A&M

Stone Age
Koldihwa, in Belan valley: Unique in terms of the presence of a three-fold Neolithic,
Chalcolithic and Iron Age settlements. Earliest evidence of Rice.
The fossils of the stone age men have not been found in India.
Palaeolithic Age: 99% of Human history
Divided into 3: Lower, Middle and Upper
Recently, the evidence of use of fire during the Paleolithic era has been discovered in
Belan valley.
Lower:
The first Palaeolithic tools were identified at the site of Pallavaram near Chennai
by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863.
Hand axe (Acheulian-not present in western ghats) and pebble-flake (Sohanian)
These tools are found in most part of India.
Bhimbetka: Hunted animals and gathered roots, nuts and fruits.
Middle: Flake industry was predominant in the Middle Palaeolithic period and tools
such as scrapers, points and borers were made.
The Middle Palaeolithic sites are found in Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna
and other river valleys.
The tools became smaller.
Use of chert, jasper, chalcedony and quartz as raw materials.
Upper
Blade and bone tools.
Flake tools.
Ostriches were found in India during the Palaeolithic period: Patne Maharastra.
Evidence of art in the form of Paintings. Bhimbhetka green paintings.
Beads and ornaments.
Mesolithic
Found in most part of India.
Microliths.
Use of bow & Arrow.
End of Ice Age.
Monsoon pattern already emerged.
Rock shelter sites are found in Lekhakia, Baghai Khor, Adamgarh and Bhimbetka.
First human colonization of the Ganga plains took place during this period. They
used the microliths to hunt.
Agriculture was not practised in the early stages.
Domestication of Dogs. Camel bones at Kanewal.
Temporary shelters as they were highly mobile.
Burial of Dead.
 Millet culture (mesolithic cult of South India) began with the sowing of Ragi, amongst
the Mesolithic farmers of South India.
Neolithic: 6000-4000 BC
They were the first food producers.
Neolithic Revolution: Based on Agricultural Revolution
Animal and plant domestication.
Large villages came to exist and pottery developed: Start of Sedentary life.
Permanent residences were built. Mehrgarh: Neolithic mud house.
Cloths of Cotton & Wool.
Koldihwa and Mahagra in Allahabad district, are known for the cultivation of rice in the
5th millennium BC.
The Neolithic settlers in Piklihal were cattle-herders.
The Potterʼs Wheel was known to the Neolithic Age humans.
Kashmir: Burzahom. Contemporary to Harappan Civilisation.Pit-houses.
NE was the last to have neolithic culture.
Chirand, Belan Valley in UP.
Chalcolithic Culture
They were parallel to Harappa.
Unlike Harappa they were pastoral and based on farming.
It was also called Stone-Copper Age.: Used copper and stone blades.
The Chalcolithic cultures had no writing.
Use of low grade iron in the later period.
It was found in the regions of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Narmada
Valley.
Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware culture is found in northern India dating to the Chalcolithic
period.
Most of the sites of this culture were located in the Banas valley.
Ahar-Banas Culture and Malwa are important Chalcolithic cultures.
The Jorwe culture is the most important and characteristic Chalcolithic culture of
Maharashtra.
Harappan Civilisation
The civilisation that appeared in the north- western part of India and Pakistan in third
millennium BCE is collectively called the Indus Civilisation.
1921: Daya Ram Sahni.
While the civilisation was in its peak, several cultures, namely, Mesolithic and Neolithic
cultures prevailed in other parts of India.
It is divided in three parts Early Harappan(3000–2600 BCE) Mature Harappan(2600–1900
BCE ) Late Harappan(1900–1700 BCE)
Harrapa Ravi Daya Kulli lines which refer to
Ram the one-line quarters of
Sahni manual labourers.
Mohanjodar R.D. Citadel important Pashupatinath seal:
o Banerjee residential structures. Elephant, a tiger, a
Warehouse. Great Bath rhinoceros , and has a
Indus with Drainage and rooms. Buffalo below his
Granary. throne.
“Priest king” of
steatite, dancing girl
of copper
Chanhudara Indus Only IVC city without
o Citadel. Bead-making
industry
Kalibangan Ghagghar Fire altars. Wood Ploughs.
Bronze Bull
Lothal, Bhogava Couple burial, Pot Burial. Only Port Town.
Gujarat River and Seal of the story of
the clever fox.
Rakhigarhi, Saraswati Amrende Largest IVC City in India. To be developed as
Haryana River r Nath iconic Archeological
site.
Banwali Ghagghar Radial Streets and Oval
shaped Settlement
Daimabad Maharastr Bronze Chariot
a
Mehrgarh River Earliest Evidence of
Bolan, Metallurgy and settled
Baluchista agriculture. Barley.
n
Surkotada, Horse
Gujarat Remains.
Dholavira, Rann of JP.Joshi, Origin of Buddhist Stupa. Presence of Middle
Gujarat Kutch 1967-68 4th Site of Gujarat to be Town. No human
Island. included into Heritage remains. Water storage
sites. technique. Stadium. On
World's Oldest Signboard. tropic of Cancer
Dholavira, did not use
bricks and used locally
available material for
construction.
Ganweriwal
a, Amri and
Balakot
The urban phase was prevalent in the mature Harappan period and began to decline
afterwards.
The settlements ofSutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan– Iran border; Shortugai
(Afghanistan) in the north; Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and Daimabad
(Maharashtra, India)in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation.
Construction
The Harappans used baked and unbaked bricks, and stones for construction.
Grid pattern and drainages were systematically built.
The houses were built of mud bricks while the drainages were built with burnt