
separation of close boiling hydrocarbons. Some of the major applications are:
 Removal of sulphur compound from liquid hydrocarbons
 Recovery of aromatics from liquid hydrocarbon
 Separation of butadiene from C4 hydrocarbons
 Extraction of Caprolactam
 Separation of homogenous aqueous azeotropes
 Extraction of acetic acid
 Removal of phenolic compounds from waste water
 Manufacture of rare earths
 Separation of asphaltic compounds from oil

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  Recovery of copper from leach liquor
 Extraction of glycerides from vegetable oil. Some of the important property of a good solvent
 High solvent power/capacity
 High selectivity for desired component
 Sufficient difference in boiling points of the solvent and the feed for effective separation
 Low latent heat of evaporation an specific heat to reduce utility requirement
 high thermal an chemical stability
 Low melting point
 Relatively inexpensive
 Non-toxic and non –corrosive 44
 Low viscosity low interfacial tension
 Drying

Drying may be defined as the vaporization and removal of water or other liquids from a solution,
suspension, or other solid-liquid mixture to form a dry solid. It is a complicated process that involves
simultaneous heat and mass transfer, accompanied by physicochemical transformations. Drying
occurs as a result of the vaporization of liquid by supplying heat to wet feedstock, granules, and
filter cakes and so on. Based on the mechanism of heat transfer that is employed, drying is
categorized into direct (convection), indirect or contact (conduction), radiant (radiation) and
dielectric or microwave (radio frequency) drying.

Heat transfer and mass transfer are critical aspects in drying processes. Heat is transferred to the
product to evaporate liquid, and mass is transferred as a vapor into the surrounding gas. The drying
rate is determined by the set of factors that affect heat and mass transfer. Solids drying is generally
understood to follow two distinct drying zones, known as the constant-rate period and the falling-
rate period. The two zones are demarcated by a break point called the critical moisture content.

In a typical graph of moisture content versus drying rate and moisture content versus time (Figure 1),
section AB represents the constant-rate period. In that zone, moisture is considered to be
evaporating from a saturated surface at a rate governed by diffusion from the surface through the
stationary air film that is in contact with it. This period depends on the air temperature, humidity and
speed of moisture to the surface, which in turn determine the temperature of the saturated surface.
During the constant rate period, liquid must be transported to the surface at a rate sufficient to
maintain saturation.

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Figure 1. Segment AB of the graph represents the constant-rate drying period, while segment BC is the
falling-rate period.

At the end of the constant rate period, (point B, Figure 1), a break in the drying curve occurs. This
point is called the critical moisture content, and a linear fall in the drying rate occurs with further
drying. This section, segment BC, is called the first falling-rate period. As drying proceeds, moisture
reaches the surface at a decreasing rate and the mechanism that controls its transfer will influence
the rate of drying. Since the surface is no longer saturated, it will tend to rise above the wet bulb
temperature. This section, represented by segment CD in Figure 1 is called the second falling-rate
period, and is controlled by vapor diffusion. Movement of liquid may occur by diffusion under the
concentration gradient created by the depletion of water at the surface. The gradient can be caused
by evaporation, or as a result of capillary forces, or through a cycle of vaporization and
condensation, or by osmotic effects.

The capacity of the air (gas) stream to absorb and carry away moisture determines the drying rate
and establishes the duration of the drying cycle. The two elements essential to this process are inlet
air temperature and air flow rate. The higher the temperature of the drying air, the greater its vapor
holding capacity. Since the temperature of the wet granules in a hot gas depends on the rate of
evaporation, the key to analysing the drying process is psychrometry, defined as the study of the
relationships between the material and energy balances of water vapor and air mixture.

 Thermodynamic processes, refrigeration.

o Refrigeration
The job of the refrigeration cycle is to remove unwanted heat from one place and discharge it into
another. To accomplish this, the refrigerant is pumped through a closed refrigeration system. If the
system was not closed, it would be using up the refrigerant by dissipating it into the surrounding
media; because it is closed, the same refrigerant is used over and over again, as it passes through
the cycle removing some heat and discharging it. The closed cycle serves other purposes as well; it
keeps the refrigerant from becoming contaminated and controls its flow, for it is a liquid in some
parts of the cycle and a gas or vapor in other phases.

Let's look at what happens in a simple refrigeration cycle, and to the major components
involved. Two different pressures exist in the cycle - the evaporating or low pressure in the "low
side," and the condensing, or high pressure, in the "high side." These pressure areas are separated
by two dividing points: one is the metering device where the refrigerant flow is controlled, and the
other is at the compressor, where vapor is compressed.

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The metering device is a point where we will start the trip through the cycle. This may be a thermal
expansion valve, a capillary tube, or any other device to control the flow of refrigerant into the
evaporator, or cooling coil, as a low-pressure, low-temperature refrigerant. The expanding
refrigerant evaporates (changes state) as it goes through the evaporator, where it removes the heat
from the substance or space in which the evaporator is located.

Heat will travel from the warmer substance to the evaporator cooled by the evaporation of the
refrigerant within the system, causing the refrigerant to "boil" and evaporate, changing it to a vapor.
This is similar to the change that occurs when a pail of water is boiled on the stove and the water
changes to steam, except that the refrigerant boils at a much lower temperature.

Now this low-pressure, low-temperature vapor is drawn to the compressor where it is compressed
into a high-temperature, high-pressure vapor. The compressor discharges it to the condenser, so that
it can give up the heat that it picked up in the evaporator. The refrigerant vapor is at a higher
temperature than the air passing across the condenser (air-cooled type); or water passing through
the condenser (water-cooled type); therefore that is transferred from the warmer refrigerant vapor
to the cooler air or water.
In this process, as heat is removed from the vapor, a change of state takes place and the vapor is
condensed back into a liquid, at a high-pressure and high-temperature.

The liquid refrigerant travels now to the metering device where it passes through a small opening or
orifice where a drop in pressure and temperature occurs, and then it enters into the evaporator or
cooling coil. As the refrigerant makes its way into the large opening of the evaporator tubing or coil,
it vaporizes, ready to start another cycle through the system.

The refrigeration system requires some means of connecting the basic major components -
evaporator, compressor, condenser, and metering device - just as roads connect communities.
Tubing or "lines" make the system complete so that the refrigerant will not leak out into the
atmosphere. The suction line connects the evaporator or cooling coil to the compressor, the hot gas
or discharge line connects the compressor to the condenser, and the liquid line is the connecting
tubing between the condenser and the metering device (Thermal expansion valve). Some systems
will have a receiver immediately after the condenser and before the metering device, where the
refrigerant is stored until it is needed for heat removal in the evaporator.

There are many different kinds and variations of the refrigeration cycle components. For example,
there are at least a half dozen different types of compressor, from the reciprocating, piston through a
screw, scroll and centrifugal impeller design, but the function is the same in all cases - that of
compressing the heat laden vapor into a high-temperature vapor.
The same can be said of the condenser and evaporator surfaces. They can be bare pipes, or they can
be finned condensers and evaporators with electrically driven fans to pass the air through tem, or
with a condenser pump to pump the water through a water-cooled condenser.

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There are a number of different types of metering devices to regulate the liquid refrigerant into the
evaporator, depending on size of equipment, refrigerant used, and its application.
The mechanical refrigeration system described above is essentially the same whether the system be
a domestic refrigerator, a low-temperature freezer, comfort air conditioning system, industrial
chiller, or commercial cooling equipment. Refrigerants will be different and size of the equipment will
vary greatly, but the principle of operation and the refrigeration cycle remains the same. Thus, once
you understand the simple actions that are taking place within the refrigeration mechanical cycle you
should have a good understanding how a refrigeration system works.

 Mechanical processes, sieving

o Sieving
Sieving is one of the oldest and most commonly used method of sorting materials. Yet, when
improperly carried out, sieving can provide misleading information or biased separation. Sieving has
widespread application to industries as diverse as mining, pharmaceutical production and agriculture.
The goal is typically to control or measure the particle size distribution. Sieving may be a direct part
of a production process, a quality control procedure or a sample characterization. Regardless of the
purpose, an understanding of sieving is necessary to optimize and accurately use this technique.
Sieving has the clear advantage of being a simple, readily understood and relatively inexpensive
method. This method also has the ability to provide reproducible results. This has tended to boost
condense in the method, even where it is not warranted.

Some of this condense is a result of ignorance as to the actual errors involved in a given sieving
operation or with a particular set of sieves. While these errors can be described and measured, the
difficulty of doing so largely detracts from the attractiveness of the method. Thus, most people rely
on standard procedures and the reproducibility of the method to reassure themselves as to the
quality of the data obtained.

Sieving was the earliest means of particle size fractionation. Basically, the process of sieving is that of
placing the particles to be fractionated on a pattern of openings or holes. The individual openings are
referred to as the aperture. Small particles may fall through or the sieve retains the larger particles.
Separation requires agitation and time. A variety of mechanisms exist to provide agitation either to
the sieve or to the particles to be fractionated. Typically, commercial equipment varies in the manner
in which agitation is created or the fluid used to support the particles. Either air or water may be
used to support the particles as they sort on the sieve. Dry sieving has a lower practical limit of 50
µm, while wet sieving can separate smaller particle sizes when using special sieves or small volumes
of particles.

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1.4 HAZOP AND HAZID

HAZOP study is to carefully review a process or operation in a systematic manner to determine

whether deviations from the design or operational intent can lead to undesirable consequences.
This technique can be used for continuous or batch processes and can be adopted to evaluate
written procedures. The HAZOP team lists potential causes and consequences of the deviation as
well as existing safeguards protecting against the deviation. When the team determines that
inadequate safeguards exist for a credible deviation, it usually recommends the action be taken to
reduce the risk.

Objective of carrying out a HAZOP study:

 To check a design
 To decide whether and where to build
 To decide whether to buy a piece of equipment
 To obtain a list of questions to put to a supplier
 To check running instructions
 To improve the safety of existing facilities

Risks to be evaluated:
Major risks to be evaluated are probable incidents which may impact any of the following:
 Risk to Personnel: Health and Safety risk to own or public personnel.
 Risk to Environment: Risk of damage to environment due to any emissions causing pollution,
from solid, liquid, vapour, vibration/shock, radiation noise, odour.
 Risk to Material: Risk to own or public material in terms of equipment, installation, work in
process, utilities, etc. causing substantial losses affecting profitability.
 Risk to Reputation: Risk to own reputation as a responsible and reliable organization in terms
of product quality, statutory and social obligation, ethics and goodwill.

Recommended stages at which Hazop study should preferably be conducted:

Stage 1-Preliminary: During Basic/Detailed Engineering when the process and P&I drawings and
layouts are finalized.
Stage 2-After Installation: After site installation and water trials, prior to or during commissioning.
Stage 3-Need Based: On major modifications of installation or operational procedures.

HAZID:
HAZID (Hazard Identification) is a qualitative technique for the early identification of potential
hazards and threats effecting people, the environment, assets or reputation. The major benefit of
a HAZID study is to provide essential input to project development decision. It is a means of
identifying and describing HSE hazards and threats at the earliest practicable stage of a
development or venture.

Objective of the study:

 To identify the potential hazards and to reduce the probability and consequences of an incident
at site that would have a detrimental impact to the personnel plant, properties and
environment.

Benefits of Carrying out HAZID

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 Identify opportunities for inherent safety.
 Identify Fire, explosion, toxic release scenarios and measure to prevent it.
 Any special preparations required to be taken to handle these can be pre–planned.
 Any specific process modifications if required can be established at an early stage.
 Prepares the system & team, ready and confident to go ahead for commissioning. Avoids major
surprises.
 Hazards involved in operating each equipment’s can be enlisted at the beginning, leading to
better process mapping & better control in future to getting OHSAS / ISO approvals.
 The major benefit of HAZID is early identification and assessment of the critical health, safety
and environmental hazards provides essential input to the project development decisions.

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1.5 INTERNATIONAL CODES, STANDARDS AND PRACTICES OVERVIEW

 CODE
Code is group of general rules or systematic procedure or guidelines required for design, fabrication,
installation and inspection and is prepared in such a manner that it can be adopted by legal
jurisdiction and made into law.

 STANDARDS
Standards prepared by a professional group or committee which are believed to be good and proper
engineering practice and which contain mandatory requirements and dimensions.
Standards are mainly two types:
 Dimensional Standards
 Pressure Integrity Standards

 DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS
They provide configuration control information for components. The main purpose of Dimensional
Standards is to assure similar components manufactured by different supplier will be physically
interchangeable.

 PRESSURE INTEGRITY STANDARDS

They provide performance criteria. The components designed and manufactured to the same
standards will run an equivalent manner.

MAJOR ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDS

Sr. No. Country Organization
1 India BIS: Bureau of Indian standards
2 U.S.A ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers
3 United Kingdom BSI: British Standards Institute
4 Germany DIN : Deutsches Institute for Normung
5 Japan JIS: Japanese Industrial Standards
6 Europe CEN : Europe Community for Standardization
7 Canada CSA: Canadian Standards Association
8 France AFNOR: Association Francoise

 AMERICAN STANDARDS
Commonly used American Standards:

 API 12J: Specification for Oil and Gas Separators

 API RP 14E: Recommended Practice for Design and Installation of Offshore Production Platform
Piping Systems
 API 520: Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-relieving Devices
 API 521: Pressure relieving and depressuring systems.
 API 2000: Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tank
 ASME SEC VIII DIV1/TEMA_/: Heat Exchanger Design

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 ANSI/ISA–75.01.01–2002 (Flow equations for sizing control valves)
 ANSI/API 610 - Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Service
 ISO 5167-2 First Edition 2003-03-01: Orifice plates.

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2. PROCESS DOCUMENTS
2.1 PROCESS DESIGN BASIS
Refer the flow chart below for preparing a process design basis document. The flowchart provides
generic guidelines for the structure of and contents in the process design basis document. However,
the process design basis needs to be prepared on a case-to-case basis depending on the type of
project such as for oil & gas, petrochemicals, chemical storage and transport terminals, industrial
water treatment plants etc. Some guidelines on information to be provided in the process design
basis is given in the subsequent sections.

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Page 19 of 67
Document Revision Status
 1st issue - Issued For Comments (IFC).
 2nd issue – Approved for Design (AFD).

Responsibilities
 Prepared: Designated Process Engineer.
 Checked: Designated Senior Process Engineer and / or Lead Process Engineer.
 Approved: Discipline Head – Process.

Effect on other Documents / Drawings / Deliverables

 Document Register.
 PFD
 P&ID.
 Equipment List.
 Pump Hydraulic Calculations.
 Heat Exchanger Thermal Design.
 Equipment Datasheets.
 Hazardous Area Classification.
 Relief Valve Sizing & Datasheets
 Electrical Load List

Quality Check
 Definitions
 SDC: It is defined as “single or self-discipline check”, where the person from the concerned
discipline who is generating the document will first self-check his or her own document for
correctness. The second part of SDC includes a peer check (e.g. Senior / Lead Engineer /
Discipline Manager) from the same discipline for verifying the correctness and quality of the
document.

 IDC: It is defined as “Inter-Discipline Check” where other disciplines such as “Piping”,

“Instrumentation”, and “Mechanical”, “Electrical” etc. will check the document from their
perspective and ensure that any information related to their discipline is correct, and make
corrections if required by marking up the document.

 IDC check for PDB

 Process design basis shall have IDC check duly stamped, a scheduled return date and sent to
other department lead engineers (LEs) for review as per master IDC matrix.
 IDC comments to be duly incorporated. Any comments requiring clarification need to be
discussed with the concerned LE and then incorporated.

 SDC check for PDB

 Process design basis shall have SDC check duly stamped and signed before issue.
 Signed process design basis is to be handed over to Projects for further distribution and
original to be taken back.

 Checklist for PDB

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  It is a list that guides the engineers to perform a check of the quality of the document and
ensure that major criteria for process design are covered. A PDB checklist will be specific to
a specific type of project. Many companies have their own checklist form specific to their
projects. As a homework problem, you are requested to prepare a checklist for the PDB.

2.2 OPERATING AND CONTROL PHILOSOPHY

Scope
The purpose of this document is to establish the guidelines for preparation of Operating, Control
and Safeguarding Philosophy (OCSP).

Input Document
Following input documents are required during preparation of Operating,
Control and Safeguarding Philosophy:
 Basis of Design – Process Description
 Piping & Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs)
 Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme (PSFS) (only for PDO projects)

Procedure
OCSP is a Microsoft Word document.

Structure
The OCSP is a structured document with a particular narrative style. The following is the sequence
of the document:
 Cover sheet with project title and document name i.e. OCSP
 1st sheet with project title, document name i.e. OCSP, Engineering Consultant job No., Document
No., Revision block (this contains Revision, Date, Originator, Checker, Approver, Description,
Client Authorization).
 List of Contents which includes:
 Summary
 Abbreviations and Definitions
 Introduction which includes ‘Document Purpose’ and ‘Project Background’
 Operating Philosophy
 Control Philosophy
 Safeguarding Philosophy
 References
 Appendix: Documents / Drawings for Reference

Summary
This section provides a brief outline of the project.

Abbreviations and Definitions

The abbreviations and definitions of terms used in the entire document are summarized here.

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Introduction
The first sub-section under this heading provides what is the purpose of the document and whether
it is linked to any other document and whether this document needs to be read in conjunction with
any other document.

The second sub-section under this heading provides the project background giving a brief overview
of the project. This section essentially describes the basic plant / unit operations in short to provide
an overall picture of the process.

Operating Philosophy
In this section the operating philosophy of the plant / unit is described. This section describes in
further detail the operational aspect of the plant / unit.

The mode and sequence of operations is mentioned. Equipment description, tag numbers, normal
operating parameters of flow, pressure and temperature and stand-by equipment availability may
be mentioned in this section. The description provided in this section should be sufficient to cover
all the units in the plant including utilities and off-sites.

Control Philosophy
This section provides the description of all controls required for the safe, reliable and uninterrupted
operation of the plant / unit. This could include flow, pressure, and temperature and level control
of the plant / unit for the smooth operation of the plant / unit. Controls required for start-up,
planned shutdown and to change plant / unit capacity should be mentioned.
High and Low alarms for process operating parameters are also described in this section.

Safeguarding Philosophy
This section provides the description of the safeguarding functions that may be available for the
following:
 Prevention of uncontrolled process (e.g. run-away reaction leading to unacceptable pressure
and / or temperature rise, overflow from equipment such as tanks and vessels, build-up of static
electricity).
 Risk reduction or mitigation in case of external hazards such as external fire, water flooding,
earthquakes. Among the external hazards mentioned external fire is one of the most commonly
encountered in plants / units handling hydrocarbons. Other hazards may be applicable on a
Case-to-case basis.
 Manually initiated emergency shutdown of the plant / unit by operator intervention.

In this section a brief description of all safeguarding instruments / safety interlocks should be
provided which can prevent or mitigate any of the above. Some examples would be:
 Shutdown of pump due to low suction pressure and / or high discharge pressure.
 Overpressure / vacuum protection of tanks and vessels by relief devices such as pressure
Safety valve, rupture disks, pressure-vacuum relief valve.
 Closure of process shutdown (PSD) or emergency shutdown (ESD) valves to isolate plant /
Unit / section by initiation of remote process shutdown or emergency shutdown.
 Stop of rotating machinery due to excessive vibrations, low level and / or flow of lube oil,
mechanical seal failure, and over-current.

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The above are just a few typical examples and the actual description of the safeguarding functions
will be project specific.

References
References would include reference to an existing Plant Operating Manual and / or OCSP if the
project relates to de-bottlenecking / revamp /modification of an existing plant / unit.

Appendix
This section will contain a list of documents and drawings in a tabular form utilized in the generation
of the OCSP. The table should include the document / drawing number, title or description and the
revision. Typical examples would be the ‘Basis of Design’, Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&ID’s),
Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme (PSFS).

Interaction with Others

 C&A discipline for obtaining any clarifications on the control and safeguarding systems
 Designated Lead / Senior Process Engineer / Process Discipline head for resolving an queries and
clarification of any doubts
Output Document
 Operating, Control and Safeguarding philosophy

Document Revision Status

 1st Issue – Issued for comments (IFC)
 2nd Issue – Approved for Design (AFD)
Responsibilities
The responsibilities for the generation and approval of the document shall be as follows:
 Prepared: Designated Process Engineer
 Checked: Lead Process Engineer
 Approved: Discipline Head – Process

Effect on other Documents / Drawings / Deliverables

The following documents / drawings would be impacted by the OCSP:
 Cause and Effect diagrams
 Document Register

Quality Checks
 SDC and IDC Check
 OCSP shall be subjected to SDC check and duly signed on SDC check stamp by the originator
and Process Lead engineer before IDC.
 After SDC, OCSP will have to undergo IDC check by C&A, the IDC stamp being duly signed by
C&A Lead engineer and the project engineer.
 Check List
The OCSP document shall be checked against the standard checklist for any errors and
omissions and if necessary to be corrected. The checklist and the document shall be signed off
before distribution.

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2.3 LINE LIST

A line list (or line schedule) is a database created to communicate between the process and
mechanical engineering teams when designing piping in a plant or process unit. At its core, it should
help provide justification on why certain decisions were made in the design process. If the maximum
pressure is 200 psi but the piping code is an ANSI 600 system, it should be documented on the line
list. At a minimum, the information on a line schedule is as follows:

 Line Identifier (Line Designation, Line Number) - a unique number that identifies the line in the
plant or process unit. The author of this article cannot stress enough the use of the word unique.
 Start and ending point of the line - includes equipment connections or connections to other lines.
 Service or commodity - materials that are flowing through the piping
 Fluid Phase - Liquid, vapor, two phase, etc.
 Piping Specification and/ or piping code
 Design and operating pressure and temperature of the service
 P&ID reference numbers
 Piping Isometric reference number
 Corrosion Allowance
 Insulation type and thickness
 Heat Tracing Type
 Special calculation requirements such as pipe stress
 Special Information & requirements such as post weld heat treatment, pickling, hydro test
requirements, etc.

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Page 25 of 67
2.4 PROCESS DATASHEET

The process data sheets (PDS) are generally A4 documents with number of sheets. A PDS relates
to a single item of equipment and contains the essential process data for initiating the detail design
of an item. It includes the overall size, number, approximate geometry and identification of the
connections, material of construction and the full range of operating conditions. The process data
sheet generally includes a simple diagram. The process design also generally includes for
Instrument process datasheets which provides a similar level of detail. Refer the example below:

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Page 27 of 67
3 PROCESS DRAWINGS
3.1 BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM (BFD)

This is to show the essentials of an installation in sufficient block outline to indicate the main design
features. This will use line and simple geometric shape indicating major material and energy flows.
Figure 1:

3.2 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD)

A process flow diagram (PFD) is a diagram commonly used in engineering to indicate the general
flow of plant processes and equipment. The PFD displays the relationship between major
equipment of a plant facility and does not show minor details such as piping details and
designations. Another commonly-used term for a PFD is a flow sheet.

PFD is normally finalized during the FEED stage and is generally issued only once during DD after
incorporating vendor information. Typically, process flow diagrams of a single unit process will
include the following:

 Process piping, major streams

 Major bypass & recirculation lines
 Major equipment symbols, names and identification numbers; e.g. for tanks/ vessels their type
and orientation, for rotating equipment such as pumps / compressors their type / capacity /
head, for distillation columns the number of trays or packing height
 Flow directions
 Control loops that affect the operation
 Interconnections with other systems
 Stream Identification using numbers and / or alphabets

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  Material or Mass Balance table for the identified streams along with operating pressure,
temperature and composition. In some cases properties such as density and viscosity are also
provided for the stream.

PFDs generally do not include the following:

 Piping classes or piping line numbers
 Line size
 Instrumentation not used for plant or unit control (non-critical instrumentation)
 Minor bypass lines
 Isolation and shut-off valves
 Maintenance vents and drains
 Relief and Safety Devices
 Pipe fittings and flanges

Typical mass balance and PFD schematic are shown on the next two pages

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FLOW CHART FOR PREPARTION OF PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD)

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Heat & Material Balance Sheet

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Page 32 of 67
Page 33 of 67
Page 34 of 67
3.3 PIPING & INSTRUMENT DIAGRAM (P&ID)

A P&ID is a pictorial representation of the piping of the process flow together with the installed
equipment (tanks, vessels, pumps, compressors, etc.) and the instrumentation (flow, pressure,
temperature, level, etc.) required to control and operate the process. Preliminary P&IDs are
prepared during FEED and are further updated during Detail Design (DD). P&IDs are normally issued
in 3 to 4 revisions during DD wherein information such as vendor data, Design Review, HAZOP
changes and As-Built changes are incorporated.

For processing facilities, it is a pictorial representation of:

 Key piping and instrument details
 Control and shutdown schemes
 Safety and regulatory requirements
 Basic startup and operational information

The Institute of Instrumentation and Control defines a P&ID as follows:

“A diagram which shows the interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used
to control the process. In the process industry, a standard set of symbols is used to prepare drawings
of processes. The instrument symbols used in these drawings are generally based on International
Society of Automation (ISA) Standard S5.1”.
 CAD system is employed for developing the P&IDs and is not vendor, hardware or software
specific.
 It is intended to provide a balance between the desire to show all data on P&IDs with the need
to make P&IDs legible and easy to read. Most details that are available from other types of
documentation (e.g., instrument loop diagrams, vessel data sheets) are not recommended for
inclusion on P&IDs.
 P&ID shows equipment with simple outline representation.
 Equipment’s are not drawn to scale, however equipment relative to one another both in size
and general orientation has to be maintained.
 P&ID shows nozzles on equipment, including spares, as single lines.
 P&ID indicates nozzle sizes unless the size is implied by piping connections.
 P&ID indicates equipment Item Number and Title/Service as a minimum.
 P&ID indicates internals for equipment as dashed lines. Details of internals that have no
significant bearing on the piping design and layout or equipment operation are omitted.
 P&ID does not indicate equipment elevations unless they are necessary to specify process
requirements for associated equipment location or orientation relative to one another.
 P&ID indicates associated trim (e.g., vent and drain valves, instrument bridles) for equipment.
 P&ID indicates auxiliary system requirements for individual pieces of equipment (e.g., lube oil
systems, seal flush systems, turbine gland leak-off piping, sample systems) on auxiliary P&IDs.
 P&ID indicates jacketing requirements for equipment and jacketing / tracing requirements for
piping.
 P&ID indicates the type of insulation (e.g., personnel protection, heat conservation) for
equipment as part of the equipment data.
 P&ID indicates insulation thickness where applicable.
 P&ID indicates piping serial number and piping class

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FLOW CHART FOR PREPARATION OF PIPING & INSTRUMENT DIAGRAM

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Page 37 of 67
A typical P&ID is shown:

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Page 39 of 67
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Page 41 of 67
4 DETAILED DESIGN CALCULATIONS

The training manual covers the basic information required for a new or trainee process engineer to
understand the minimum scope of Process Engineering in terms of activities done, design
calculations performed and deliverables generated by the process engineer. It is important to note
that Process Engineering is not limited to the activities, calculations and deliverables mentioned in
this training manual. The manual in its present form does not cover the entire scope of Process
Engineering. However, the most basic Process Engineering activities and deliverables are covered
for any trainee process engineer to start with. The following topics have been covered:

 Heat & Material Balance

 Determination of Process Conditions (Design Pressure / Temperature)
 Emergency depressurization Systems
 Pressure Protection and Overpressure Relief Devices
 Line Sizing
 Storage tanks
 Venting of Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
 Control Valves (Design Guidelines)
 Orifice Sizing
 Pumps
 Fractionation Column
 Separator Sizing
 Heat Exchanger
 Flare System
 Software Tools

4.1 HEAT & MATERIAL BALANCE (H&MB)

Heat Balance
A heat balance or in other words energy balance is essentially following the first law of
Thermodynamics which says that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only modified in
form. In its most simplified form a heat balance for transfer of sensible heat can be written as:
Qsensible = m*Cp*ΔT
If the heat released or absorbed involves a phase change (solid↔liquid or liquid↔vapor) then the
heat balance introduces the term latent heat of melting / solidification for phase change from solid
to liquid and vice versa and latent heat of vaporization / condensation for phase change from liquid
to vapor and vice versa.

QL = m*λ
If the process includes sensible heat transfer and phase change then the total heat transfer would
be:
Qtotal = Qsensible + QL

The terms in the equations provided above are:

Qsensible / QL / Qtotal = heat flow rate, kJ/h

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 m = mass flow rate, kg/h
Cp = Specific heat, kJ / kg-K
ΔT = Temperature Difference from Initial State to Final State, K
λ = Latent heat, kJ / kg

Mass Balance
A mass balance applies the law of conservation of mass and in its simplest form can be written as:
Input = Output + Accumulation
For non-reactive systems the mass balance can further be simplified as:
Input = Output
If represented in a pictorial form the mass balance for any equipment would be:

The mass balance would thus be:

A= B + C
B kg/h

A kg/h
C kg/h
Equipment

4.2 DETERMINATION OF PROCESS CONDITIONS

Determination of design pressure and temperature for equipment and piping to be used for
petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants and similar plants. It should be noted that specific
instructions given in the project specifications take precedence over the requirements described in
standard practice.

The data to be used to determine the design conditions should be clarified concerning the following:

Source of the data

The data will be obtained from, but not limited to, the following documents;
 Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
 Basis of Design (BOD)
 Piping & Instrument Diagram (P&ID)
 Plot plan
 Operation case to be taken as the design base
 Related documents to be used as a part of the input data

Related documents to be checked or revised based on the results of the design

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Design Pressure Estimation
Design pressure is based on the maximum operating pressure or maximum operating vacuum in
the system. The maximum operating pressure for an equipment item shall take into account all
modes of operation. In the event that there is only one mode of operation, i.e. the normal operating
mode, the maximum operating pressure shall be 5% above the normal pressure. Equipment that
can see vacuum under normal mode of operation or under abnormal conditions or during
maintenance operations such as steam-out shall also consider vacuum for design of the equipment.
Where it is difficult to exactly specify the vacuum conditions during normal operation and for
abnormal operating conditions and maintenance operations (steam-out) “Full Vacuum” (FV) should
be specified as the design condition. General and specific guidelines related to various types of
equipment and piping is provided below:

Design Pressure for Equipment (General)

Design pressure is generally for the top of the equipment or vessel. It shall not include the liquid
static head, as this will be added by the vessel design group based on high level. Pressure drop
across vessel internals shall be included, if it is significant. Design pressure = maximum operating
pressure plus 10% or 1.7 bar, whichever is greater.

Storage Tanks
 For non-pressure storage tanks with fixed roof and open vent design pressure should be
considered as (+) 1.0 kPag / (-) 0.5 kPag
 For low-pressure storage tanks with fixed roof and pressure and vacuum breather valves design
pressure should be considered as (+) 2.5 kPag / (-) 0.85 kPag.
 For high-pressure storage tanks with fixed roof and pressure and vacuum breather valves design
pressure should be considered as (+) 6 kPag / (-) 0.85 kPag.
 For open top tanks or external floating roof tanks design pressure should be considered as (+) 0
kPag / (-) 0.5 kPag.
 For fixed roof tanks with internal floating roof the same categories i.e., non-pressure, low-
pressure and high-pressure as mentioned in the first three bullet points are applicable and the
same design pressures should be applied.
 For dome type fixed roof tanks the same design pressures are applicable as mentioned in the
first four bullet points.

Flare Knockout Drum

The DP for flare knockout drum shall be evaluated on a case to case basis. However DP shall not be
less than 3.5 barg for any case.

Shell & Tube (S&T) Heat Exchangers

A S&T heat exchanger has a shell side and a tube side which could have different operating
pressures i.e. lower operating pressure for shell side as compared to tube side or vice versa. The
selection of the DP for the lower pressure side should be done in such a manner that the corrected
hydro test pressure of the low pressure side of the heat exchanger equals or exceeds the design
pressure of the heat exchanger high pressure side. This obviates the requirement of providing a
relief valve on the low-pressure side of the S&T exchanger for the case of tube rupture. The term
corrected hydro test pressure as defined by API STD 521 is the hydro test pressure multiplied by the
ratio of allowable stress at the test temperature to the allowable stress at design temperature. It

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should be noted that the corrected hydro test pressure is higher than the uncorrected value.
Example of corrected hydro test pressure is provided in section 4.3.2 of API STD 521.

DP for Components in Centrifugal Pump Discharge Circuit (Static Lift)

The DP for components in the pump discharge circuit is based on the shut-off pressure of the pump.
The shut-off pressure of the pump is defined as the pressure at the discharge connection of a
centrifugal pump with the suction pressure at the maximum possible value and the discharge
system closed (no flow).

The shut-off pressure (SOP) for any component may be calculated as follows:
SOP = MSP + HSPS + PDP – HSPD

Where
MSP = MSP is the maximum system pressure at suction side. If the suction system has a vessel then
the vessel PSV set pressure shall be used as MSP.
HSPS = hydrostatic liquid head above the pump suction
PDP = pump differential pressure at no flow and maximum pump speed and highest relative density
(specific gravity) of the liquid.
HSPD = hydrostatic liquid head above the pump discharge up to the component

The SOP calculated as above may be used as DP for a component in the pump discharge circuit.
Normally the entire discharge system of a centrifugal pump is designed for one SOP calculated by
considering HSPD value as zero.

DP for Components in Centrifugal Pump Discharge Circuit (Static Drop)

The shut-off pressure (SOP) for any component may be calculated as follows:
SOP = MSP + HSPS + PDP + HSPD

Where
MSP = MSP is the maximum system pressure at suction side. If the suction system has a vessel then
the vessel PSV set pressure shall be used as MSP.
HSPS = hydrostatic liquid head above the pump suction
PDP = pump differential pressure at no flow and maximum pump speed and highest relative density
(specific gravity) of the liquid.
HSPD = hydrostatic liquid head below the pump discharge up to the component

The SOP calculated as above may be used as DP for a component in the pump discharge circuit.
The DP of the pump suction up to and including the individual pump suction isolation block valves
for all pumps operating with a spare shall be equal to the discharge design pressure.

Design Pressure for Centrifugal Compressor

The DP of a compressor is based on its “maximum operating pressure” (MOP) or shut-in pressure.
DP for a compressor could be the shut-in pressure or more.

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MOP (Shut-In Pressure) for centrifugal compressors should be determined as maximum operating
suction pressure plus 1.3 times the normal differential pressure at the rated flow developed by the
compressor. This will ensure that conditions such as pressure rise at surge condition and maximum
speed are accounted for when specifying the MOP. The PSV set pressure from upstream equipment
such as separators/suction KOD to the compressor determines the maximum operating suction
pressure for a compressor.

Variation in process conditions (molecular weight, suction pressure and temperature, driver RPM)
may affect determination of the design pressure. If operating conditions of rare occurrence require
high design pressure, it is advantageous to limit the design pressure to a lower pressure by
protecting the system with a pressure relief valve.

Design Pressure for Piping

The design conditions shall be determined in the same way as for equipment. The design pressure
for piping shall be no less than the pressure at the most severe conditions of coincident internal or
external pressure and temperature during service.

Design Temperature (DT) Determination

The DT is the highest temperature to which the equipment may be subjected to at the design
pressure.
The DT is based on the “maximum operating temperature” (MOT) which is defined as the highest
temperature, which provides sufficient flexibility for the control of the intended operation. While
determining the MOT, the temperatures encountered during start-up, shutdown & process upset
conditions should be studied carefully before finalizing the MOT.

Where the maximum operating temperature (MOT) can be ascertained accurately, this temperature
should be used as design temperature, without adding a safety margin.
Where the maximum operating temperature cannot be ascertained accurately, the DT should be
determined by adding 25°C to the “normal operating temperature” (NOT).
Normal operating temperature (NOT) is defined as the temperature which prevails inside equipment
and piping during any intended operation.

Design Temperature for Compressor Discharge Components

For determining the DT for compressor discharge side the MOT needs to be arrived at.
The maximum operating temperature (MOT) on a compressor discharge should be determined as
follows:
 When a compressor curve is not available it can roughly be defined as 15°C above the predicted
design point temperature to allow for lower efficiency and higher pressure ratio at compressor
surge conditions.
 When compressor curves are available, the temperature at surge conditions and maximum
compressor speed for normal and start up cases. The DT can then be determined by adding 25°C
to the MOT.

Design Temperature for Compressor Suction KOD

Compressor suction KOD design temperature should be the higher of the following:

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  Maximum operating temperature at the compressor suction in the event of cooling medium
failure, the maximum operating temperature can be limited by a high temperature shutdown
function on the compressor suction or discharge.
 Maximum recycle temperature (maximum discharge (temperature trip) minus temperature
drop across anti-surge valve) in the event of cooling medium failure.
 Maximum temperature due to settle out conditions.
 Operating temperature plus a margin as defined under the heading “Design Temperature (DT)
Determination”.

Design Temperature for Heat Exchangers

For all heat exchangers, both sides can have the same design temperature determined by the
hottest of the fluids on either side. This should be decided on a case-to-case basis after careful
evaluation.

Design Temperature for Fired Heaters

For tubes in fired equipment the DT is normally the calculated maximum tube skin temperature.

Lower or Minimum Design Temperature

The lower design temperature determines the low temperature characteristics of the material, and
shall be the more stringent of the following:
 Minimum operating temperature (obtained during normal operation, start-up, shutdown or
process upsets) with a margin of 5°C
 Minimum ambient temperature, the lowest temperature should be based on available weather
data, and safety factors should be selected based on the quality of such weather data.
 Minimum temperature occurring during depressurizing with a margin of 5ºC, the temperature
calculations shall as a minimum include heat transfer between fluid and vessel, and the most
conservative starting conditions for depressurizing shall be used including the following
considerations as a minimum.
o cool down to minimum ambient temperature after shut-in at PSV set pressure and
corresponding temperature (including reduction in pressure during cool down)
o Conditions during a start-up operation following a depressurization.
o Minimum operating temperature and maximum operating pressure.

4.3 EMERGENCY DEPRESSURING SYSTEM

Depressurisation is crucial for safe operation of chemical plant and protection of its equipment. It
is to carry out to accomplish at least one of the following
 To reduce the risk of catastrophic equipment failure and/or BLEVE during fire exposure. For this
case, the project design philosophy shall clearly state whether emergency depressuring is being
employed to mitigate the effect of pool fires, jet fires or both.
 To reduce the risk of equipment failure during an internal exothermic runaway reaction.
 To reduce the amount of material released if there is a loss of containment.
 To rapidly move the facility into safe state, in the event of other emergency scenarios such as
loss of instrument air or power.
 Manual controls near the vessel may be inaccessible during a fire.

Page 47 of 67
Depressuring may be automatically or manually initiated and may be caused by a variety of
triggering events and initial conditions and some reasons to depressuring some equipment/plant
are as follows:
 Recycle gas compressor failure.
 Charge pump failure.
 Power failure
 Instrument Air Failure.
 Fire around Equipment/Unit

Depressuring design criteria

 High-rate depressuring
Events may lead to severe consequences in a relatively short time frame require high rate
emergency depressuring. High rate emergency depressuring is to reduce the equipment pressure
to 7 bar (g) (100 psig) or 50% of design pressure whichever is lower within15 minutes or lower.

 Low-rate depressuring
Processes where the reactive hazard can be mitigated using a depressuring rate lower than the
high-rate emergency depressuring, may have “low rate operational depressuring valve. Low rate
operations depressuring shall depressure the equipment to 50% of design pressure within 60
minutes.

Page 48 of 67
4.4 PRESSURE PROTECTION & RELIEF

Relief Design Philosophy

Reference is made to Section 4.2 of API STD 521 for philosophy related to pressure protection and
relief.

Causes of Over-pressurization
Reference is made to Section 4.3 of API STD 521 for the Causes of Over-pressurization.

Approach to Pressure Protection

Three main approaches are possible for pressure protection systems

Full Pressure Rated Mechanical Design

In this approach, the system design pressure is higher than the maximum possible pressure at
design temperature, including the case of process upset, and with due allowance for corrosion
being made.

Relief System Integrated Design

In this approach, although the design pressure has a safety margin on the maximum operating
pressure, this margin is not sufficient in case of a process upset and the pressure system under
consideration needs to be fitted with relief devices designed to open for relieving over-pressure in
case of upset conditions.

High Integrity Pressure Protection System (HIPPS)

These are basically Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) for overpressure protection. HIPPS typically
involve an arrangement of instruments, final control elements (e.g. valves, switches etc.), and logic
solvers configured in a manner designed to avoid overpressure incidents by removing the source of
overpressure or by reducing the probability of an overpressure contingency to such a low level that
it is no longer considered to be a credible case.
With appropriate levels of redundancy, a HIPPS can be designed to achieve a level of
availability/reliability equal to or greater than a mechanical relief device.

Reference is made to API STD 521 for further details on HIPPS.

Page 49 of 67
Spring Loaded Relief Valves

 Conventional Spring Loaded Relief Valves

These shall be installed where back-pressure does not exceed 10% of the set pressure. These are
the recommended type for Thermal Relief Valves (TRVs).

 Balanced Pressure Relief Valves

These are suitable for back-pressures ranging from 10% to 50% of the set pressure. They can be of
two main types: balanced piston and balanced bellows. Balanced bellows shall be given preference
where the fluid is corrosive or fouling.

 Pilot Operated Relief Valves

Pilot-Operated valves are recommended for applications where the back- pressure on the valves
are very high (typically 50% or higher). The other criteria for selecting pilot-operated valves are as
follows:
 Low accumulation rates are required
 The set pressure is required to be close to the operating pressure.
 Calibration is required without removing the valve.
 Handling of large relief flows are required.
 The service is non-fouling i.e. they are not recommended for fouling fluids

PSV Sizing
The spreadsheet PSV Sizing.xls has been developed for estimating the relief valve loads and the
relief valve sizes.
The spreadsheet estimates the relief loads for the contingencies listed and also sizes the relief valve
orifice size based on the designations in API 526.

The contingencies considered for estimation of relieving loads are

 External Fire – Liquid Vaporization
 External Fire – Gas Expansion

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 Tube Rupture – Single phase
The Relief valves sizes are estimated for
 Liquid Relief
 Vapor relief
The equations used in the spreadsheet are detailed in the sections below.

Page 51 of 67
Calculation Methodology for Fire Case:
Sizing For Liquid Vaporization:

Page 52 of 67
Parameter (Note: All units in spreadsheet’s input cell are in SI unit, spreadsheet will convert it to English
unit as required by formulas)

INPUT DATA CODE UNITS RUN REMARKS

VESSEL ORIENTATION NOTE:1

YES (or)
BOOT NO

VESSEL HEAD TYPE NOTE:2

YES (or)
LEGS (or) SKIRT NO

ADEQUATE DRAINAGE & FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT YES (or)

SELECTION

EXIST NO

TYPE OF DEVICE NOTE:3

TYPE OF SAFETY VALVE NOTE:4

as per API 521, section

FIRE HEIGHT CRITERIA m 7.60 5.15.1.1

minimum
PIPING ALLOWANCE FOR WETTED AREA 1.1
CONSTANTS

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR F as per Table 6, API 521

for balance bellow type

CORRECTION FACTOR DUE TO BACK PRESSURE Kb refer fig.31 of API 520 part I

INTERNAL DIAMETER OF VESSEL D m

HEIGHT (or) LENGTH (TL to TL) OF VESSEL H (or) L m

above bottom tan line(BTL),

MAXIMUM LIQUID LEVEL HLL m in general 80% of ID (or)
height

INTERNAL DIAMTER OF BOOT m

DIMENSIONS

HEIGHT OF BOOT m

Elevation from grade (or)

HEIGHT OF LEG (or) SKIRT m ground.

VESSEL NORMAL OPERATING PRESSURE Pn kPa (g)

VESSEL NORMAL OPERATING TEMPERATURE Tn K

PSV SET PRESSURE Ps kPa (g)

CONDITIONS

OVER PRESSURE % as per API 520

BACK PRESSURE** P2 kPa (g)

RELIEVING TEMPERATURE T1 K

FLUID

DENSITY ρ kg/m3 (Either of "ρ" or "G" should

SPECIFIC GRAVITY G be given)

MOLECULAR WEIGHT M

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Z
PROPERTIES

SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT PRESSURE CP (Either of "CP " or "k" should

RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS k be given)

HEAT OF VAPORIZATION λ kJ/kg

Page 53 of 67
NOTES:
1. Options available for orientation: “HORIZONTAL” (or) “VERTICAL”.
2. Options available for head type: “HEMISHPERICAL”, “ELLIPSOIDAL” (or) “DISHED”
3. Options available for device type: “PRV”, “RUPTURE DISC” (or) “COMBINATION”
4. Options available for type of relief valve: “CONVENTIONAL”, “BALANCED”, (or) “PILOT-
OPERATED”

Relief Load Calculation:

(Reference is from API 521 5th Edition)

Step I > Calculation of Vessel Height in the fire zone:

As per API 521 (Clause 3.15.1.1) only that portion of the vessel that is wetted by its internal liquid
and is equal to or less than 7.6 m above the source of fire should be considered for calculation of
the area exposed to fire.

If (HLL+ELEVATION) is less than 7.6 m then H1 (vessel height in the fire zone) is considered as HLL,
else it is considered as (7.6 m – ELEVATION).

Also please note that HHLL should be less than vessel diameter for horizontal vessel and less than
length for vertical vessel.

Step 2 > Calculation of wetted Area:

H1 = vessel height in fire zone calculated in step I

For horizontal Vessel:

H2= R-H1
Ө = 2 × cos-1(H2/R)
Chord L= radius of the cylinder × Ө
AC = Chord L* L = 2×R×L× cos-1((R-H1)/R)
AT = AC +2 × (Aw / A) × Ahead

For Vertical Vessel:

AC = Π × H1 × D
AT = AC + AH

Head surface area AH is calculated based on the following equation:

Page 54 of 67
Hemispherical : (Π /2) × D2 (=1.57 × D2)
2:1 Semi-Ellipsoidal : 1.084 × D2
Tori spherical : 0.9286 × D2
Final wetted area is then calculated considering piping area and 10% design margin.
AWS = AT × 1.1

Step 3 > Calculation of Heat absorbed:

Q = C1× F× (AWS)0.82 (API 521, Equation 6 & 7)

As per clause 5.15.2.2.1, API 521 if adequate drainage and fire-fighting facilities exist, then C 1 is
43,200 or else 70,900. For environmental factor “F” refer Table-6 of API 521.

Step 4 > Calculation of Vapor Load

W = 3.6×Q/λ

For fire liquid vaporization the latent heat needs to be determined and entered into the
spreadsheet.

If there are a number of design cases, the highest molecular weight and lowest molecular weight
cases need to be considered for the estimation.

Refer the topic “Calculation of Latent Heat of Vaporization” in Section 4.7 of the course book.

Relief Valve Sizing:

Sizing For Vapor Expansion:

Parameter (Note: All units in spreadsheet’s input cell are in SI unit, spreadsheet will convert it to
English unit as required by formulas)

Page 55 of 67
 INPUT DATA CODE UNITS RUN REMARKS

VESSEL ORIENTATION NOTE:1

VESSEL HEAD TYPE NOTE:2

TYPE OF DEVICE NOTE:3

TYPE OF SAFETY VALVE NOTE:4

SELECTION

FLOW CONDITION (only for super YES

critical condition) (or) NO
as per API 521, section
FIRE HEIGHT CRITERIA m 7.6 5.15.1.1
PIPING ALLOWANCE FOR
WETTED AREA Min. 1.1
CONSTANTS

CORRECTION FACTOR DUE TO for balance bellow type

BACK PRESSURE Kb refer fig.31 of API 520
INTERNAL DIAMETER OF
VESSEL D m
DIMENSIONS

HEIGHT (or) LENGTH (TL to TL)

OF VESSEL L m

ELEVATION (from grade to BTL) h m

VESSEL DESIGN PRESSURE PD kPa (g)

VESSEL OPERATING PRESSURE Pn kPa (g)

VESSEL OPERATING
TEMPERATURE Tn K

PSV SET PRESSURE Ps kPa (g)

OVER PRESSURE % as per API 520

BACK PRESSURE ** P2 kPa (g)

CONDITIONS

RELIEVING TEMPERATURE T1 K as per GPSA P-H chart

MAXIMUM VESSEL WALL TEMP.
UNDER FIRE Tw K

FLUID

DENSITY ρ kg/m3

SPECIFIC GRAVITY G

MOLECULAR WEIGHT M kg / kg-mole

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Z

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY Cp kJ/kmol-K

PROPERTIES

RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS k

HEAT OF VAPORIZATION λ kJ/kg as per GPSA P-H chart

NOTES:
1. Options available for orientation: “HORIZONTAL” (or) “VERTICAL”.
2. Options available for head type: “HEMISHPERICAL”, “ELLIPSOIDAL” (or) “DISHED”
3. Options available for device type: “PRV”, “RUPTURE DISC” (or) “COMBINATION”

Page 56 of 67
 4. Options available for type of relief valve: “CONVENTIONAL”, “BALANCED”, (or) “PILOT-
OPERATED”

Relief Load Calculation:

Step 1 > Calculation of Vessel Height in the fire zone:

Horizontal vessel: If (7.6 m – Elevation) greater than Diameter of the vessel then H1=D else 7.6 m-
Elevation
Vertical vessel: If (7.6 m – Elevation) greater than Length of vessel then H1=L else 7.6 m –Elevation.

Step 2 > Calculation of area exposed to fire:

H1 = vessel ht. in fire zone calculated in step 1

The surface area is identical to that used for determining the wetted area in Section 2.1.1

Step 3 > Vessel wall temperature:

For CS: Tw= 593 oC (866 K)

For SS: Tw= 816 oC (1089 K)
Other: Tw = user to specify

Step 4 > Relieving temperature:

 P  101 . 325 
T1 = Tn   1  (API 521, Equation 11)
 Pn  101.325 
Step 5 >Relieving pressure:

P1 = Ps + (%overpressure × Ps)

Step 6> Gas Relief Rate:

 (10.76  AWS )  (1.8  (TW  T1 )) 1.25 

W=0.454  0.1406 M  (0.145  ( P1  101.325)  

 (1.8  T1 ) 1.1506 

Relief Valve Sizing:

Calculation Methodology for Tube Rupture Case:
Parameter (Note: All units in spreadsheet’s input cell are in SI unit, spreadsheet will convert it to
English unit as required by formulas)

Page 57 of 67
 INPUT DATA CODE UNITS RUN REMARKS

FLUID NOTE: 1

TYPE OF DEVICE NOTE: 2

TYPE OF SAFETY VALVE NOTE: 3

SELECTION

CAPACITY CERTIFICATION (for ASME code

REQUIRED YES (or) NO equipment only)
for balance bellow type
CORRECTION FACTOR DUE TO refer fig.31 of API 520
BACK PRESSURE Kw part I
as per fig.38 of API 520,
CORRECTION FACTOR DUE TO KP part I,( for over pressure
OVER PRESSURE other than 25% only)
CONSTANT

CORRECTION FACTOR DUE TO as per fig.37 of API 520,

VISCOSITY Kv Part I

INTERNAL DIAMETER D mm
HPS MAX. OPERATING (or) DESIGN
PRESSURE PH kPa (g)
(HP) HIGH PRESSURE SIDE
OPERATING (or) DESIGN
TEMPERATURE TH K
(LP) LOW PRESSURE SIDE DESIGN
(or) PSV SET PRESSURE Ps kPa (g)

OVER PRESSURE %

BACK PRESSURE P2 kPa (g)

CONDITIONS

LPS DESIGN TEMPERATURE Tl K

UPSTREAM RELIEVING
TEMPERATURE K

LIQUID (or) VAPOUR DENSITY ρ kg/m3

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Z

MOLECULAR WEIGHT M kg/kg-mole

PROPERTIES

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AT

CONST. PRESSURE CP kJ/kmole-K

RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS k

NOTES:
1. Options available for fluid: “LIQUID” (or) “VAPOUR”.
2. Options available for device type: “PRV”, “RUPTURE DISC” (or) “COMBINATION”
3. Options available for type of relief valve: “CONVENTIONAL”, “BALANCED”, (or) “PILOT-
OPERATED”

Relief Load Calculation:

As per API 521 (clause 5.19.3), for tube rupture case, double the discharge rate through an orifice
should be consider. Crane (Technical Paper # 410) for single phase calculations and DIERS method
for two phase flow to be followed.

Page 58 of 67
For calculating the flow from a ruptured tube an orifice with a discharge co-efficient of 0.7 for liquid
and two-phase flow, and 0.9 for vapors is assumed.

For Liquids:

W = 2  1.265  C  d 12  0.01  (PH  P1 )  ρ (CRANE, TP # 410M, Section 3-5)

For Vapors:

W = 2  1.265  C  Y  d12  0.01  ΔP  ρ (CRANE, TP # 410M, Section 3-5)

 k  2 k 1  r1 k 
k 1

Y=   r1   (Perry’s Handbook, Equation 10-26, taking β = 0)

 k  1   1  r1 

r1 = (P1+101.325) / (PH+101.325)
k
 2  k 1
Pcf = PH   
 k  1
If Pcf ≥ P1, the ΔP = PH – Pcf ; or else ΔP = PH – P1

Relief valve sizing:

Follow sections 5.1 and 5.2 for liquid and vapor valve sizing respectively.
For relieving temperature calculation, considering the process as adiabatic, following equation to
be used:
1 k
 P  101 .325  k
T1 = Tn   1 
 Pn  101.325 

Rupture Disks
Rupture disks shall be only used in following cases:
 Where fast response time is required
 Where operation of pressure relief valve may be affected by corrosion or corrosion products or
by deposition of material that may prevent lifting of relief valve. In such cases the rupture disk
may be placed upstream of the PSV.
 Where fluid to be relieved is highly toxic and its leakage from the relief valve cannot be tolerated.
 Where it is necessary to provide for rapid depressurization and which may lead to freezing of
liquids.

Page 59 of 67
Types of Rupture Disks

 Conventional Rupture Disks

Suitable when operating conditions are stable and do not exceed 70% of the rated burst pressure.
If vacuum or back pressure can be present, rupture disks shall be fitted with an adequate support
to prevent reverse flexing or implosion.

 Scored Tension-loaded Rupture Disks

They shall be given preference over conventional RD’s when the system operating pressure reaches
85% of the rated burst pressure and/or when debris resulting from disk burst is to be avoided.

 Reverse-acting Rupture Disks

Recommended when operating pressure reaches up to 90% of the rated burst pressure. As
compared to scored tension loaded bursting disks, they present additional advantages which must
be contemplated for selection such as their increased material thickness which provides improved
resistance to corrosion and in most cases, they can withstand full vacuum without additional
support.

 Composite Rupture Disks

They are selected when resistance to corrosion is of primary concern.
Domed types are suitable for operating pressure, reaching 80% of the rated burst pressure.
Flat type are particular suitable for low rated bursting pressure and shall be typically used as
corrosion barriers in which case they may typically operate at 50% of the rated burst pressure.

 Relief Device Selection & Setting

The relief device selection shall depend on the service which may include the fluid composition,
pressure, temperature, level, phase, hazards etc. Refer Section 4 of API STD 520 Part-1 for detailed
description of various pressure relief devices and their applications.

The set pressure and relieving pressure shall be as per API STD 520 Part-1, Section 5.4 for process
equipment, utilities and pressure vessels for storage of liquefied hydrocarbon.

For liquid petroleum product tanks (atmospheric and low-pressure) or crude oil storage tank the
set pressure shall be according to API STD 2000. Typical set pressure range for venting devices is
given in Appendix C of API STD 2000.

Page 60 of 67
4.5 LINE SIZING

General Evaluation for Piping

When sizing piping, the following constraints shall be addressed:
 Required Capacity / Available Driving Pressure
 Flow Induced Forces
 Noise / Vibration
 Pressure Surges
 Material Degradation – Erosion, Corrosion, Cavitation’s
 Liquid Accumulation / Slug Flow
 Solids Accumulation

Pipe Roughness
For all calculations of pressure drop, the following pipe roughness values should be used:
 Carbon steel (CS) corroded: 0.46 mm (0.018 inch) (Note-1)
 Carbon steel (CS) non-corroded (for relief system piping): 0.15 mm (0.006 inch)
 Carbon steel (CS) non-corroded (other systems): 0.046 mm (0.0018 inch)
 Stainless steel (SS): 0.046 mm (0.0018 inch)
 Titanium and Cu-Ni: 0.046 mm (0.0018 inch)
 Glass fiber reinforced polyester (GRP): Vendor to provide
 Polyethylene, PVC: Vendor to provide

Notes:
1. The value of 0.46 mm (0.018 inch) shall be used when hydraulic calculations are performed for
existing pipe installations including relief piping.

Liquid & Gas Line Sizing

 Velocity Limitations
The velocities shall in general be kept low enough to prevent problems with erosion, water-
hammer pressure surges, noise, vibration and reaction forces. In some cases a minimum velocity is
required, such as in liquid lines carrying solids (e.g. slurries, suspensions) to prevent settling of solids
in the lines.

Page 61 of 67
 Select lower value of the two columns

Velocity (1st Velocity (2nd

Service
column) column1)
Pump suction piping Based on
adequate NPSH
≤ 3 m/s
Pump discharge piping:
≤4” 3.1 m/s
6” and 8” 4.6 m/s
10” and 12” 5.8 m/s
14” and 16” 6.4 m/s
≥ 18” 7.3 m/s
Gas or Vapor Piping 38 m/s V = 180*ρ-0.5 m/s
(including superheated where:
steam) V = Erosional
Velocity limit
ρ = flowing
density, kg/m3
Steam (other than 23 m/s
superheated steam) piping
Select lower value of the two columns

Velocity (1st Velocity (2nd

Service
column) column1)
Liquid-gas (or liquid-vapor) 23 m/s
mixture piping, except heater
transfer and thermo-syphon
reboiler outlet piping.
Thermo-syphon reboiler 12 m/s
outlet piping.
C.S. phenol or Sulphuric acid 1 m/s
piping
Slurry piping, except as 4.6 m/s
noted below
Slurry piping where erosion 3 m/s
or crystal breakage is of
concern
Notes: (1) Refer to API RP 14E paragraph 2.4(a) and ISO 13703 paragraph 5.5.1
for further guidance

 Maximum Pressure Drop Recommendations

In addition to the velocity limits as given above maximum pressure drop criteria should be checked
during line sizing.

For sizing pump suction lines the following maximum pressure drops should be adhered to:
 Sub-cooled liquids: 0.25 bar / 100 m
 Boiling Liquids: 0.05 bar / 100 m

Page 62 of 67
For “single-phase gas process lines” where pressure drop is critical (e.g. when it results in
unacceptable liquid drop out in suction lines between scrubber and compressor suction, inlet lines
to turbo expanders and contactors etc.) the pressure drop guidelines are according to Table below:

Operating Pressure, barg Pressure Drop, bar / 100 m

0 to 35 0.001 to 0.11
35 to 138 0.11 to 0.27
Over 138 P / 500 (where P is operating
pressure in bar (abs))

When determining the length of the pipe for pressure drop calculations, besides considering the
straight length of the pipe, pipe fittings and valves need to be considered for the purpose of
pressure drop. Defining pipe fittings and valves in terms of straight pipe leads to the concept of
“equivalent length”.

Equivalent length is a method to establish the friction losses in pipe fittings and valves which when
added to the straight length provides the total length to be considered for pressure drop calculations.

For a very instructive article on equivalent length refer to the link below:
http://www.cheresources.com/eqlength.shtml

Page 63 of 67
 A nomograph for equivalent length estimation is provided below. Equivalent length calculations can
be programmed in MS-Excel in order to determine the total length of the system to be considered for
pressure drop

 Sizing of Gas Relief Lines

Page 64 of 67
General
In general, all flare lines shall be designed to keep the ρV² < 200,000 kg/ms² criteria (where ρ is the
fluid density or mixed density for two phase conditions in kg/m³ and V is the velocity in m/s).
Further, the selection of piping specification shall consider the effect of acoustic fatigue, which is
affected by factors such as
 Relative differential pressure in upstream restriction device
 Temperature in the flowing gas
 Mole weight of flowing gas
 Pipe diameter and wall thickness
 Mass flow rate

Pressure Safety Valve line, Flare Sub-header & Flare Main Header
The PSV discharge line up to the sub-header/main header shall be sized to limit the velocity to Mach
0.8.
New flare sub-headers and main header should be designed to limit the velocity to Mach 0.5.
Existing flare sub-header and main header should be checked to ensure that the velocity does not
exceed Mach 0.7 when new connections are made to them. While making new connections the
impact of back pressure on existing relief devices should be duly taken care.

Controlled Flaring Lines

Flaring lines downstream of control valves shall be designed for a maximum velocity of Mach 0.5.

Depressurization Lines
The maximum flowing velocity in the lines downstream the reducer shall be Mach 0.7.

Relief Lines with Slug / Plug Flow

For potential slug/plug flow, line sizing shall be based on slug velocity and slug density. These slug
characteristics shall form the basis for stress calculations and design of piping support.

Vent Lines for Atmospheric Tanks

Maximum allowable backpressure shall be 0.07 barg.

Excel Programmable Formulas for Incompressible Gas Flow and Liquid Flow Line Sizing
Gases are compressible. Essentially it means that gas density changes as gas flows through the pipe
and the gas pressure drops mainly due to friction losses. Gas density is a function of the gas pressure
considering isothermal gas flow. The property that dominates friction losses in pipe flow is the fluid
viscosity. Since gas viscosities are low, the pressure drop in single-phase gas lines are generally very
low for short pipe lengths. This allows for all practical purposes the gas flow to be considered as
incompressible for plant piping. Hence, the formulas applicable for liquid flow can be applied for
gas flow in plant piping for all practical purposes. The formulas referred below are mentioned for
liquid flow but can be applied for gas flow occurring in process plant piping. It is important to note
that gas flow in long distance pipelines (length in kilometers) requires the density change to be
accounted for in pressure drop calculations, and such gas flow needs to be treated as compressible
flow. A different set of formulas are applied for compressible gas flow in pipelines and the formulas
provided below are not applicable.

Page 65 of 67
Nomenclature in formulas:

W = Liquid Flow Rate, kg/h

ρ = Liquid Density, kg/m3
µ = Liquid Viscosity, cP
ε = Absolute Pipe Roughness, mm
d = Inside Pipe Diameter, mm (Refer Note below)
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
f = Darcy friction factor, dimensionless
ΔP = Pressure Drop, kPa / 100m
v = Liquid velocity, m/s

Note: As per global industry practices, pipes are specified as nominal pipe size (NPS) identifying the
outer diameter in inches and a pipe schedule which indicates the wall thickness. The pipe inside
diameter needs to be calculated by subtracting 2-times the wall thickness from the outer diameter
of the pipe. For a given NPS, but with different pipe schedules, the pipe inside diameter will change
according to the pipe schedule. Refer the link below:

https://hardhatengineer.com/pipe-class-piping-specifications-pipeend/pipe-schedule-chart-
nominal-pipe-sizes/

a) Formula for Initial Estimate of Pipe Diameter

Use next largest diameter, in mm, for initial calculations

b) Formula for Reynolds Number

c) Formula for Friction factor

d) Formula for pressure drop

e) Formula for velocity

Line Sizing Problem:

Inputs:
Fluid: Water @30ºC
Viscosity: 1cP
Flow: 100,000 kg/h
Inlet Pressure: 500 kPag
Pipe Straight Length: 200 m
Pipe Fittings and Valves: 4 gate valves and 20 90º Elbows
Pipe Material: Carbon Steel (New)
Allowable Pressure Drop: 45 kPa / 100 m

Page 66 of 67
Problem Statement: Find the pipe inside diameter and the corresponding nearest nominal pipe size
and pipe schedule

Page 67 of 67
PROCESS DESIGN ENGINEERING
MANUAL:
Part 2

Prepared by: Ankur Srivastava

Chemical Engineer

Email: ankurcheme@gmail.com

Page 1 of 55
4.6 STORAGE TANKS............................................................................................................................. 2
4.7 VENTING OF ATMOSPHERIC AND LOW-PRESSURE STORAGE TANKS ........................................ 12
4.8 CONTROL VALVE........................................................................................................................... 32
4.9 ORIFICE SIZING ............................................................................................................................. 40
4.10 PUMP SIZING ................................................................................................................................ 45

Page 2 of 55
 4.6 STORAGE TANKS

This topic deals with storage tanks of metallic construction using metals such as carbon steel,
stainless steel, aluminum, alloy steels.

In a chemical process plant such as an oil refinery, petrochemical plant, bulk organic or inorganic
production plant, or any other chemical production plant storage of the raw materials, intermediate
products and finished products is necessitated due to the following reasons:

 Uncertainty in availability of required quantity of raw materials on a continuous basis to sustain

Plant operation and production, necessitates keeping an inventory of raw materials in bulk storage
tanks.
 Batch processes where different chemicals or reactants are required to be mixed in a discontinuous
manner require that the chemicals be stored in storage tanks for addition in the reaction as per the
required reaction step at the appropriate time.
 Finished products may not have an immediate market and are required to be stored in large
quantities prior to sale and dispatch.

Storage tanks are to be found constructed above ground, in ground and below ground. In shape
they are mostly usually of vertical cylindrical form, but also come in horizontal cylindrical, spherical
and rectangular forms. Products range from gases, liquids, solids and mixtures thereof. Tanks for
the storage of particulate solids are more usually known as silos. Temperatures range from high
temperature heated storage tanks (for products such as bitumen) through to -163ºC for the storage
of LNG and -196ºC for liquid nitrogen.

A wide variety of storage tank configurations exist, including those with fixed roofs, floating roofs,
internal roofs, with single walls, double walls and insulated tanks to name but a few.

It is important to distinguish between storage tanks and pressure vessels. European Directive called
the PED 2014/68/EU defines pressure vessels as those vessels with a design pressure greater than
0.5 barg, which implies that storage tanks are vessels with a design pressure less than 0.5 barg. The
American Petroleum Institute (API) standard API STD 620 (Design and Construction of Large,
Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks) defines a storage tank as vessel whose design pressure will
not exceed 15 psig (1.034 barg). Another API standard for storage tanks API STD 650 (Welded Tanks
for Oil Storage) limits the design pressure to 0.18 barg.

Design criteria for storage tanks also includes the design temperature for storage tank design,
where API STD 620 and API STD 650 differ on the limits of design temperature. Whereas API STD
620 limits the design temperature range from a minimum design temperature of -198ºC to a
maximum of 121ºC, API STD 650 provides the design temperature range from a minimum of -40ºC
to 260ºC. Both API STD 620 and API STD 650 are popular standards for design and fabrication of
storage tanks worldwide.

Page 3 of 55
EN-14015(Specification for the design and manufacture of site built, vertical, cylindrical, flat-
bottomed, above ground, welded, steel tanks for the storage of liquids at ambient temperature and
above) is a European standard for design and fabrication of storage tanks.

Basic Storage Tank Configurations

Open-Top Tank with Floating Roof (External)

Details of an Open-Top Tank with External Floating Roof (Pontoon Type)

In external floating-roof storage tanks, the roof is made to rest on the stored liquid and is free to
move with the level of the liquid. These tanks reduce evaporation losses and control breathing
losses while filling. There are principally three different types of external floating roofs. The same
are illustrated below:

Page 4 of 55
 The pan-type roof (Figure A) is a single-deck roof and has the following characteristics:
 Full contact with liquid surface
 Has a deck, hence any leak through the deck will cause it to sink
 Has no buoyancy other than that provided by the deck
 Rain or snow may cause deformation
 Is the least expensive of the floating roofs

The pontoon-type roof (Figure B) is a significant improvement over the pan roof. It has the following
characteristics:
 Increased buoyancy and stability
 Pontoons occupy about 20 – 40% of roof area

The double-deck roof (Figure C) comprises upper and lower decks separated by bulkheads and
trusses.
These roofs have the following characteristics:
 The space between the decks is separated into liquid-tight compartments
 Superior loading capacity
 Recommended for tank diameters below 12 m and above 60 m

Fixed Cone Roof Tanks

Page 5 of 55
 This is the most common configuration for storage tanks and is generally the least expensive storage
tank design.

The main components for a storage tank are as follows:

 Foundation
 Bottom
 Shell
 Roof

The mechanical design of these components and the entire tank is done by a static equipment
engineer. However, the process data for the storage tanks is provided by the process engineer,
which facilitates the mechanical design by the mechanical designer. Refer the figure below for the
data that is typically provided as an input to the mechanical designer:

Fixed Dome Roof Tanks

These fixed roof tanks have a self-supporting dome and are preferred for storing higher vapor
pressure product in comparison to fixed cone roof tanks. The dome roof design also provides
advantage in terms of less snow accumulation compared to cone roof design, in locations where
snowfalls are a regular occurrence. The fixed dome roof design is more expensive than fixed cone
roof design.

Page 6 of 55
Fixed Roof Tank with Internal Floating Roof
A fixed roof tank with internal floating roof can either have a fixed cone or fixed dome roof. Annex
H of API STD 650 provides details of design for fixed roof tanks with internal floating roofs. Refer
the figures below for a better understanding of fixed roof tanks with internal floating roof:

Page 7 of 55
Cutaway view of a Fixed Roof Tank with Internal Floating Roof

Selection Guide for Vertical Storage Tanks

Abbreviations
HPCRT: High-Pressure Cone Roof Tank
LPCRT: Low-Pressure Cone Roof Tank
NPCRT: Non-Pressure Cone Roof Tank
HPDRT: High-Pressure Dome Roof Tank
LPDRT: Low-Pressure Dome Roof Tank
NPDRT: Non-Pressure Dome Roof Tank
OTFR: Open-top Tank with Floating Roof
Pressure Rating for Cone Roof Tanks

Type Pressure/Vacuum (mbar)

NPCRT 7.5 / 2.5
LPCRT 20 / 6.0
HPCRT 56 / 6.0

Page 8 of 55
Pressure Rating for Dome Roof Tanks

Type Pressure/Vacuum (mbar)

NPDRT 7.5 / 2.5
LPDRT 20 / 6.0
HPDRT 56 / 6.0

Note: This type of roof is supported by a frame of internal curved rafter beams. In general dome
roof tanks are used for special cases only.

Fixed Roof Tanks with Internal Floating Roof

A fixed roof tank may be provided with an internal floating roof to reduce the vapor losses and air
pollution. It is recommended that their use is limited to tanks with a maximum diameter of 39 m.
Design of fixed roof tanks with an internal floating roof shall be in accordance with Annex H of API
STD 650.

Page 9 of 55
 Notes for tank stability in high winds.

 As a rough indication it may be assumed that NPCRT, LPCRT, NPDRT and LPDRT tanks in sizes above
the dotted line are stable in winds less than 160 km/h (100 mph) when at least 0.5 m of product is
present in the tank. Such NPCRT, NPDRT and LPDRT in sizes marked with hatching are unstable in
winds of 160 km/h (100 mph) or more.

 Tanks classified as HPCRT and HPDRT shall always be fitted with anchor bolts and concrete
foundation rings or shell-to-bottom brackets.

 Detailed stability calculations shall be made to determine whether a tank of a certain size is stable
for a specified wind speed.

Page 10 of 55
Page 11 of 55
 4.7 VENTING OF ATMOSPHERIC AND LOW-PRESSURE STORAGE TANKS
Reference: API Standard 2000, 7th Ed., March 2014 and API STD 521, 6th Ed., 2014

 Terms, Definitions and Abbreviations

Accumulation
Pressure increase over the design pressure of the vessel during discharge through the pressure-relief
device.
NOTE Accumulation is expressed in units of pressure or as a percentage of or design pressure.
Maximum allowable accumulations are established by pressure-design codes for emergency
operating and fire contingencies.

Bubble Point
Temperature at which the first vapor bubble is produced from a liquid mixture of two or more
components heated at constant pressure. For single component systems the bubble point is referred
to as the boiling point.

Emergency Venting
Venting required for external fire or other abnormal conditions.

Full Open Position

Position where lift of the pallet is sufficient for the nozzle to control the flow or where the pallet or
main valve seat lifts against a fixed stop.

Latitude
In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position of a point on
the Earth's surface. Latitude is an angle (defined below) which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90°
(North or South) at the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–west as circles parallel
to the equator.
Example: Mumbai is at a latitude of 19ºN

Non-Refrigerated Tank
Tank that stores material in a liquid state without the aid of refrigeration, either by evaporation of the
tank contents or by a circulating refrigeration system.
NOTE generally, the storage temperature is close to, or higher than, ambient temperature.

Normal cubic meters per hour (Nm3/h)

SI unit for volumetric flow rate of air or gas at a temperature of 0 °C and pressure of 101.3 kPa,
expressed in cubic meters per hour.

Normal Venting
Venting required because of operational requirements or atmospheric changes.

Overpressure
Pressure increase at the PV valve inlet above the set pressure, when the PV valve is relieving.
NOTE 1. Overpressure is expressed in pressure units or as a percentage of the set pressure.

Page 12 of 55
NOTE 2. The value or magnitude of the overpressure is equal to the value or magnitude of the
accumulation when the valve is set at the design pressure and the inlet piping losses are zero.

PV Valve
Weight-loaded, pilot-operated, or spring-loaded pressure vacuum valve used to relieve excess
pressure and/or vacuum that has developed in a tank.

Rated Relieving Capacity

Flow capacity of a relief device expressed in terms of air flow at standard or normal conditions at a
designated pressure or vacuum.
NOTE Rated relieving capacity is expressed in Nm3/h.

Refrigerated Tank
Tank that stores liquid at a temperature below atmospheric temperature with or without the aid of
refrigeration, either by evaporation of the tank contents or by a circulating refrigeration system.

Relief Device
Device used to relieve excess pressure and/or vacuum that has developed in a tank.

Relieving Pressure
Pressure at the inlet of a relief device when the fluid is flowing at the required relieving capacity.

Required Flow Capacity

Flow through a relief device required to prevent excessive pressure or vacuum in a tank under the
most severe operating or emergency conditions.

Set Pressure
Gauge pressure at the relief device inlet at which the device is set to start opening under service
conditions.

Thermal Inbreathing
Movement of air or blanketing gas into a tank when vapors in the tank contract or condense as a
result of weather changes (e.g. a decrease in atmospheric temperature).

Thermal Outbreathing
Movement of vapors out of a tank when vapors in the tank expand and/or liquid in the tank
vaporizes as a result of weather changes (e.g. an increase in atmospheric temperature).

Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted when a liquid is in equilibrium with its own vapor. Vapor pressure is a function
of the substance and temperature.

Wetted Area
Surface area of a tank exposed to liquid on the interior and heat from a fire on the exterior.

Page 13 of 55
 Causes of Overpressure or Vacuum in Tanks

General
When determining the possible causes of overpressure or vacuum in a tank, consider the following:
 Liquid movement into or out of the tank;
 Weather changes (e.g. pressure and temperature changes);
 Fire exposure;
 Other circumstances resulting from equipment failures and operating errors.

Liquid movement into or out of a tank

Liquid can enter or leave a tank by pumping, by gravity flow, or by process pressure.
Vacuum can result from the outflow of liquid from a tank. Overpressure can result from the inflow
of liquid into a tank and from the vaporization or flashing of the feed liquid. The user is cautioned
that a flashing feed stream can create an outbreathing load that is much greater than the volumetric
inflow of liquid.

Weather Changes
Vacuum can result from the contraction or condensation of vapors caused by a decrease in
atmospheric temperature or other weather changes, such as wind changes, hailstorm, rainstorm,
etc. Overpressure can result from the expansion and vaporization that is caused by an increase in
atmospheric temperature or weather changes.

Fire Exposure
Overpressure can result from the expansion of the vapors and vaporization of the liquid that may
occur when a tank absorbs heat from an external fire.

Other Circumstances
When the possible causes of overpressure or vacuum in a tank are being determined, other
circumstances resulting from equipment failures and operating errors shall be considered and
evaluated. Overpressure or Vacuum protection due to such other circumstances needs be done on
a case-to-case basis and the overpressure or vacuum protection device to be selected accordingly.
For description of these other overpressure and vacuum scenarios, students are recommended to
refer API STD 2000, 7th Edition.

Normal Venting Requirements

 Normal inbreathing resulting from a maximum outflow of liquid from the tank (liquid-transfer
effects),
 Normal inbreathing resulting from contraction or condensation of vapors caused by a maximum
decrease in vapor-space temperature (thermal effects),

 Normal out-breathing resulting from a maximum inflow of liquid into the tank and maximum
vaporization caused by such inflow (liquid-transfer effects),
 Normal out-breathing resulting from expansion and vaporization that results from a maximum
increase in vapor-space temperature (thermal effects),

Page 14 of 55
 Total inbreathing requirement will be the sum of the inbreathing due to liquid outflow (also
known as pump-out) and the thermal inbreathing as defined in b) above.

Total outbreathing requirement will be the sum of the outbreathing due to liquid inflow (also
known as pump-in) and the thermal inbreathing as defined in d) above.

Outbreathing Calculations
The out-breathing shall be determined as follows. In these calculations, the vapor/gas being
displaced will be at the actual pressure and temperature conditions of the tank vapor space. Out-
breathing flows shall be converted to an air-equivalent flow at normal or standard conditions for
tanks operating above 49 °C.

Non Volatile Liquids

Non-volatile liquids are products with a vapor pressure equal to or less than 5.0 kPa.

The out-breathing volumetric flow rate Vop, expressed in SI units of cubic meters per hour of
vapor/gas at the actual pressure and temperature conditions of the tank vapor space, shall be as
given by
Equation (1):

Vop = Vpf ----------------------------- (1)

Where:
Vpf = Maximum volumetric filling rate (pump-in) of non-volatile liquid in the tank, m 3/h

Volatile Liquids
Volatile liquids are products with a vapor pressure greater than 5.0 kPa. The flow of volatile liquids
into a tank will result in higher out-breathing flow (compared to the same inflow with a non-volatile
liquid) due to changes in liquid-vapor equilibrium.

The out-breathing volumetric flow rate Vop expressed in SI units of cubic meters per hour of
vapor/gas at the actual pressure and temperature conditions of the tank vapor space, shall be as
given by
Equation (2):

Vop = 2.0*Vpf --------------------------------- (2)

Where:
Vpf = Maximum volumetric filling rate (pump-in) of volatile liquid in the tank, m 3/h

Flashing Liquids
Flashing liquids can cause the venting requirement to be many times greater than the
Volumetric in-flow of the liquid. Flashing will occur when the vapor pressure of the entering stream
is greater than the operating pressure of the tank. For products that can flash due to high

Page 15 of 55
temperature or because of dissolved gases (e.g. oil spiked with methane), perform an equilibrium
flash calculation and increase the out-breathing venting requirements accordingly.

Thermal Outbreathing
The thermal out-breathing (i.e. the maximum thermal flow rate for heating up) VOT expressed in SI
units of normal cubic meters per hour of air, shall be given as per Equation (3):

VOT =Y*Vtk*0.9*Ri ------------------------------------(3)

Where:
Y = Factor for latitude (Refer terms, definitions and abbreviations for definition of latitude)
Vtk = Tank volume, m3
Ri = Reduction factor for insulation
Ri=1, if tank is not insulated

Ri = Rinp, if tank is partially insulated (Refer eqn 5 below)

Ri = Rin, if tank is fully insulated (Refer eqn 4 below)

The Y-factor for the latitude in Equations (3) can be taken from Table 1

---------------------------- (4)

Where:
h = Inside heat-transfer coefficient, W/m2-K
NOTE An inside heat-transfer coefficient of 4 W/(m 2⋅K) is commonly assumed for typical tanks.
lin = Wall thickness of the insulation, m
λin = Thermal conductivity of the insulation, W/m-K

----------------------------------- (5)

Where:
ATTS = Total tank surface area (shell and roof), m 2
Ainp = Surface area of the insulated part of the tank, m 2

Page 16 of 55
Total Outbreathing
The total outbreathing is the sum of the outbreathing calculated due to pump-in (equations 1 or 2),
vapor generated due to flashing (flash calculations), and the thermal outbreathing.

Inbreathing Calculations
The inbreathing venting requirement Vip, expressed in SI units of normal cubic meters per hour of
air, shall be the maximum specified liquid discharging capacity for the tank as given by Equation (6).

Vip = Vpe ------------------------------------ (6)

Where:
Vpe = maximum volumetric rate of discharge (pump-out) from the tank, m3/h

Thermal Inbreathing
The thermal in-breathing (i.e. the maximum thermal flow rate during cooling down) VIT expressed
in SI units of normal cubic meters per hour of air, shall be given as per Equation (7):

VIT = C*Vtk*0.7*Ri --------------------------------- (7)

Where:

C = factor that depends upon vapor pressure, average and latitude (Refer table below)

Vtk and Ri are as defined in the Thermal Outbreathing section.

The calculated inbreathing assumes ambient air flow through the tank vent. It is typical practice to
assume the ambient air is at normal or standard conditions.

Total Inbreathing
The total inbreathing is the sum of the inbreathing calculated due to pump-out (equation 6) and
the thermal outbreathing.

Page 17 of 55
Converting Tank Outbreathing Vapor flow to Nm 3/h of Air flow
Capacities for relief devices are expressed as air at either standard or normal conditions. In order
to provide reasonable accuracy in the sizing of relief devices for storage tanks it may be necessary
to adjust the calculated relief requirements into equivalent air flow.

If the maximum operating temperature of the tank is ≤49ºC, then the out-breathing vapor
volumetric flow rate Vop as calculated from equations (1) and (2) can be directly considered as
volume flow rate of air in Nm3/h and specified as such for the tank overpressure relief device.

However, if the tank maximum operating temperature is >49ºC then the outbreathing vapor flow
Vop needs to be corrected for the Nm3/h of air flow using equation (8).

Ti
qair  0.326 Vop  -------------------------- (8)
M
Where:
qair = Equivalent Air flow rate, Nm3/h
Ti = Temperature of the vapor in the tank vapor space (>49 ºC), K
M = Molecular weight of the vapor

NOTES
1) For practical purposes it is assumed that the vapor in the tank vapor space is in equilibrium with
the liquid in the tank and the vapor molecular weight is the same as the liquid molecular weight
2) The constant 0.326 in the above equation is derived from air properties and normal temperature
of 0 ºC (273.15 K). The factor “Sq. root of (Mair / Tair)” when inserted values of 28.97 (mol. wt. of air)
with 273.15 K as air temperature provides the constant value.

Emergency Venting due to External Fire

When storage tanks are exposed to fire, the venting rate can exceed the rate resulting from normal
outbreathing.

Tanks with Weak Roof-to-shell Attachment

On a fixed-roof tank with a weak (frangible) roof-to-shell attachment, such as that described in API
650, the roof-to-shell connection will fail prior to other tank welds, allowing relief of the excess
pressure if the normal venting capacity proves inadequate. For a tank built to these specifications,
it is not necessary to consider additional requirements for emergency venting; however, additional
emergency vents may be used to avoid failure of the frangible joint. Care should be taken to ensure
that the current requirements for a frangible roof-to-shell attachment are met, particularly for tanks
smaller than 15 m (50 ft) in diameter.

Fire Relief Requirements

When a tank is not provided with a Weak Roof-to-Shell attachment the procedure and equations
given below shall be used in evaluating the required relief flow capacity for fire exposure.

Page 18 of 55
The required flow capacity q, expressed in SI units of Nm3/h of air, for tanks subject to fire exposure
as given by Equation (9):

0.5
 QF  T 
q  906.6    
 L  M  ------------------------------- (9)
Where:
Q = the heat input from fire exposure as given in table below, W

F = the environmental factor from table below (credit may be taken for only one environmental
factor)
L = the latent heat of vaporization of the stored liquid at the relieving pressure and temperature,
J/kg
T = the absolute temperature of the relieving vapor, K

NOTE:
It is normally assumed that the temperature of the relieving vapor corresponds to the bubble point
of the stored fluid at the relieving pressure
M = the molecular weight of the vapor

The fire relief requirements presented are expressed as air-equivalent flow rates based on the
conversion of the actual vapor generation rate into an equivalent volume of air (at either normal or
standard conditions).

Calculation of Latent Heat of Vaporization

The latent heat of vaporization of pure single-component liquid decreases as the temperature at
vaporization increases and becomes zero at the critical temperature and pressure for that liquid.

The Figure A-6 provided below shows the vapor pressure and latent heats of the pure, single-
component paraffin hydrocarbon liquids. This chart is directly applicable to such liquids and applies
as an approximation to paraffin-hydrocarbon mixtures composed of two components whose
molecular weights vary no more than by the difference between propane and butane or butane
and pentane. Reference is made to Section A.4, Annex A of API STD 521, 6th edition, 2014.

Page 19 of 55
The chart can also be applicable to isomer hydrocarbons, aromatic or cyclic compounds, or paraffin-
hydrocarbon mixtures that have slightly different molecular weights. The equilibrium temperature
needs to be calculated. Using the relationship for the calculated temperature versus vapor pressure,
one can obtain the value of latent heat from the figure in the next page. The molecular weight
relationship as shown in the chart is not to be used in such cases. In such cases, the molecular
weight of the vapor should be determined from the vapor-liquid equilibrium by performing a flash
calculation at that temperature and pressure.

For cases that involve mixture of components that have a wide boiling range or significantly
different molecular weights a rigorous series of equilibrium calculations can be required to estimate
the latent heat.

Near the critical point, if no accurate latent heat value is available for hydrocarbon mixtures a
minimum value of 115 kJ/kg may be used as an approximation.

When using HYSYS as a simulation tool the liquid composition is used from HYSYS simulation results
and a 10% flash calculation is simulated in HYSYS at the relief pressure (relief valve set pressure +
overpressure) and corresponding bubble temperature. The latent heat obtained thus is used in the
calculations.

In some cases three stages of flash each of 10% is used and the lowest latent heat of vaporization
value and lowest molecular weight vapor stream is used for estimating the relief load.

In the case water is present along with the hydrocarbons; it is recommended that the water free
composition is used in determining the latent heat since this will result in more conservative design.

Page 20 of 55
Page 21 of 55
Page 22 of 55
Where fluid properties are similar to those of hexane, the required venting capacity can be
Determined from Table 5 of API STD 2000 as given below:

The total heat absorbed, Q, is expressed in watts for Equation (16). Table 7 and the constant 208.2
in Equation (16) are derived from Equation (14) and Figure B.1 of Annex B of API STD 2000 by using
the latent heat of vaporization of hexane, equal to 334,900 J/kg at atmospheric pressure, and the
relative molecular mass of hexane (86.17) and assuming a vapor temperature of 15.6 °C. This
method provides results within an acceptable degree of accuracy for many fluids having similar
properties

Table 7 and Clause 3.3.3.3.4 of API STD 2000 are shown below:

Page 23 of 55
Refer Annex B “Basis of Emergency Venting for Table 7 and Table 8” of API STD 2000

Page 24 of 55
 Means of Venting

Normal Venting
Normal venting for pressure and vacuum shall be accomplished by a PV valve with or without a
flame arresting device or by an open vent with or without a flame-arresting device.
Protect atmospheric storage tanks against flame transmission from outside the tank if

o The stored liquid has a low flash point, i.e. less than 60 °C (140 °F) or in accordance
with the applicable regulations, whichever is higher; or
o The storage temperature can exceed the flash point; or
o The tank can otherwise contain a flammable vapor space.

A discussion of the types and operating characteristics of venting devices can be found in Annex C
of API STD 2000.

PV valves are recommended to be used on atmospheric storage tanks to avoid product loss.

If open vents are selected to provide venting capacity for tanks that can contain a flammable vapor
space as defined above, a flame-arresting device should be used. Open vents without a flame-
arresting device may be used for tanks that do not contain a flammable vapor space.

In the case of viscous oils, such as cutback and penetration-grade asphalts, where the danger of
tank collapse resulting from sticking pallets or from plugging of flame arresters is greater than the
possibility of flame transmission into the tank, open vents may be used as an exception or heat
traced vents that ensure that the vapor temperature stays above the dew point may be used.

In areas with strict fugitive emissions regulations, open vents might not be acceptable and vent-
device selection should consider the maximum leakage requirements during periods of normal tank
operation.

Emergency Venting
Emergency venting may be accomplished by the use of the following:
a) Larger or additional open vents
b) Larger or additional PV valves,
c) A gauge hatch that permits the cover to lift under abnormal internal pressure,
d) A manhole cover that lifts when exposed to abnormal internal pressure,
e) Weak (frangible) roof-to-shell attachment
f) A rupture-disk device,
g) Other forms of construction that can be proven to be comparable for the purposes of pressure
relief.

Page 25 of 55
 Basic Principles of Operation of Pressure-Vacuum Relief Valves (PVRVs)

General
Two basic types of PVRVs, direct-acting vent valves and pilot-operated vent valves, are available to
provide overpressure or vacuum protection for low-pressure storage tanks. Direct-acting vent
valves can be weight-loaded or spring-loaded. These venting devices not only provide overpressure
protection but also conserve product. Direct-acting vent valves are sometimes referred to as
conservation vents.

Direct-Acting Vent Valves (PVRVs)

Direct-acting vent valves are available to provide pressure relief, vacuum relief, or a combination of
pressure and vacuum relief. Combination vent valves may be of a side-by-side configuration (see
Figure C.2 referenced from API STD 2000, Annex C). Side-by-side vent valves or pressure-relief vent
valves are available with flanged outlets for pressure discharge when it is necessary to pipe the
pressure-relief vapors away.

Larger, direct-acting vent valves are available to provide emergency relief and can provide access
to a tank's interior for inspection or maintenance. They are typically available in sizes from 400 mm
(16 in.) to 600 mm (24 in.) (See Figure C.3 referenced from API STD 2000, Annex C).

The principle of operation of a direct-acting vent valve is based on the weight of the pallet or the
spring force acting on the pallet to keep the device closed. When tank pressure or vacuum acting
on the seat sealing area equals the opposing force acting on the pallet, the venting device is on the
threshold of opening. Any further increase in pressure or vacuum causes the pallet to begin to lift
off the seat.

Some weight loaded PVRVs require significant overpressure (or vacuum) to achieve the required
flows and as a result may need to be set well below the design pressure/design vacuum of the tank.
The user should consult the PVRV manufacturer to verify that the PVRV will have sufficient capacity
to keep tank pressure/vacuum within limits specified by the tank’s design code of construction.
Where the overpressure/vacuum required for the PVRV to satisfy the tank flow requirements
exceeds the pressure/vacuum limits of the storage tank, a larger PVRV or multiple PVRVs can be
used at reduced lift and provide sufficient capacity. Fewer large PVRVs instead of more small PVRVs
are usually preferred to minimize the number of tank penetrations.

Direct-acting vent valves are typically available in sizes from 50 mm (2”) to 350 mm (14”); however,
vent valves in a stacked configuration are available in sizes up to 700 mm (28”).

Typical set pressure ranges for weight-loaded vent valves are up to 6.9 kPag and up to a vacuum of
−4.3 kPag. Spring-loaded vent valves should be used for pressure or vacuum settings that exceed
these values because the supporting structure and space for the added weights is not available.

Verification of the set pressure of a venting device after it has been installed on a storage tank can
be accomplished by increasing the tank pressure or vacuum. To change the set pressure, weights

Page 26 of 55
shall be added or removed from the pallet, or a new pallet shall be used, or the spring shall be
adjusted (if a spring-loaded vent valve is being used).

Page 27 of 55
 Pressure Vacuum Relief Valves

Pilot-Operated Vent Valves (Pilot Operated PVRVs)

Pilot-operated vent valves are available to provide pressure relief, vacuum relief, or a combination
of pressure and vacuum relief. Some vent valves can be equipped with flanged outlets if it is
necessary to pipe pressure-relief vapors away. Unlike side-by-side direct-acting vent valves, pilot-
operated vent valves relieve pressure or vacuum through the same opening to atmosphere (see
Figure C.6 referenced from Annex C, API STD 2000).

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A pilot-operated vent valve for pressure relief uses tank pressure, not weights or a spring, to keep
the vent valve seat closed. The main seat is held closed by tank pressure acting on a large-area
diaphragm. This tank pressure covers an area greater than the seat sealing area, so the net pressure
force is always in a direction to keep the seat closed. The volume above the diaphragm is called the
dome. If the diaphragm fails, the dome pressure decreases and the vent valve opens.

The pilot is a small control valve that continuously senses tank pressure. When the tank pressure
increases to set pressure, the pilot actuates to reduce the pressure in the dome volume, the force
holding the seat closed is reduced and the seat lifts to permit tank pressure to discharge through
the vent valve. When the tank pressure decreases, the pilot closes, the dome volume re-pressurizes,
and the main seat closes. Two types of pilot actions are available: modulating and snap action. For
modulating action, the main vent valve opens gradually with increasing pressure and achieves rated
relieving capacity at relieving pressure. Modulating valves reseat very close to the set pressure. For
snap action, the main valve opens rapidly at set pressure and achieves rated relieving capacity at
relieving pressure.

A pilot-operated vent valve achieves full lift at or below 10 % overpressure (see Figure C.5
referenced from Annex C, API STD 2000). This lift characteristic permits overpressure protection to
be accomplished with smaller or fewer venting devices. In addition, relative to direct-acting vent
valves, pilot-operated vent valves can have a tank-operating pressure closer to the set pressure.

A pilot-operated vent valve for vacuum relief uses atmospheric pressure to keep the seat closed.
The force holding the seat closed is equal to the seat sealing area times the pressure differential
across the seat. This pressure differential is equal to atmospheric pressure plus the tank vacuum.
When the tank vacuum equals the pilot set, the pilot opens to apply tank vacuum to the large dome
volume above the diaphragm. Atmospheric pressure acting on the downstream side of the
diaphragm forces the diaphragm and seat up. Little or no increase in tank vacuum beyond the vent
valve setting is required to obtain full lift of the seat. When the tank vacuum decreases, the pilot
closes and atmospheric pressure enters the dome to close the main seat.

If the diaphragm fails, atmospheric air enters the dome and prevents the tank vacuum from creating
a force differential to lift the seat. Double-diaphragm vent valves are available to prevent such a
failure (see Figure C.6 referenced from Annex C, API STD 2000): one diaphragm is for pressure
actuation and one is for vacuum actuation. Each diaphragm is isolated and protected from the flow
stream and fully supported to minimize stress. The vacuum diaphragm moves only to provide
vacuum relief to extend its service life.

Page 29 of 55
Page 30 of 55
Page 31 of 55
Low-pressure, pilot-operated vent valves are typically available in sizes from 50 mm (2 in.) to 600
mm (24 in.). Available set pressures range from 103.4 kPag to −101.3 kPag vacuum. The minimum
opening pressure is typically a 0.5 kPag (2” wcg) or −0.5 kPag (−2” wcg) vacuum.

4.8 CONTROL VALVE

General
 Valve shall be sized for maximum, minimum, and normal flow at corresponding differential
pressures and process conditions.
 Calculated noise level shall not exceed 85 dB.
 Final valve sizing shall be confirmed by the valve vendor.

Pressure Drop Criteria

For initial sizing purpose of control valves in pumped liquid lines, a general guideline is to consider
a pressure drop of 30% of the total system pressure drop or 0.7 bar whichever is higher.

For control valves on gas lines the minimum pressure drop specified shall not be less than 0.2 bar
at design flow unless otherwise dictated by specific process requirements.

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Equal Percentage Characteristics:
An inherent flow characteristic that, for equal increments of rated travel, will ideally give equal
percentage changes of the flow coefficient Cv.

Linear Characteristic:

An inherent flow characteristic that can be represented by a straight line on a rectangular plot of
flow coefficient, Cv versus rated travel. Therefore equal increments of travel provide equal
increments of flow coefficient, Cv.

Quick Opening Characteristic:

An inherent flow characteristic in which a maximum flow coefficient is achieved with minimal
closure member travel.

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Guideline for characteristic selection:

Page 34 of 55
Page 35 of 55
Page 36 of 55
 Control Valve Sizing for Single Phase-Gas Flow

To calculate Reynolds number:

 Control Valve Sizing for Single Phase-Liquid Flow

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To calculate Reynolds number:

Page 38 of 55
Page 39 of 55
4.9 ORIFICE SIZING
Orifice Sizing Calculations as per ISO 5167:

Page 40 of 55
Page 41 of 55
Page 42 of 55
Page 43 of 55
Page 44 of 55
 4.10 PUMP SIZING

A pump is a mechanical device used to move fluids from one destination to another. Fluids can
mean either liquids, gases or a combination of liquids and solids (slurries). For the purpose of this
training manual, pumps are to be considered only for transporting liquids and slurries.

Types of Pumps

 Centrifugal Pump
A centrifugal pump is a roto-dynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure
and flow rate of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move liquids
through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and
is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward or axially into a diffuser or volute chamber,
from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are typically used for
large discharge through smaller heads.

Fig 1.
 Positive Displacement (PD) Pump
A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed amount of it and then
forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.
Some positive displacement pumps work using an expanding cavity on the suction side and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side
expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant
given each cycle of operation.

 PD Pump behavior and safety

Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, will in theory produce the
same flow at a given speed (RPM) no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive
displacement pumps are "constant flow machines". However due to a slight increase in internal
leakage as the pressure increases, a truly constant flow rate cannot be achieved.

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 A positive displacement pump must not be operated against a closed valve on the discharge side of
the pump, because it has no shut-off head like centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump
operating against a closed discharge valve will continue to produce flow and the pressure in the
discharge line will increase, until the line bursts or the pump is severely damaged, or both.
A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the positive displacement pump is therefore
necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external. The pump manufacturer normally has the
option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve should in general only be used as
a safety precaution, an external relief valve installed in the discharge line with a return line back to
the suction line or supply tank is recommended.

Fig 2. Fig 3.
 PD pump types
A positive displacement pump can be further classified according to the mechanism used to move
the fluid:
Rotary-type positive displacement: internal gear, screw, shuttle block, flexible vane or sliding vane,
circumferential piston, or liquid ring vacuum pumps
Reciprocating-type positive displacement: piston or diaphragm pumps.
For a detailed description of types of pumps refer the Wikipedia article on pumps at the link:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pump

Page 46 of 55
Some illustrations for PD pumps are provided below:

Fig 4. Gear Pump Fig 5. Lobe Pump Fig 6. Piston Pump

Design Flow Rate

The pump design flow rate shall include a minimum 10% margin on the maximum flow rate except
in the following cases:
 Intermittent service
 Minimum flow bypass using orifice plate, in which case pump design flow rate shall be the
process flow rate (as per heat and material balance) plus the minimum flow bypass rate.
For reflux pumps, design flow rate shall be at least 120% of the operating flow rate.

Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHa)

It is defined as the pressure at the centerline of the pump datum level minus the fluid vapor
pressure at the given temperature. It is expressed in meter or feet of fluid. Process designer shall
provide NPSHa at reference datum level (e.g. grade level) such that pump vendor can select the
correct pump by calculating NPSHa at his datum level.

The NPSHa must be greater than NPSHr (NPSH required, given by pump vendor). NPSHa should be
at least 1 meter greater than the NPSHr throughout the range from minimum flow to rated capacity
of the pump. NPSHr should be based on 3% head loss criteria (reference API STD 610).

However, a case-by-case study depending on the application shall be done to determine the NPSHa
margin over the NPSHr. For example, more margin is required to be considered for liquids with
dissolved gases, lower suction pressure (< 1 atm) etc.
Reciprocating pumps must consider the acceleration head when calculating the NPSHa.

Minimum Flow By-Pass

API STD 610 defines the following two minimum flows for centrifugal pumps:
 Minimum continuous stable flow: It is the lowest flow at which the pump can operate without
exceeding acceptable vibration limits.

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 Minimum continuous thermal flow: It is the lowest flow at which the pump can operate without
its operation being impaired by the temperature rise of the pumped liquid.

Pump operations below these points can cause shaft vibration and reduce the mechanical seal life.
To avoid such problems, high capacity pumps shall be provided with a minimum flow bypass with
the flow controlled by a restriction orifice or a control valve. If a restriction orifice is used, the
operating flow rate of the pump should be increased to account for the continuous bypass flow.

The sizing of the minimum bypass flow circuit shall be based on the higher of the two minimum
flows.

If it is not possible to provide a minimum flow circulation line, then adequate instrument protection
shall be provided to prevent pump operation below the minimum allowable flow rate.

General Guidelines for Proper Selection & Operation of Centrifugal Pumps

 The head / capacity characteristic curve shall continuously rise as flow is reduced to shut-off (or
zero flow). The minimum recommended rise is 12% with reference to the rated point. For
parallel operation the head rise shall be between minimum 15% to maximum 20%.
 The pump should be capable of a head increase at the design conditions by installing a larger
impeller. The rated impeller diameter shall be between 85% and 90% of the maximum impeller
diameter as per vendor data sheet.
 Pump(s) should not be operated below the minimum safe continuous flow as provided by the
pump manufacturer.
 The installed power shall be adequate for maximum impeller diameter plus 120% of rated
capacity.

General Guidelines for Proper Selection & Operation of Positive Displacement Reciprocating &
Controlled Volume Pumps
Reciprocating/Controlled volume pumps are capable of handling very low flows (<0.227 m3/h) and
are typically used for chemical injection duties in oil and gas installations.
 Reciprocating pumps should comply with API STD 674.
 Metering (or controlled volume) pumps should comply with API STD 675.
 Some selection guidelines for controlled volume pumps are as follows:
o “Packed Plunger Pumps” are generally recommended for pressures above 340 barg
o Diaphragm pumps are generally recommended for pressures up to 340 barg and
temperatures up to 150°C.
o Double Diaphragm Pumps of the sandwich type construction are generally recommended.
Double Diaphragm pumps should be used when:
o Dilution of the product flow by hydraulic oil is not acceptable.
o Pumped fluid is extremely hazardous and/or toxic.

Page 48 of 55
 o Process leakage to the atmosphere is unacceptable
o Process fluid must not come in contact with air
o Packed plunger pumps should not be used for the above conditions.

Capacity Adjustment for Metering Pumps (Reference API STD 675)

 Pump capacity shall be adjusted by changing the actual or effective stroke length or the pump
stroking speed.
 The pump shall be capable of accepting manual or automatic capacity stroke control, either
factory mounted or by field conversion.
 Integral pump devices used to vary capacity either manually or automatically shall be provided
with visual indication of capacity setting, shown as a percentage of the nameplate rated flow.
Manual control shall include a locking device to positively retain the capacity setting.
 The direction of movement to increase or decrease pump flow shall be clearly marked. All
adjustment means and indicators shall be easily accessible with the pump installed.

Pressure Relief for Positive Displacement Pumps

Full flow pressure relief shall be provided at the pump discharge upstream of any isolating valve.
Where the nature of the fluid would make relief valves unreliable, rupture discs should be used
either alone or in conjunction with relief valves.

Pulsation Devices for Positive Displacement Pumps

When specified, the vendor shall furnish pulsation suppression devices to be located at the pump
suction and/or discharge connections. The following are three basic types of pulsation suppression
devices:
 Volume bottles without internals.
 Pulsation dampeners using a gas-filled chamber isolated from the pumped fluid by a piston or
elastomeric diaphragm.
 Pulsation filters and attenuators, including proprietary commercial designs based on acoustical
suppression techniques.
Reference is made to API STD 675 for the above.

Further Explanation on Key Terms Related to Pumps

NPSHa:
Net positive suction head available (NPSHa) is the suction head present at the pump suction over
and above the vapor pressure of the liquid. NPSHa is a function of the suction system and is
independent of the type of pump in the system. It should be calculated by the engineer or pump
user, and supplied to the pump manufacturer as part of the application criteria or pump
specification. The general formula for calculating NPSHa is:
NPSHa = P ± H - Hf - Hvp - Ha --------------------- (1)

Where:

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P = absolute pressure on the surface of the liquid in the suction vessel, expressed in meter of liquid
H = static distance from the surface of the liquid in the supply vessel to the centerline of the pump
impeller, in meter; the term is positive if the pump has a static suction head, and negative if the
pump has a static suction lift. For the purpose of NPSHa calculations, both the static suction head
and the static suction lift should be considered at the “minimum operating liquid level” of the
suction vessel. In other words, the NPSHa should be calculated with the minimum static head or the
maximum static lift as the case maybe. The term “minimum operating liquid level” although is quite
debatable since many engineering professionals as well as engineering companies differ on its
definition. It would suffice to say that the minimum static head or maximum static lift may differ
on a case-to-case and operating philosophy basis and the engineer performing the NPSHa
calculations would require doing a careful analysis of this value before using it in his or her
calculation.

Hf = friction loss in the suction line, including all piping, valves, fittings, filters, etc., expressed in
meter of liquid; this term varies with flow, so NPSHa must be calculated based on a particular flow
rate
Hvp = vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature, expressed in meter of liquid
Ha = Acceleration head. Acceleration head needs to be considered only for reciprocating pumps. For
centrifugal pumps and rotary pumps the acceleration head is zero.

In a new pump application, NPSHa (and the static term H in the above formula) must be given to
the manufacturer with reference to some known datum point such as the elevation of the pump
mounting base. This is because the location of the pump impeller centerline elevation is generally
not known when the NPSHa calculations are made. It is important that the datum point of reference
be mentioned in the specification, as well as the calculated value of NPSHa.

New engineers often get confused when the suction vessel is not a vented vessel to atmosphere and
there is absence of data about the maximum operating pressure in the vapor space of the vessel. In
such a case, the set pressure if available of the relief device installed in the vapor space of the vessel
may be used as the maximum vessel pressure for the purpose of NPSHa calculations.

Page 50 of 55
 Fig 7.
NPSHr:
Net positive suction head required (NPSHr) is the suction head required at the impeller centerline
over and above the vapor pressure of the liquid. NPSHr is strictly a function of the pump inlet design,
and is independent of the suction piping system. The pump requires a pressure at the suction flange
greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid because merely getting the liquid to the pump suction
flange in a liquid state is not sufficient. The liquid experiences pressure losses when it first enters
the pump, before it gets to the point on the impeller vane where pressure begins to increase. These
losses are caused by frictional effects as the liquid passes through the pump suction nozzle, moves
across the impeller inlet and changes direction to begin to flow along the impeller vanes.

NPSHr is established by the manufacturer using a special test, and the value of NPSHr is shown on
the pump curve as a function of pump capacity.
It is important to note that the NPSHr increases with higher flow rate due to the increased amount
of friction loss inside the pump inlet before the liquid reaches the pump impeller. In certain cases
the NPSHr also increases with the flow remaining unchanged but the impeller diameter reduced.

For a pump to operate free of cavitation, NPSHa must be greater than NPSHr. In determining the
acceptability of a particular pump operating in a particular system with regard to NPSH, the NPSHa
for the system must be calculated by the engineer, and then the NPSHr for the pump to be used
must be examined at the same flow rate by looking at this information on the pump curve. This
comparison should be made at all possible operation points of the pump, with the worst case
usually being at the maximum expected flow, also called the run out flow.
Suction Pressure or Suction Head:
Also called the minimum suction pressure it is nothing but the NPSHa plus the vapor pressure of
the liquid. As an equation it can be represented as:
Hs = NPSHa + Hvp = P ± H - Hf - Ha -------------------- (2)

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Where:
Hs = Suction Pressure or Suction Head in meter at the pump suction

Discharge Pressure or Discharge Head:

This is the pressure measured at the discharge connection of the pump. It can be measured either
as pressure or head of liquid in meters. It can be represented in the following equation form:
Hdis = Pdest + Hf (dis) ± H(dis)
Where:
Hdis = Discharge pressure expressed in meter of liquid
Pdest = Destination pressure of destination vessel expressed in meter of liquid
Destination pressure estimation requires the knowledge of the inlet connection location from the
pump to the destination vessel
If the inlet connection is located on top of the destination vessel / tank in the vapor space then the
destination pressure would be the vapor pressure in the vapor space.
If the inlet connection is located at the bottom of the destination vessel in the liquid filled area than
the destination pressure would be the vapor pressure in the vapor space plus the maximum
operating liquid level (height) in the destination vessel.
Hf(dis) = friction loss in the discharge line, including all piping, valves, fittings, equipment, instruments
etc., expressed in meter of liquid; this term varies with flow, so discharge pressure must be
calculated based on a particular flow rate.
Friction losses are given in terms of Equivalent length of pipe, which is covered briefly in below link.
https://www.cheresources.com/invision/files/file/258-equivalent-length-calculations-for-pipes-
and-valves/
H(dis) = Static distance from pump discharge nozzle to the inlet connection at the destination
receiver, expressed in meter of liquid; the term is positive if the inlet connection to the destination
vessel is at a height above the pump discharge nozzle (datum for pump discharge) and negative if
the inlet connection to the destination vessel is at a height below the pump discharge nozzle. The
case where the inlet connection to destination vessel is below the pump discharge nozzle is not
frequently encountered in pumping practices.

Differential Pressure or Differential head:

It is the difference between the discharge pressure and the suction pressure. Expressed as an
equation it is:
Pd = Hdis – Hs
Where:
Pd = Differential pressure or differential head expressed in meter of liquid
At the beginning of the project due to uncertainties in suction and discharge calculations such as
piping lengths, number of fittings, location of source and destination vessels and sometimes even
in liquid properties, a margin may be provided on the calculated differential head which ensures

Page 52 of 55
that the pump is adequately sized for the intended duty. The differential head after providing the
margin is called the “rated differential head”. Typically the margin that is provided is a maximum
10 % over the calculated differential head. Thus expressed in equation form the rated differential
head would be:
Pd (rated) = 1.1 x Pd
Where:
Pd (rated) = Rated differential pressure or differential head expressed in meter of liquid

Pump Motor Brake Horse Power (BHP) or Brake Kilowatt (BkW)

All pumps require a driver such as a motor or turbine to drive the pump. The BHP or BkW needs to
be provided by the process engineer for the selection of the driver by the electrical engineer.
Expressed in equation form the BHP or BkW would be:

BkW = Q x Pd (rated) x ρ x g / (3600 x η)

Where:
BkW = Brake Power in kW
Q = rated volume flow rate of the pump, m3/h
Pd (rated) = Rated differential pressure, m
ρ = density of the liquid at the pumping temperature, kg/m 3
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
η = pumping efficiency, expressed as a fraction

Converting Head to Pressure and Vice-Versa

An important task while performing pump hydraulic calculations is converting head in terms of
meters of liquid to pressure in bar or vice-versa. The basic principle governing the conversion of
head to pressure and pressure to head is in accordance to Pascal’s law which when expressed in
terms of an equation is:
P=ρxgxh
Where:
P = hydrostatic pressure, Pascal (N/m2)
ρ = fluid density, kg/m3
h = height of the liquid column, m

For pump hydraulic calculations where head is expressed in meters of liquid and pressure in bar the
following equations can be used for conversion:
Converting Head in Meters to Pressure in Bar
P = h x SG / 10.2
Converting Pressure in Bar to Head in Meters

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h = P x 10.2 / SG
Where:
SG = specific gravity of liquid
= density of liquid in kg/m3 / 1000

Page 54 of 55
Excel Programmable Formulas for Incompressible Gas Flow and Liquid Flow Pressure drop
Calculations:
Nomenclature in formulas:
W = Liquid Flow Rate, kg/h
ρ = Liquid Density, kg/m3
µ = Liquid Viscosity, cP
ε = Absolute Pipe Roughness, mm
d = Inside Pipe Diameter, mm (Refer Note below)
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
f = Darcy friction factor, dimensionless
ΔP = Pressure Drop, kPa / 100m
v = Liquid velocity, m/s

Note: As per global industry practices, pipes are specified as nominal pipe size (NPS) identifying the
outer diameter in inches and a pipe schedule which indicates the wall thickness. The pipe inside
diameter needs to be calculated by subtracting 2-times the wall thickness from the outer diameter
of the pipe. For a given NPS, but with different pipe schedules, the pipe inside diameter will change
according to the pipe schedule. Refer the link below:
http://www.dacapo.com/uploads/documents/35-document.pdf
a) Formula for Initial Estimate of Pipe Diameter

Use next largest diameter, in mm, for initial calculations

b) Formula for Reynolds Number

c) Formula for Friction factor

d) Formula for pressure drop

e) Formula for velocity

Page 55 of 55
PROCESS DESIGN ENGINEERING
MANUAL:
Part 3

Prepared by: Ankur Srivastava

Chemical Engineer

Email: ankurcheme@gmail.com

Page 1 of 74
4.11 DISTILLATION COLUMN.................................................................................................................. 3
4.12 SEPARATOR .................................................................................................................................. 32
4.13 HEAT EXCHANGERS ...................................................................................................................... 42
4.14 FLARE SYSTEM .............................................................................................................................. 69
4.15 SOFTWARE TOOLS (COMMONLY USED) 73

Page 2 of 74
4.11 DISTILLATION COLUMN

Fractionation:
Fractionation is a unit operation utilized to separate mix­tures into individual products.
Fractionation involves separating components by relative volatility (a). The difficulty of a separation
is directly related to the relative volatility of the components and the required purity of the product
streams. Virtually all gas processing plants producing natural gas liquids require at least one
fractionator to produce a liquid product which will meet sales specifications. The schematic of an
example fractionator in Fig 19­2 shows the various components of the system. Heat is introduced
to the reboiler to produce stripping vapors. The vapor rises through the column contacting the
descending liquid. The vapor leaving the top of the column enters the condenser where heat is
removed by some type of cooling medium. Liquid is returned to the column as re­ flux to limit the
loss of heavy components overhead.

Internals such as trays or packing promote the contact be­ tween the liquid and vapor streams in
the column. Intimate contact of the vapor and liquid phases is required for efficient separation.
Vapor entering a separation stage will be cooled which results in some condensation of heavier
components. The liquid phase will be heated which results in some vaporization of the lighter
components. Thus, the heavier components are concentrated in the liquid phase and eventually
become the bot­ tom product. The vapor phase is continually enriched in the light components
which will make up the overhead product.

The vapor leaving the top of the column may be totally or partially condensed. In a total condenser,
all vapor entering the condenser is condensed to liquid and the reflux returned to the column has
the same composition as the distillate or overhead product. In a partial condenser, only a portion
of the vapor entering the condenser is condensed to liquid. In most partial condensers only
sufficient liquid will be condensed to serve as re­ flux for the tower. In some cases, however, more
liquid will be condensed than is required for reflux and there will actually be two overhead products,
one a liquid having the same composition as the reflux and the other a vapor product which is in
equilibrium with the liquid reflux.

Fractionation Schematic Diagram

Page 3 of 74
Fractionation Schematic Diagram
Equilibrium Stage Concept
All calculations are performed using theoretical (equilibrium) stages. A fractionation column may
be considered as a series of equilibrium flashes with two feeds and two product streams (Fig. 19­3).
The vapor enters the flash from the stage below at a higher temperature and the liquid stream
enters from the stage above at a lower temperature. Heat and mass transfer occur in this stage
such that the exiting streams are a bubble point liquid and dew point vapor at the same
temperature and pressure. The compositions of these phases are related by the equilibrium
relationship of yi = Kixi (See Section 25). This relationship, along with heat and material balance
consid­erations, is the basis for all fractionator design.

Overhead Product

Equilibrium Stage
Liquid from
Liquid Stage Above
Feed

Vapor from Equilibrium

Stage Below Liquid

Heat

Input Bottom

Page 4 of 74
Product Specifications
A material balance around the column is the first step in fractionation calculations. In order to
perform this balance, as­sumption of the product stream compositions must be made. There are
three ways of specifying a desired product from a fractionator:
 A percentage recovery of a component in the overhead or bottom stream.
 A composition of one component in either product.
 A specific physical property, such as vapor pressure, for either product.

The recovery and composition specifications can be used directly in the material balance. However,
property specifications are used indirectly. For instance if vapor pressure is a desired specification
of a product, a material balance is performed with an assumed component split. The calculated
vapor pressure of the resulting stream is then compared with the desired value and the material
balance redone until reasonable agreement is reached.

In a multicomponent mixture, there are typically two components which are the “keys” to the
separation. The light key component is defined as the lightest component in the bottom product in
a significant amount. The heavy key component is the heaviest component in the overhead product
in a significant amount. Normally, these two components are adjacent to each other in the volatility
listing of the components. For hand calculations, it is normally assumed for material balance
purposes that all components lighter than the light key are produced overhead and all components
heavier than the heavy key are produced with the bottom product. By definition, the key
components will be distributed between the product streams.

Page 5 of 74
Key Parameters
Two important considerations which affect the size and cost of a fractionation column are degree
of separation and component volatility.
The degree of separation or product purity has a direct impact on the size of the column and the
required utilities. Higher purity will require more trays, more reflux, larger diameter, and/or a
reduced product quantity. One quantitative measure of the difficulty of a separation is the
separation factor, SF, de­ fined as:
X  X 
SF   D   B 
 X B  LK  X D  HK

Note that above Equation defines the specification for the tower design.

Typically, for most fractionation problems this factor ranges from around 500 to 2000. However,
for sharp separations, it can be in the 10,000 range. The number of trays will be roughly proportional
to the log of the separation factor for a given system.

The volatility of the components is usually expressed as relative volatility, α. This quantity is
computed as the ratio of the equilibrium K values of two components at a given temperature and
pressure. For fractionation calculations the relative volatility of the key components is important.
Therefore:
  KLK KHK
This is a measure of the ease of separation. The larger α is, the easier is the separation.

Design Considerations
Operating Pressure
Before any design calculations can be made on a fractionation problem, a tower operating pressure
must be determined. One of the primary considerations for operating pressure is the cooling
medium available for the reflux condenser. The over­ head product will be at bubble point
conditions for a liquid product or at dew point conditions for a vapor product. The bubble point (or
dew point) pressure is fixed by a desired component separation and the temperature of the cooling
medium.

The cooling media typically used are air, water, and refrigerant. Air cooling is normally the least
expensive cooling method. Practical exchanger design limits the process to a 10°C approach to the

Page 6 of 74
ambient summer temperature. This translates to a process temperature of 46 to 52°C in most
locations. With cooling water, process temperatures of 35 to 41°C are possible. Below about 35°C,
mechanical refrigeration must be used to achieve the desired condensing temperature. This is the
most expensive cooling method from both a capital and operating cost standpoint. Generally, it is
desirable to operate at as low a pressure as possible to maximize the relative volatility between the
key components of the separation. However, if reducing the pressure requires a change to a more
expensive cooling method, this is usually not a desirable choice.

In some cases, the overhead from the column must be com­ pressed to sales or another process
unit. In this case a higher operating pressure may be desired to reduce compression power.

Other items must be considered which will limit pressure se­ lection. If an operating pressure is too
high, the critical temperature of the bottom product may be exceeded and the desired separation
cannot be achieved. Additionally, the pressure cannot exceed the critical pressure of the desired
overhead product.

The selection of a partial or total condenser is fixed by the disposition of the overhead product. A
total condenser is used for a liquid product and a partial condenser for a vapor product. However,
a liquid product can be produced as a vapor and subsequently cooled and/or compressed to
produce a liquid product. There may be cases where this downstream liquefaction is economically
attractive. In most cases, the fractionation system for a partial condenser will be cheaper and will
have to be balanced against the cost of additional downstream equipment. Before a reliable
economic comparison can be made, the column design must be made for each type condenser for
a number of reflux ratios and operating pressures.

Reflux Ratio and Number of Stages

The design of a fractionation column is a capital cost versus energy cost trade­off problem. The
primary parameters are the number of stages and the reflux ratio. Reflux ratio may be de­ fined in
several ways. For most calculations, reflux ratio is de­ fined as the ratio of the molar rate of reflux
liquid divided by the molar rate of net overhead product. The reboiler duty is a direct function of
the reflux ratio as the fractionating column must maintain an overall heat and material balance for
a given separation.

A fractionation column can only produce a desired separation between the limits of minimum reflux
and minimum stages. Fig. 19­6 illustrates the relationship between reflux ratio and number of
stages for a given separation. At minimum re­ flux an infinite number of stages is required. At total
reflux a minimum number of stages is required. Neither of these situations represents actual
operation but are the extreme limits of possible design configurations. Methods have been
developed to calculate both these cases in a rigorous manner. However, these methods require a
computer solution of tray by tray calculations. In order to begin a detailed design, estimates of
minimum reflux ratio and minimum trays should be generated from simple methods using a binary
key component analysis.

Page 7 of 74
The minimum stages can be calculated for most multicomponent systems by the Fenske equation.
log S F
Sm 
log  avg 

Condenser if these items are used. The αavg is the column average relative volatility of the key
components in the separation. Various averaging techniques have been proposed such as square
root averaging of the α at the top and bottom of the column. The most common approach is to use
an arithmetic average:
top  bottom
avg 
2

If volatility varies widely, the approach of Winn is suggested, in which a modified volatility is used:
 ij  K LK / K HK
b

Where the exponent b is obtained from K­value plots over the range of interest.

The minimum stage calculation is:

 X   X b  B 1b 
log  D   B    
 X B LK  X D  HK  D  
Sm 
log ij
Note that Sm includes the partial condenser and partial reboiler if they exist.

Page 8 of 74
Minimum Reflux Ratio
The Underwood method is the most widely used of the methods for calculating minimum reflux
ratio. Underwood assumed constant relative volatility and constant molal overflow in the
development of this method. The first step is to  evaluate by trial and error:

n
X Fi
1 q  
i 1  i     i
Once  is determined, the minimum reflux ratio is:

n
X Di
 Lo D m  1  Rm  1  
i 1  i     i
Number of Stages
The number of theoretical stages required for a given separation at a reflux ratio between minimum
and total reflux can be determined from empirical relationships. Erbar and Maddox made an
extensive investigation of tray­by­tray fractionator calculations and developed the correlation. This
correlation relates the ratio of minimum stages to theoretical stages to the minimum reflux ratio,
Rm, and the operating reflux ratio, R (where R = Lo/D).

It can be used to determine an operating reflux for a given number of stages by entering the figure
at the value of Sm/S, moving up to the line representing the value of Rm/(Rm + 1)and reading a value
of R/(R + 1). The optimum operating reflux ratio has been found to be near the minimum reflux
ratio. Values of 1.2 to 1.3 times the minimum are common. Thus for a given R, a value of S can be
determined from.

This correlation is generated on the basis of bubble point feed. If the feed is between the bubble
point and dew point then the operating reflux should be corrected. Erbar and Maddox proposed
the following relationship to adjust the vapor rate from the top tray for non­bubble point feed.
 D
1    F  HVF  H BP  
 Vcalc  
F
Vcorr
 QC 
 
 Lo calc

The reflux rate can then be adjusted by material balance since:

Lo  Vi  D

Computation Method
In order to determine the design parameters for a fractionation problem, the following method is
recommended:
 Establish feed composition, flow rate, temperature, and pressure.
 Make product splits for the column and establish condenser temperature and column pressure.
From column pressure, calculate the reboiler temperature.
 Calculate minimum number of theoretical stages from the Fenske equation (Equation 19­3).
 Calculate minimum reflux rate from the Underwood equations (Equation 19­7 and 19­8).

Page 9 of 74
 Obtain theoretical stages/operating reflux relation from Fig. 19­7.
 Adjust actual reflux for feed vaporization if necessary (Equation 19­9, 19­10).

For the given feed stream, 1102 m3/day (bubble point feed).
Desire: 98% C3 in the overhead (relative to the feed)
1% iC4 in the overhead
Air cooling (49°C Condensing Temperature)

Feed Composition Mol % Moles/hr

Find the:

Page 10 of 74
 Minimum trays required
 Minimum reflux ratio
 Actual trays at 1.3 times the minimum reflux ratio

Page 11 of 74
Page 12 of 74
Tray Columns

Internals
Various types of trays are used in fractionation columns. Fig. 19­8 presents an isometric sketch of
the top two trays in a fractionation column with bubble caps. The bubble caps, along with the weirs
and down comers, maintain a liquid level on the trays. The liquid flows across the tray, into the
down comer, and across the next tray in the opposite direction. The vapor flows up through the
caps and through the slots mixing with the liquid.

Fig. 19­9 shows the vapor flow through bubble cap trays, sieve trays, and valve trays. Due to the
riser in the bubble cap, it is the only tray which can be designed to prevent liquid from “weeping”
through the vapor passage. Sieve or valve trays control weeping by vapor velocity. The bubble cap
tray has the highest turndown ratio, with designs of 8:1 to 10:1 ratio being common. Bubble cap
trays are commonly found in existing glycol dehydration columns but new designs typically use
structured packing. Valve and sieve trays are popular due to the lower cost and increased capacity
over bubble cap trays for a given tower diameter.

Fig. 19­10 shows two valve designs. The upper drawing shows a floating valve free to open and close
with varying vapor flow rates. The lower drawing shows a “caged” valve which prevents valve loss
due to erosion of the tray. Various other designs are common such as using multiple disks and
rectangular valves. Valves of assorted weights have also been used to increase flexibility. The sieve
or perforated tray is the simplest construction of the three general types and thus is the least
expensive option. The sieve tray is simply a plate with holes for vapor passage. Although the sieve
tray generally has lower pressure drop than other tray types, its main disadvantage is that sieve
trays will be susceptible to “weeping” or “dumping” of the liquid through the holes at low vapor
rates and its turndown capacity is limited. Vendor­proprietary fixed valves and mini­valves are also
available for increased capacity. Fixed valves can provide turndown capacity between that of sieve
trays and standard (movable) valves. Larger fixed valves are used as alternatives to sieve trays in
fouling services.

Examples include
Koch­Glitsch PROVALVE®, VG­10 (fixed valves)
VG­0 (fixed mini­valve)
MV­1 (movable mini­valve)
Sulzer SVG (fixed valve)
MVG (fixed mini­valve)

Trayed columns generally provide satisfactory operation

Over a wide range of vapor and liquid loadings. Fig. 19­11 shows

Page 13 of 74
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Page 18 of 74
Page 19 of 74
Tray Efficiency
All column design work is performed using theoretical trays. An actual tray will not achieve
equilibrium due to limitations of vapor­liquid contact time. In an actual column, more trays are
required to obtain the desired separation. This determination is usually accomplished by the use of
an overall tray efficiency defined as:
theoreticaltrays

actualtrays Eq 19­22

The determination of tray efficiencies from theoretical parameters is the topic of numerous
technical articles.12, 13, 14.A detailed discussion of this subject is beyond the scope of this book.

O’Connell15 correlated the tray efficiencies of fractionators and absorbers. For fractionators, this
correlation considered thirty­eight systems of which 27 are hydrocarbon fractionators. The
correlation, shown in Fig. 19­18, relates overall tray efficiency to relative volatility computed at
average column conditions and the feed viscosity at average column conditions.

Example 19­4 — Evaluate the tray efficiency for the system in Example 19­2.
Average column temperature = 85°C
Feed viscosity @ 85°C = 0.076 mPa • s
Average α = 1.854

Solution Steps
     0.141
From Fig.19­18,   80%

The system in Example 19­2 required 21 theoretical stages including the reboiler. The total actual
trays is:
21  1
 25trays
0.80
Typically an extra tray is added to the tray count for each feed tray and each side exchanger. Using
this criteria, this column should have 26 trays.

Typical operating pressures, tray counts, reflux ratio, and tray efficiencies for various gas processing
systems are shown in Fig. 19­19. These are not design values; rather guidelines for typical values in
previous applications. The actual selection depends on many factors such as feed composition,
energy cost, and capital cost.

Page 20 of 74
Page 21 of 74
High Capacity Trays
The 90s saw the proliferation of High Capacity Trays by distillation equipment vendors and users.
These trays employ unconventional down comer and deck configurations to effect vapour and/or
liquid handling capability increases, when used to revamp distillation columns. High Capacity Trays
have been particularly effective in demethanizers, deethanizers, depropanizers and butane
columns.

One such High Capacity Tray, the NYE TRAY®, is shown in Fig. 19­20. This tray increases vapor
capacity by raising the receiving pan and increasing the area available for vapor flow. This, and
similar trays, employ a cross flow arrangement with liquid traveling horizontally across the decks
and vapor bubbling up through the liquid, creating a froth where the mass transfer occurs.
Proprietary down comer designs and deck enhancements such as fixed or mini­valves are often
employed. Examples of other High Capacity cross flow trays include the following:

NYE Tray (Raschig­Jaeger)

SUPERFRAC® (Koch­Glitsch)
VGPlus (Sulzer ChemTech)

Another style of High Capacity Trays employs multiple down comers to increase weir length and
liquid handling capacity beyond what conventional multi­pass trays can provide. Examples of such
trays include the following:
MD™ (UOP)
ECMD™ (UOP)
Hi­Fi (Shell Global Solutions)

Efficiencies of these counter flow trays are often lower than those of cross flow trays due to the
reduced contact time between the phases. Capacities can be quite high, and tray spacings quite
small, due to the very long outlet weir that these trays are capable of providing.

Still another tray configuration, called “cocurrent flow,” is expected to gain greater acceptance in
the future. With concurrent flow, the vapor and liquid phases are allowed to flow together,
unidirectionally, for a while inside contacting elements. Examples of such trays are ULTRA­FRAC®
(Koch­Glitsch), Simulflow (UOP) and ConSep (Shell Global Solutions). Some such trays are only
capable of functioning at low liquid rates such as those that are encountered in glycol dehydration
columns. Little information is publicly available regarding the efficiency of cocurrent flow trays.
Sizing for these, and in fact most High Capacity Trays, is regarded as proprietary by their vendors.
Fractionation Research Inc. (FRI) has performed extensive studies of both trays and packing in many
configurations. Companies that are members of Fractionation Research Inc. (FRI) have access to this
extensive set of test data and correlations to predict capacity and efficiency.

Page 22 of 74
Packed Columns
Traditionally the majority of fractionation columns in gas processing plants were equipped with
trays. However, an option to trayed columns is to use packing. With packed columns, contact
between the vapor and liquid phases is achieved throughout the column rather than at specific
levels.

There are generally three types of packed columns:

 Random packing wherein discrete pieces of packing are dumped in a random manner into a
column shell. These packings are of a variety of designs. Each design has particular
Surface area, pressure drop and efficiency characteristics. Examples of various packing types are
shown in Fig. 19­21. Random packing have gone through various
Development phases from the first generation packing’s which were two basic shapes, the
Raschig Ring and the Berl Saddle. Second generation packings include the Pall Ring and the
Intalox Saddle which are still used extensively today. Third generation packings come in a
multitude of geometries most of which evolved from the Pall Ring and The Intalox Saddle. (Fig.
19­22 and 19­23). Popular third generation packings include IMTP and Nutter Rings. More recent
developments include Raschig Super Rings and Koch­Glitsch’s Intalox Ultra.
 Structured packing where a specific geometric configuration is achieved. These types of packing
can either be the knitted­type mesh packing or sectionalized beds made of
Corrugated sheets (Figs. 19­24a and 19­24b). There are a number of commercially available
packings which differ in the angle of the crimps, the surface grooves and the use of perforations.
 Grids which are systematically arranged packing which use an open lattice structure. These types
of packings have found application in vacuum operation and low pressure drop applications.
Little use of these types of packings are seen in high pressure services.

Page 23 of 74
Structured packing has found application in low liquid loading applications which are below 49
m3/h/m2. Structured packing has performed very well in extremely low liquid loading applications
such as glycol dehydration (See Section 20). The high surface tension in glycol dehydrators also
helps the structured packing to perform well. Care is needed in the design to ensure sufficient liquid
to wet the entire packing surface.

Above 49 m3/h/m2, random packings are more advantageous. Structured packings have been tried
in fractionators with little success. Numerous case of structured packing failures have been
experienced in high pressure and/or high­liquid rate services. Predicting structured packing
efficiency has been problematic and unreliable in high pressure systems. Structured packings
generally have lower pressure drop per theoretical stage than random packings. This can be
important in low pressure applications but not for high pressure NGL fractionators.

Page 24 of 74
Column Sizing
The Eckert generalized pressure drop correlation (GPDC) is often used for sizing randomly packed
columns. The chart in Fig. 19­26, which is a modified correlation, can be used to predict pressure
drop for a given loading and column diameter. Alternatively, for a given pressure drop the diameter
can be determined.

Most packed columns are designed for pressure drop of between 5 and 15 mm of water per foot of
packed depth with 25 mm of water being the maximum.

The packing factors for various packings are shown in Fig. 19­25. Broadly speaking, packings smaller
than 25 mm size are intended for towers 300 mm or smaller in diameter, packings 25 mm or 38 mm
in size for towers over 300 mm to 900 mm in diameters, and 50 or 75 mm inch packings are used
for towers three or more feet in diameter. This results from trade­offs of capacity and efficiency.
The designer should select the proper size of packing, and therefore the proper packing factor for
calculations.

The packing factors in Fig. 19­25 are average values which are sufficient for preliminary sizing but
specific packing vendors should be contacted for design applications.

Page 25 of 74
The GPDC has limitations in describing the performance of packings. Efforts to improve the
correlation for specific packing geometries have led to the development and publication of charts
for each packing which strive to correlate packing performance information with the same abscissa
and ordinate as the GPDC chart. As discussed previously, FRI member companies have access to an
extensive set of test data and correlations to predict capacity and efficiency for many packings.

Page 26 of 74
Packing Height
In order to determine the height of a packed column bed, the height of a theoretical plate, HETP, is
required. HETP times the number of theoretical stages gives the height of the packing. Generally
HETPs range from 300 to 900 mm but can be as high as 1500 mm. Packed columns have found wide
usage in cryogenic plant demethanizers. Typical HETP’s for demethanizers are 91 cm for the upper
section and 76 cm for the lower section.

The prediction of the HETP from theory or empirical relations is a complex subject. Recent research
by Fractionation Research Inc. has underscored the sensitivity of HETP with a number of variables.
HETP is a function of flow rates and properties of the system as well as the specific geometric and
mechanical factors. In order to determine packing requirements, a packing manufacturer should be
consulted.

Fig. 19­27 provides some example HETPs for hydrocarbon systems in the gas processing industry.
HETP’s are also a function of the packing size. In general, the smaller packings have lower HETP
values. Fig. 19­28 shows an example trend of packing HETP’s for one type of packing.

Page 27 of 74
Page 28 of 74
Packed Column Internals
A critical consideration in packed columns is the control of the vapor and liquid phases. Fig. 19­29
shows a cross section of a packed tower with various internals. Each section of packing is supported
by a support plate or grid whose function is to carry the weight of the bed with minimum pressure
drop. Hold­down grids are used at the top to prevent lifting of the bed by the vapor phase. Liquid
distribution is a critical consideration in packed columns. Poor liquid distribution causes dramatic
loss of efficiency. Various designs have been used to distribute liquid feeds and to collect and
redistribute the liquid at various points in the tower. Generally the liquid should be redistributed
every 6 m of packing height or every 10 column diameters, whichever is smaller. Each of the packing
vendors has several types of distributors. The design and configuration of the distributor varies
according to tower vapor and liquid loading.

Dumped Packing versus Trays

Packed columns have been used extensively in the chemical industry for many years. Packings are
selected instead of trays for several reasons:

 Pressure drop — packed towers usually yield a lower pressure drop per theoretical stage. This
can be important for low pressure operations. However, at the elevated pressures encountered
in natural gas processing, column pressure drop is usually not a major issue.

 High liquid loading — for high liquid­to­vapor ratio systems, a packed column will have more
capacity for a given diameter. Some fractionation applications are characterized by low
liquid/vapor ratios and packing has less of an advantage for these designs.

 Foaming — in systems prone to foaming, packing is preferred over trays because packing does
not promote foam. Packing is less susceptible to foaming so credit may be taken in the capacity
correlation itself or by applying a less severe system factor (than trays in the same service) to
the existing correlation. Designers should consult with their company fractionation specialist
and/or the packing vendor to confirm the appropriate system factor to use.

 Corrosion — for corrosive systems, packing can be fabricated from ceramics or plastics. Trays
may have to be fabricated from expensive alloy materials.

Packed columns also have several disadvantages which must be taken into account in a
fractionation design:

 Liquid distribution — In trayed columns, the liquid phase is forced to flow across a tray surface.
With gas bubbling through the liquid, contact is assured. In packed towers, the liquid and vapor
are free to seek their own flow paths, and channelling can occur. It is critical that the liquid phase
be properly distributed at the top of the column and be redistributed at 6 m intervals or every
10 column diameters, whichever is smaller.

 Turndown — Turndown in a packed tower is usually limited by the liquid distributor design.
Typical distributor designs can achieve 50% turndown, but special designs can provide a wide
operating range, e.g. 10:1. Note that the high turndown distributor often occupies more tower
height than a standard design. Turndown for a tray varies with tray type and design details.
Moveable valve trays typically can be operated at 20­ 30% of full load, and special valve tray

Page 29 of 74
 designs can operate at even lower turndown. This can be important in situations where gas
production is phased in and throughput rates build up over time.

 Plugging — Packed towers will be more susceptible to plugging from dirt and other foreign
materials.

 Packing Height — The HETP for a packed column is an uncertain matter for new services. Often
they must be determined by testing or field applications. HETP’s can vary from a few inches to
everal feet.

 Inspection ­ It is difficult to inspect internals without removing all the contents of a column.

Page 30 of 74
Page 31 of 74
4.12 SEPARATOR
Separator is a pressure vessel used for separating well fluids from oil & gas wells into gaseous and
liquid components. A separator for petroleum production is a large vessel designed to separate
production fluids into the components of oil, gas and water.

Types of Separator

 Flash Vessel
A vessel used to separate the gas evolved from liquid flashed from a higher pressure to a lower
pressure.

 Gas – Liquid- Soli Separator (Filter Separator)

A filter separator usually has two compartments. The first compartment contains filter­
coalescing elements. The liquid particles coalesce into large droplet and when the droplets reach
sufficient size, the gas flow causes them to flow out of the filter elements into the center core.
The particles are then carried into the second compartment of the vessel (containing a vane­
type or knitted wire mesh mist extractor) where the larger droplets are removed.

 Scrubber (or) Knock out drum (Gas-Liquid Separator)

A vessel designed to handle streams with high gas to liquid ratios (GLR). The liquid is generally
entrained as mist in the gas or is free flowing along the pipe wall. These vessels usually have a
small liquid collection section.

 Two Phase Separator (Gas-Liquid Separator)

A vessel that separates the well fluid into gas and liquid. A two­phase separator can be
horizontal, vertical or spherical. The liquid leaves the vessel at the bottom through a level control
or dump valve. The gas leaves the vessel at the top passing through a mist extractor to remove
the entrained liquid droplets in the gas.

 Liquid-Liquid Separator
Two immiscible liquid phases can be separated using the same principles as gas­liquid separators
except that they must be designed for much lower feed velocities because of the difference in
density between two liquids is less and the separation become more difficult.

Page 32 of 74
 Gas –Liquid (Oil)-Liquid (Water) Separator (Three Phase Separator)
A vessel that separates the well fluids into gas and two types of liquid oil & water. A three phase
separator can be horizontal, vertical or spherical. This type of separator is commonly called a
free water knock because its main purpose is to remove free water that can cause problems such
as corrosion and formation of hydrates.

Page 33 of 74
Based on the purpose oil & gas separators are further classified as below

Classification by operating configuration

Sr Type of
Size of the Equipment
No. Equipment
0.25m – 0.3048m ᶲ and 1.22m – 1.5m (T to T)
1 Horizontal
4.57m ­ 4.88m ᶲ and 18.29m – 21.34m (T to T)
0.25m – 0.3048m ᶲ and 1.22m – 1.5m(T to T)
2 Vertical
0.25m – 0.3048m ᶲ and 3.66m – 4.57m (T to T)

3 Sphere 7.32m ­ 9.14 m ᶲ to 1.67­ 1.83 m ᶲ

Horizontal oil & gas separators are manufactured with monotube and dual tube shells. Monotube
units have one cylindrical shell and dual tube units have two cylindrical parallel shells with one
above the other. Both types of units can be used for two­phase and three­phase service. A
monotube horizontal oil & gas separator is usually preferred over a dual­tube separator.

Note: Mono Tube: One cylindrical shell with greater area for gas flow as well as a greater oil/gas
interface area. It will usually provide longer retention time.

Classification by Application
Oil and gas separators are further classified according to the application as below:

 Test Separator
A test separator is used to separate and to meter the well fluids. The test separator can be
referred to as a well tester or well checker. They can be permanently installed or portable. Test
separators can be equipped with various types of measuring devices for measuring the Gas oil
ratio (GOR), Water cut, Basic sediments & Water (BS & W).

 Production Separator
Production separator is used to separate the produced well fluid from a well, group of wells, or
a lease on a daily or continuous basis.

 Separator Basic Design Criteria

 A vessel that includes a primary separation device or section, secondary gravity settling
section, mist extractor to remove small liquid particles from the gas, gas outlet, liquid settling
section to remove gas from liquids, to separate water from oil and to separate solids from
the liquids, to separate water from oil and to separate solids from the liquids, and oil and
water outlet.
 Adequate volumetric liquid capacity to handle liquid surges from well or flow lines.
 Adequate vessel diameter and height to allow most of the liquid to separate from the gas so
that mist eliminator will not be flooded.
 Controlling of oil/water levels in the separator, which usually includes a liquid­level controller
and outlet control valves for oil & water.

Page 34 of 74
  A backpressure valve on the gas outlet line to control the pressure in the separator.
 Pressure relief device to safeguard the separator.

Function & Separation Device Combinations

Method of Internal Devices and

Sr.No Function
Separation Separation Aids
Mist extractors, impingement
Separation of type, change of direction type,
1 Gravity
Oil from gas cyclone filter cartridges and
washing.
Separation of Cyclone, plate packs, matrix
2 Gravity
gas from Oil packs, agitation and heat.
Separation of Cyclone, plate packs, matrix
3 Gravity
water from Oil packs, agitation and heat.
Separation of Cyclone, plate packs, matrix
4 Gravity
Oil from water packs, agitation and flotation.
Separation of
Cyclone, agitation, heat and
5 Solids from Gravity
flotation.
Liquid

Separator Orientation
Sr
Operation Horizontal Vertical Discussion
No
In a horizontal
vessel, the drops or
bubbles do not have
1 Separation Better --
to settle or rise
through a counter
current flow.
Solids are more
easily removed from
2 Solids -- Better
the bottom of the
vertical vessel
Horizontal vessel
provides more
3 Foaming Better --
surface area for
bubbles to escape
A change in liquid
level does not affect
4 Surges -- Better
the gas capacity of
the vessel

Page 35 of 74
For detail description of types of separator refer GPSA handbook separator section 7.1 and
Wikipedia article on pumps at the link:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil and gas separator

Sizing of the feed and Outlet Nozzles

The sizing of the nozzles shall be based on the maximum flow rates, including the appropriate design
margin.

Feed Inlet Nozzle

The internal nozzle diameter, d1, may be taken equal to that of the feed pipe, but also a momentum
criterion (dependent on the inlet device, if any) shall be satisfied:
If no inlet device is used:

ρm v2m ≤ 2100 [Pa]

Where:
ρm is the mean density of the mixture in the feed pipe
ρm = (MG + ML)/(QG + QL) [kg/m3]
MG = Gas Mass flow rate, kg/s
ML = Liquid Mass flow rate, kg/s
QG = Gas Volume flow rate, m3/s
QL = Liquid Volume flow rate, m3/s
Vm,in is the velocity of the mixture in the inlet nozzle
Vm, in = (QG + QL)/ (πd12 / 4) [m/s]
d1 = inside diameter of feed nozzle, m

If a half-open pipe is used as inlet device:

ρmv2 m,in ≤ 2100 [Pa]

If a Schoepentoeter is used as inlet device:

ρmv2m, in ≤ 8000 [Pa]

For vessels with normally no liquid, sizing the inlet nozzle for an inlet momentum of 8000 Pa at
normal operating conditions is allowed. The design margin can be omitted for these cases. This
minimizes the need for reducers.

When rating the capacity of existing vessels, the inlet momentum regularly exceeds the design inlet
momentum. The consequence of a higher than design inlet momentum is that the droplets in the
feed to the vessel typically get smaller, resulting in a lower separation efficiency of the inlet device
and the separator. Shell DEP.31.20.20.31­Gen. provides guidelines for the maximum operating load
over the feed nozzle for meeting the mechanical integrity requirements of the Schoepentoeter.

The pressure drop across the Schoepentoeter approximates to:

ΔPsch = 0.08* ρmv2m, in [Pa]

Page 36 of 74
In units or separators where the inlet velocity can be very high because of the low gas density, the
use of a Schoepentoeter as feed inlet device is mandatory. The following velocity limits shall also
be satisfied:
­ To prevent erosion:
vG,in ≤ 70 [m/s]
­ To prevent choking or damage due to vibrations:
vG,in ≤ 0.8Vsonic,G
Where Vsonic,G is the sonic velocity if only gas is present.

R is the gas constant (8314 J/kmol/K)

T is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin)
κ is the ratio of the specific heats (Cp/Cv)
MWG is the mean molecular weight of the gas phase (in kg/kmol)
Gas Outlet Nozzle
The diameter of the gas outlet nozzle, d2, should normally be taken equal to that of the outlet pipe,
but the following criterion shall be satisfied:

ρGv2G,out ≤ 4500 [Pa]

In High Vacuum Units this criterion may result in a high outlet velocity, leading to a pressure drop
which is too high. In that case the gas outlet nozzle shall be sized such that the pressure drop
requirements between column and downstream system are met.

Liquid Outlet Nozzle

The diameter of the liquid outlet nozzle, d3, shall be chosen such that the liquid velocity does not
exceed 1 m/s. The minimum diameter is 0.05 m (2 in). The nozzle shall be equipped with a vortex
breaker.

When rating the capacity of existing vessels a nozzle liquid velocity up to 2 ­ 2.5 m/s is regularly
experienced. This higher nozzle liquid velocity can be accepted as long as the available minimum
liquid static head in the vessel, determined by the level control settings, can provide the higher
liquid velocity, as estimated from the equation: hL = 100 VL2

Where
hL = Liquid static head above the nozzle in mm
VL = Nozzle Liquid velocity in m/s

Separator Internals

Inlet Devices
The main function of the inlet devices are:

Page 37 of 74
 Reduce the momentum of the inlet stream and enhance flow distribution of the gas and liquid
phase.
 Efficient separation of the bulk liquid phase.
 Prevent droplet shattering and re­entrainment of bulk liquid phase.
 These are the commonly used separator inlet devices:
 No inlet device.
 Diverter plate.
 Half­pipe.
 Vane­type.
 Cyclonic type.
 Schoepentoeter
In addition to the inlet device, inlet piping configuration is also important for proper separation.
Generally vane­type and cyclonic inlet device provided improved separation compared to others.

Mist Extraction Equipment

Mist extractor are used to separate the small liquid droplets from the gas phase that were not
removed by the inlet device or gas settling section of the separator and the droplets are less than
150­500 microns in size. It is not economic to separate these small droplets by gravity settling.

Wire Mesh
Wire­mesh mist extractors, or pads, are made by knitting wire, metal or plastic, into tightly packed
layers which are then crimped and stacked to achieve the required pad thickness. If removal of very
small droplets, i.e. less than 10 microns is required, much finer fibers may be interwoven with the
primary mesh to produce a co­knit pad. Performance will affect adversely if the pad is tilted more
than 30 degrees from the horizontal.

Most of the mesh pad installations will use 150mm thick pad with 144 – 192 kg/m3 bulk density.
Minimum recommended pad thickness is 100mm. Manufacturer has to confirm the mesh pad
thickness based on the requirement. Typical mesh pad installation is shown below.

Page 38 of 74
Vane
Vane or chevron­type mist extractors (vane­pack) use relatively closely spaced blades arranged to
provide sinusoidal or zigzag flow paths. The changes in gas flow direction combined with inertia of
the entrained liquid droplets, cause impingement of the droplets onto the plate surface, followed
by coalescence and drainage of the liquid to the liquid collection section of the separator. Vane
packs may be installed in either horizontal or vertical orientations, though capacity is typically
reduced significantly for vertical up flow applications.

A number of different vane pack design are available. Pack thicknesses are generally in the range of
6­12 inches. Vanes are usually arranged in a zigzag or sinusoidal pattern, with vane spacing’s of 1­
1.5 inches typical.

Cyclonic Separator
Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air, gas or liquid stream, without
the use of filters, through vortex separation. Rotational effects and gravity are used to separate
mixtures of solids and fluids. The method can also be used to separate fine droplets of liquid from
a gaseous stream. A high speed rotating (air) flow is established within a cylindrical or conical
container called a cyclone.

Page 39 of 74
Souders-Brown Equation
The Souders–Brown equation has been the tool for obtaining the maximum allowable vapor
velocity in vapor–liquid separation vessels (variously called flash drums, knockout drums, knockout
pots, compressor suction drums and compressor inlet drums). It has also been used for the same
purpose in designing tray fractionating columns, tray absorption columns and other vapor–liquid
contacting columns. A vapor–liquid separator drum is a vertical vessel into which a liquid and vapor
mixture (or a flashing liquid) is fed and wherein the liquid is separated by gravity, falls to the bottom
of the vessel, and is withdrawn. The vapor travels upward at a design velocity which minimizes the
entrainment of any liquid droplets in the vapor as it exits the top of the vessel.

The diameter of a vapor–liquid separator drum is dictated by the expected volumetric flow rate of
vapor and liquid from the drum. The following sizing methodology is based on the assumption that
those flow rates are known. Use a vertical pressure vessel with a length–diameter ratio of about 3
to 4, and size the vessel to provide about 5 minutes of liquid inventory between the normal liquid
level and the bottom of the vessel (with the normal liquid level being somewhat below the feed
inlet).

Calculate the maximum allowable vapor velocity in the vessel by using the Souders–Brown
equation:

Where:
V = maximum allowable vapor velocity, m/s
ρL = liquid density, kg/m³
ρV = vapor density, kg/m³
K = 0.107 m/s (when the drum includes a de­ entraining mesh pad)

Then the cross­sectional area of the drum (A) is obtained from:

Area A = Vapor volume flow rate / Vapor velocity
And the drum diameter (D) is:
Diameter D = (1.273 * A) ½

Page 40 of 74
The drum should have a vapor outlet at the top, liquid outlet at the bottom, and feed inlet at about
the half­full level. At the vapor outlet, provide a de­entraining mesh pad within the drum such that
the vapor must pass through that mesh before it can leave the drum. Depending upon how much
liquid flow is expected, the liquid outlet line should probably have a liquid level control valve.

As for the mechanical design of the drum (materials of construction, wall thickness, corrosion
allowance, etc.), use the same criteria as for any pressure vessel.

Recommended values of k
The GPSA Engineering Data Book recommends the following k values for vertical drums with
horizontal mesh pads (at the denoted operating pressures):
 At a gauge pressure of 0 bar: 0.107 m/s
 At a gauge pressure of 7 bar: 0.107 m/s
 At a gauge pressure of 21 bar: 0.101 m/s
 At a gauge pressure of 42 bar: 0.092 m/s
 At a gauge pressure of 63 bar: 0.083 m/s
 At a gauge pressure of 105 bar: 0.065 m/s

GPSA Notes:
 k = 0.107 at a gauge pressure of 7 bar. Subtract 0.003 for every 7 bar above a gauge pressure of
7 bar.
 For glycol or amine solutions, multiply above k values by 0.6 – 0.8
 Typically use one­half of the above k values for approximate sizing of vertical separators without
mesh pads
 For compressor suction scrubbers and expander inlet separators, multiply k by 0.7 – 0.8

Page 41 of 74
4.13 HEAT EXCHANGERS
Introduction
The shell­and­tube heat exchanger is by far the most common type of heat exchanger used in
industry. It can be fabricated from a wide range of materials both metallic and non­metallic.
Design pressures range from full vacuum to 6,000 psig. Design temperatures range from ­250⁰C to
800⁰C.

The shell­and­tube design is more rugged than other types of heat exchangers. It can stand more
(physical and process) abuse.

Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers can be used as condensers, reboilers, process heaters and coolers.
Low Pattern in a Simple Shell & Tube Heat Exchang

Shell
Tube side
side Sh Flow In
Flow ell
Out Tube
Shell Bundle
Tube side
side Flow
Flow In Out

Working Principle / Governing Equation

Simplified heat exchanger concepts:

Heat exchangers work because heat naturally flows from higher temperature to lower
temperatures. Therefore if a hot fluid and a cold fluid are separated by a heat conducting surface,
heat can be transferred from the hot fluid to the cold fluid.

Page 42 of 74
The rate of heat flow at any point (kw/m2 of transfer surface) depends on:
 Heat transfer coefficient (u), itself a function of the properties of the fluids involved, fluid
velocity, materials of construction, geometry and cleanliness of the exchanger
 Temperature difference between hot and cold streams

Total heat transferred (q) depends on:

 heat transfer surface area (a)
 heat transfer coefficient (u)
 average temperature difference between the streams, strictly the log mean (∆t lm)

Thus total heat transferred:

But the larger the area the greater the cost of the exchanger
Therefore there is a trade­off between the amount of heat transferred and the exchanger cost

Page 43 of 74
Heat Exchanger: Pictorial View

Page 44 of 74
Other Types of Heat Exchangers

 Gasketed / welded plate and frame heat exchanger

 Spiral heat exchanger
 Tubular heat exchanger
 Plate coils heat exchanger
 Scraped surface heat exchanger

Page 45 of 74
Applications of Heat Exchangers

Heat
exchangers
are used in
Industry for
heat transfer

Heat
Exchangers
prevent car
engine
overheating

Heat
exchangers are
used in AC and
furnaces

Page 46 of 74
Different Parts of a Typical Heat Exchanger
 Shell – The Shell is simply a container for the shell side fluid. The shell cylinder can be fabricated
from rolled plate or from piping (up to 24 inch diameters).

 Tubes / Tube Bundle ­

 Tubing may be seamless or welded.
 Normal tube diameters are 5/8 inch, 3/4 inch and 1 inch.
 The normal tube wall thickness ranges from 12 to 16 BWG (from 0.109 inches to 0.065 inches
thick).
 Tubing may be finned to provide more heat transfer surface.

 Tubesheets ­
 Tubesheets are plates or forgings drilled to provide holes through which tubes are inserted.
 Tubes are appropriately secured to the tube sheet so that the fluid on the shell side is
prevented from mixing with the fluid on the tube side.
 The distance between the centers of the tube hole is called the tube pitch; normally the tube
pitch is 1.25 times the outside diameter of the tubes.

Square Pitch – When the shell side fluid is fouling and

mechanical cleaning is required.
Triangular Pitch – When the shell side fluid is clean.
Rotated Triangular Pitch – Seldom used. Offers no
advantage over triangular pitch.
Rotated Square Pitch – When higher turbulence is
required i.e. when Reynolds Number is low (< 2000)
Page 47 of 74
 Baffles –
 Baffles serve three functions:
 Support the tube.
 Maintain the tube spacing.
 Direct the flow of fluid in the desired pattern through the shell side.
 A segment, called the baffle cut, is cut away to permit the fluid to flow parallel to the tube
axis as it flows from one baffle space to another.
 The spacing between segmental baffles is called the baffle pitch.
 When the shell side heat transfer is sensible heating or cooling with no phase change, the
baffle cut should be horizontal. This causes the fluid to follow an up­and­down path and
prevents stratification with warmer fluid at the top of the shell and cooler fluid at the bottom
of the shell.
 For shell side condensation, the baffle cut is vertical to allow the condensate to flow towards
the outlet without significant liquid holdup by the baffle. For shell side boiling, the baffle cut
may be either vertical or horizontal.

Effects of Baffle Cut

Types of Baffle Arrangement

PARALLEL
PERPENDICULAR
DOUBLE
SEGMENTAL

Page 48 of 74
Flow Pattern in Different Types of Baffles

Shell Inlet

Shell
Outlet
Double Segmental Transverse Baffles
Doughnut and Disc
Type Baffles

Shell Inlet
Channel
Inlet

Channel
Outlet
Shell Outlet
Single Segmental Transverse Baffles

Page 49 of 74
Types of Baffles

Page 50 of 74
Types of Baffles

Page 51 of 74
 Tie Rods & Spacers ­ Tie rods and spacers are used for two reasons:
 Hold the baffle assembly together
 Maintain the selected baffle spacing.

 Channels (Heads)
 Channels or heads are required for shell­and­tube heat exchangers to contain the tube side
fluid
 To provide the desired flow path.
 The three (3) letters TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association) designation is the
standard method for identifying the type of channels and the type of shell of shell­and­tube
heat exchangers.
 The channel type is selected based on the application.
 The most commonly used channel type is the bonnet. It is used for services which do not
require frequent removal of the channel for inspection or cleaning.
 Removable cover channels are provided when frequent cleaning is required.

TEMA Class for Channels

TEMA CLASS
FOR APPLICATION
CHANNELS

R Severe requirements of petroleum and related process applications

Moderate requirements of commercial and general process

C
applications

B Chemical process service

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TEMA Front & Rear Heads

Page 53 of 74
Page 54 of 74
Selection of Heads
TEMA Front Head Selection
A Easy to open for tube side access. For low pressure applications.
For Higher-pressure applications, preferred with clean tube side fluid. It
B is less expensive than Type A.
Tube side is corrosive, toxic or hazardous and when removable tube
C bundle is required. It is normally used for low-pressure operations.
For application where tube side is corrosive, toxic or hazardous and shell
N side fluid is clean and any leakage possibility is to be eliminated.
D Very High-pressure applications.

TEMA Rear Head Selection

Fixed Head, Should be used when thermal differential expansion of the
L,M,N shell and tubes is low and shell side fluid is clean.
L For low pressure applications.
M For Higher-pressure applications, not requiring frequent maintenance.
For application where tube side is Corrosive, toxic or hazardous and
N where leakage of shell to tube side fluid and vice versa, is to be eliminated.
For thermal differential expansion of the shell and tubes is higher and tube
side fluid is clean. For high-pressure applications or, with hazardous/ toxic
U fluid on shell side.
Should be used when shell side fluid or both shell and tube side fluid are
P,S,T,W Dirty.
Pressure is low and shell side fluid is not toxic or hazardous. Where risk
P of internal flange leakage is to be avoided.
Normal Pressure requirements, relatively lesser maintenance
S requirements.
T High-pressure requirements, frequent need to takeout the tube bundle.
W For low-pressure application.

Page 55 of 74
TEMA Shell Types

SELECTION OF SHELL

Common TEMA type of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers:

 AES
 BEU
 BHU
 BXU
 BEM
 AKU
 AET
 AEL

Page 56 of 74
Selection of Shell
TEMA Shell Selection

The E shell is the most common as it is inexpensive and simple.

E

F shell is rarely used in practice because there are many problems associated
with the design. It is difficult to remove/replace the tube bundle, problems of
F
fabrication and maintenance, internal leakage, unbalanced thermal expansion
in case of large temperature difference between inlet & outlet.

G & To accommodate high inlet velocities. They are used as horizontal

H thermosiphon reboilers, condensers, and other phase-change applications.

J Used for low pressure drop applications such as a condenser in vacuum.

The K shell is used for partially vaporizing the shell fluid. It is used as a kettle
K reboiler in the process industry and as a flooded chiller in the refrigeration
industry. They are used when essentially 100% vaporization is required.

It is used for gas heating and cooling and for vacuum condensation. It is also
X
used when shell flows are large.

Allocation of Streams
 High Pressure
If one of the stream is at a high pressure, it is desirable to put that stream inside the tubes. In
this case, only the tubes and tube side fittings need to be designed to withstand high pressure,
whereas the shell may be made of lighter weight metal.

 Corrosion
Corrosion generally dictates the choice of material of construction, rather than exchanger
design. However, since most corrosion resistant alloys are more expensive than the ordinary
materials of construction, the corrosive fluid will normally be placed inside the tubes to reduce
the cost by avoiding use of corrosion resistant alloys for the shell side.

 Viscosity
Highly viscous fluid is placed at shell side so that turbulence can be induced by introducing
baffles in shell side.

Page 57 of 74
 Fouling
Fouling enters into the design of almost every process exchanger to a measurable extent, but
certain streams foul so badly that the entire design is dominated by features which seek a) to
minimize fouling or b) to facilitate cleaning.

 Low Heat Transfer Coefficient

If one stream has an inherently low heat transfer coefficient (such as low pressure gases or
viscous liquids), this stream is preferentially put on the shell side.

 Flow Rate
Generally smaller flow rate fluid is placed on the shell side. This facilitates provision of adequate
turbulence by increasing number of baffles.

 Phase Of Fluid
Two phase fluid should be placed in shell side.

Major Practical Problems Encountered In Heat Exchangers

Fouling
Fouling is generally defined as the accumulation of unwanted materials on the surfaces of
processing equipment. It has been recognized as a nearly universal problem in design and operation
and affects the operation of equipment in two ways:
 The fouling layer has a low thermal conductivity. This increases the resistance to heat transfer
and reduces the effectiveness of heat exchangers – increasing temperature.
 As deposition occurs, the cross­sectional area is reduced, which causes an increase in pressure
drop across the exchanger.
Fouling can be caused by:
 Frequent use of the heat exchanger
 Not cleaning the heat exchanger regularly
 Reducing the velocity of the fluids moving through the heat exchanger
 Over­sizing of the heat exchanger

Page 58 of 74
Fouled Heat Exchanger Tubes

Fouling Treatment
Tubular heat exchangers can be cleaned by such methods as chemical cleaning, sandblasting, high
pressure water jet, bullet cleaning, or drill rods.
In large­scale cooling water systems for heat exchangers, water treatment such as purification,
addition of chemicals, and testing is used to minimize fouling of the heat exchanger.

Page 59 of 74
Fouling Resistances for Industrial Fluids

Page 60 of 74
Fouling Resistances for Chemical Processing Streams

Page 61 of 74
Fouling Resistances for Oil Refinery Streams

Page 62 of 74
Page 63 of 74
Fouling Resistance for Water

Vibrations
Fluid flowing through a heat exchanger can cause the heat exchanger tubes to vibrate. Different
types of vibration mechanisms are as follows:

 Fluid Elastic Instability:

Fluid elastic instability is important for both gases & liquids. This occurs above a critical flow velocity.
There are different methods to avoid fluid elastic instability such as:
 Decreasing the span lengths
 Increasing the tube diameter
 Reducing clearance between tube & baffle
 Increasing tube pitch also helps in minimizing tube vibrations
 Tubes in the window region can be removed so that all tubes are supported.

 Vortex Shedding:
Vortex shedding is caused by the periodic shedding of the vortices from the tubes and can lead to
damage of tubes if vibrations coincide with the tube natural frequency. Some measures such as
changing span lengths can be taken to avoid vibrations.

 Acoustic Resonance:

Page 64 of 74
 Acoustic resonance is very important in case of gases. It occurs when the frequency of an acoustic
wave in the heat exchanger coincides with tube natural frequency. Even if acoustic wave does not
cause any vibrations, it can lead to intolerable noise. It can be avoided by changing span lengths.
Generally deresonating baffles are placed in all cross passes of the heat exchanger parallel to both
the direction of cross flow and the centerline of the tubes, which increases the acoustic frequency
of the acoustic wave thus, eliminating acoustic vibration problem.

 Turbulent Buffeting:
Turbulent buffeting mechanism is very important in case of two­phase flow. The turbulence in the
flowing fluid contains a broad range of frequencies and can coincide with the tube natural frequency
to cause tube vibrations.

 Flow pulsation:
Flow pulsation is because of periodic variations in the flow. This can become very important in case
of two­phase flow.

Table for Selection

Page 65 of 74
Thermal Designing & Rating of Heat Exchangers
Designing & Rating of Heat Exchangers is carried out by using following software:

 HTRI Exchanger Suite: HTRI is developed by Heat Transfer Research Inc.

 EDR: Exchanger Design Rating from Aspen

Inputs Required
Before proceeding in either designing or rating of Heat Exchangers, there are some essential inputs
required from the client. These are:
Complete and latest Process datasheet. Also, old Process datasheet in case of rating of Heat
Exchanger.

Essential data includes:

 Total Heat Duty
 Flow rates, temperatures, pressures for both sides
 Fluid properties including: density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, and viscosity for at least
two points.
 For condensers and evaporators, data such as a condensing curve, boiling point elevation,
and/or other parameters may be required.
 Process conditions and limitations such as fouling resistance, pressure drop limitations, MOC
etc.
Specifications and other special requirements/limitations.
Exchanger drawings & old TEMA datasheet in case of rating of heat exchanger.

Outputs Delivered
When an Exchanger is designed following are the deliverables to the client:
 TEMA Datasheet
 Rating Report stating the adequacy of the Heat Exchanger

HTRI OUTPUT / RESULTS INTERPRETATION

 Output of HTRI is interpreted in various ways depending upon the type of problem i.e. type of
service, type of exchanger, any special guideline/limitation from the client, etc. Normally, an
output is studied for the following parameters :

 Heat duty
 Allowable pressure drop
 B & F flow fractions
 Vibrations
 Shell side, Tube side, Cross flow, Wind flow velocities
 Overdesign percentage
 Runtime messages (if any)
 Rho­V2 values

Page 66 of 74
Heat Exchanger design:
1. Initially calculate heat load
Q  M sCps T2  T1   Mt Cpt  t2  t1   U D AD LMTD
Where Ms=Shell side mass flowrate kg/hr
Cps: Specific heat of fluid on shell side kcal/kgC
T1, T2: Shell side inlet/outlet temperature.
Mt: Tube side mass flowrate kg/hr
Cpt: Specific heat of fluid on tube side kcal/kgC
t1, t2: Tube side inlet/outlet temperature.
Q: Heat load Kcal/hr
Ud: Overall Design heat transfer coefficient Kcal/m2hrC
AD: Design surface area M2
LMTD: Log mean temperature difference C

2. Based on the co­current/counter­current flow, calculate LMTD

3. Decide Correction factor Ft for LMTD based on no of passes

R: Shell side temperature difference/Tube side temperature difference
S: Tube side temperature difference/ Shell inlet temperature­ tube inlet temperature
Get the correction factor from R, S values for the selected no of passes
LMTD corrected: LMTD true × Correction factor

Log Mean Temperature Difference

The LMTD is the temperature difference at one end of the heat exchanger less the temperature.
The hot and cold fluids are assumed to be flowing countercurrent to each other.

LMTD 
T1  t2   (T2  t1 )
 T  t  
ln 1 2
 
 (T2  t1 ) 
CLMTD=F×LMTD

4. Assume UD

5. Calculated the surface area AD = Q UD  LMTDcorrected

6. Select the tube configuration viz Tube dia, thk, length, and layout
Calculate No of tubes, no of passes, tubes/ pass

7. Next determine Inside & Outside heat transfer coefficients

Inside heat transfer coefficients hio: hi×di/do
Outside heat transfer coefficient ho

8. Then calculate Tube metal wall temperature tw

When the hot fluid is inside the shell/ cold fluid in tube

Page 67 of 74
tw  tc   ho (hio  ho ) (Tc  tc )
tw  Tc   hio (hio  ho ) (Tc  tc )
When the hot fluid is inside the tube/ cold fluid in shell
tw  tc   ho (hio  ho )  (Tc  tc )
tw  Tc   ho (hio  ho )  (Tc  tc )

Where Tc, Tc Is Calorific or Average Fluid Temperature on Shell/ Tube Side

Tc  T1  T2  2, tc   t1  t2  2

9. Get the viscosity at tube metal wall temperature, w

Calculate viscosity correction factor (   w ) 0 .1 4

10. Calculate the corrected inside and outside heat transfer coefficient

11. Calculate clean overall heat transfer coefficient Uc

UC  hio  ho  hio  ho 

12. Then check the dirt factor Rd

hd  U CU D (U C  U D )
Rd  4.88  U C  U D  U C U D
Max hd 1625 Kcal/M2HrC
Rd 0.003 Btu Ft 2 Ht F
If dirt coefficient within limits, then assumed UD is ok.
Then surface area is sufficient for the duty

13. Finally calculate tube & shell side pressure drop

Shell side frictional pressure drop: fGs Ds  N  1 / 2G De in kg/m2
2

Ds : Shell inside diameter m

Gs : Shell side flow kg/m2hr
De : Equivalent diameter m
 : Density kg/m3
N 1: L B
L: Shell length mm
B: Baffle spacing mm


Friction factor f : Exp 0.576   0.19Ln Re  

14. Tube side frictional pressure drop: 4 f  L Dt   u 2 2 g  kg/m2

Page 68 of 74
Dt : Inside tube diameter m
L: Total tube length M= Tube length × No of passes

Return losses through tube passes: n 4 f 4  u 2 2 g 
Where n: no of passes
 : Density kg/m3
g: 9.81 m/s2
u : Velocity m/s

Total tube side pressure drop: pressure drop due to frictional + return losses
Allowable pressure drops: Shell side: 2 psi, Tube: 10 psi

4.14 FLARE SYSTEM

Flare
The flare is a last line of defense in the safe emergency release system in a refinery or chemical
plant. It uses unrecoverable gases emerging with oil from oil wells, vented gases and gaseous water
from gas processing units. The flare provides a means of safe disposal of the vapor streams from its
facilities, by burning them under controlled conditions such that adjacent equipment or personnel
are not exposed to hazards, and at the same time obeying the environmental regulation of pollution
control and public relation requirements.

The chemical process used for flaring is a high temperature oxidation reaction to burn combustible
components, mostly hydrocarbons, or waste gases from industrial operations. In combustion, the
gaseous hydrocarbon reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Several by-
products formed will be carbon monoxide, hydrogen and others dependent upon what is being
burned. Efficiency of hydrocarbon conversion is generally 98%.

Flare Type
In industry commonly used flare systems are elevated flares and ground flares. Selection of the flare
depends on parameters such as space availability, characteristics of the flare gas, economics,
investment, operating costs and government regulations.

Elevated Flare
Elevated flare is the most commonly used type in refineries and chemical plants. These have larger
capacities than ground flares. The waste gas stream is fed through a stack from 10 m to 100 m tall
and is combustible at the tip of the stack.

The elevated flare, can be steam assisted, air assisted or non-assisted. Elevated can utilize steam
injection/air injection to made smokeless burning and with low luminosity up to about 20% of
maximum flaring load. Disadvantage of steam/air injection will be source of noise and cause noise
pollution. By increasing the elevation of stack, flare has the best dispersion characteristics for toxic
combustion products. Capital costs are relatively high and an appreciable plant area may be rendered
unavailable for plant equipment, because of radiant heat considerations.

Page 69 of 74
Ground Flare
A ground flare is where the combustion takes place at ground level. It varies in complexity, and may
consist either of conventional flare burners discharging horizontally with no enclosure or of multiple
burners in refractory­lined steel enclosures. Compare to elevated flare, ground flare can be
achieved smokeless operation as well, but with essentially no noise or luminosity problems,
provided that the design gas rate to the flare is not exceeded.

Page 70 of 74
 Typical Enclosed Ground Flare

Flare System Components

Typical flare system consists of
 Gas collection header and piping for collecting gases from processing units.
 A Knockout drum to remove and store condensable and entrained liquids,
 A proprietary seal, water seal, or purge gas supply to prevent flash­back
 A single or multiple burner unit and a flare stack,
 Gas pilots and an igniter to ignite the mixture of waste gas and air and
 A provision for external momentum force (Steam injection or forced air) for smokeless flaring.

Design Factors
Following points are to be considered for designing the flare system design:

Based on the Gas Stream released

 Gas Flow Rate
 Gas Composition
 Gas temperature
 Gas Pressure available
 Utility Cost and availability

Based on the Regulatory Requirement

 Safety Requirements.
 Environmental Requirements.
 Social Requirements.

Design Factors
When designing the flare system, several important parameters have to be considered, these are,
flare head design, flare exit velocity, VOC heating value, and whether the flame is assisted by steam
or air.
Besides that, the design should be based on consideration below:
 Flare Spacing, Location, and Height
 Radiant Heat
 Burning Liquid Fall out
 Pollution limitations
Flare Spacing, Location, and Height
Flare design capacity is design to handle largest vapor release from pressure relief valve, vapor blow
down and other emergency system.

Flashback Seals­flashback protection, which prevents a flame front from travelling back to the
upstream piping and equipment. Sizing of flare systems is a function of maximum allowable back
pressure on pressure relief valves and other sources of release into the emergency system.

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Flare Glossary

 Back Pressure ­ Back pressure is the sum of the superimposed and build­up back pressures. The
pressure that exists at the outlet of a pressure relief device is as a result of the pressure in the
discharge system.

 Gas Blower ­ Device for blowing air to flare system.

 Blow down ­ The difference between the set pressure and the closing pressure of a pressure
relief valve, expressed as a % of the set pressure in pressure units.
 Closed Disposal System ­ Disposal system which is capable of containing pressure that is different
from atmospheric pressure.

 Flare System – A system that safely disposing of waste gases through the use of combustion.

 Flare Stack – It is an elevated vertical stack found on oil wells or oil rigs, and in refineries,
chemical plants and landfills used for burning off unusable waste gas or flammable gas and
liquids released by pressure relief valves during unplanned over­pressuring of plant equipment.

 Flame Arrestors ­ A crimped ribbon aluminum or stainless steel flame cell to protect against rapid
burn backs in low­pressure situations. These passive safety devices are guaranteed to prevent
flame fronts from propagating back through lines, destroying facilities, and causing injuries.

 Flare Tips ­ Structure at top of the flare play the role to keep an optimum burn and control over
all flow rates, which results in a cleaner combustion. The design of the tip makes sure that the
tip does not come into contacting with the flame making the tips reliable and long lasting.

 Ignitions system – Is a system use to ignite the flare of flare systems. Normally this system
designed to ignite the flare quickly the first time, maintain combustion and re­ignite rapidly to
prevent industrial hazards and personal injury while protecting the environment.

 Knockout Drum – Is a drum installed near the flare base, and serves to recover liquid
hydrocarbons, prevent liquid slugs, and remove large liquid particles from the gas streams
released from relief system.

 Open Disposal System ­ A disposal system that discharges directly from relief system to
atmosphere without other devices.

 Overpressure ­ Pressure value increase more that the set point pressure of the relieving device,
expressed in percent.

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 Pressure Relieving System ­ An arrangement of a pressure­relieving device, piping and a means
of disposal intended for the safe relief, conveyance, and disposal of fluids in a vapor, liquid, or
gaseous phase. It can be consist of only one pressure relief valve or rupture disk, either with or
without discharge pipe, on a single vessel or line.

 Rupture Disk Device ­ A non­reclosing differential pressure relief device actuated by inlet static
pressure and designed to function by bursting the pressure containing rupture disk. A rupture
disk device includes a rupture disk and a rupture disk holder.

 Relief Valve – A spring­loaded pressure relief valve is actuated by the static pressure upstream
of the valve. The valve opens normally in proportion to the pressure increase over the operating
pressure. A relief valve is used primarily with incompressible fluids.

 Support Structure – Structure which designed to withstand local wind condition for flares. Three
types are available: self­supported, Guy­wire supported and Derrick supported.

 Windbreaker ­ A windbreaker prevents the wind from extinguishing the flames at flare tip. It
serves also to hide the flames.

4.15 SOFTWARE TOOLS (COMMONLY USED)

Aspen HYSYS
A general process simulation and modelling software very commonly used in the upstream oil and
gas industry is HYSYS. HYSYS is extensively used for developing PFD and mass and heat balance.

Aspen Flare System Analyser

It is extensively used for modeling of flare or cold vent networks commonly required in upstream
oil and gas. Its allows to determine type of relief device and sizing of connected piping including
individual tail pipes, flare sub­header and flare main header.

Aspen Exchanger Design and Rating (EDR)

Aspen Exchanger Design and Rating (EDR) enables you to easily design and simulate the heat
Exchangers. Deliver the optimum heat exchanger size and rating when both cost and performance
must be balanced with rigorous up­to­date integrated modeling capabilities.

Bentley WaterGEMS
It is used for analysis and design of water networks. Create and manage customized reports that
automatically combine graphs, data tables, color­coded and annotated plan views, and more into a
single report. Fire flow, hydraulics, operations, criticality, and water quality can be modeled.

Bentley HAMMER
HAMMER determines appropriate surge control strategies and reduce transients. It uses the
Method of Characteristics, the benchmark standard for hydraulic transient analyses. We can run
both transient and steady­state analyses in HAMMER.

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PIPESIM from SCHLUMBERGER
A simulation and modeling software used for steady­state modeling of “pipelines” both for single­
phase, two­phase and three­phase flow.

UniSim
UniSim Design Suite is an intuitive process modeling software that helps to create steady­state and
dynamic models for plant design, performance monitoring, troubleshooting, business planning, and
asset management. Its major use:

 Process flowsheet development

 Utilizing case scenarios tool to optimize designs against business criteria
 Equipment rating across a broad range of operating conditions
 Evaluating the effect of feed changes, upsets and alternate operations on process safety,
reliability and profitability
 Accurately size and select the appropriate material for blowdown systems
 Monitoring equipment performance against operating objectives.

PIPENET
PIPENET is the leader software for rapid fluid flow analysis of pipe and duct networks. Three
modules (Standard Module, Spray/Sprinkler Module, Transient Module) ensure that, no matter
how complex your network, PIPENET software will perform flow simulation fast and accurately.

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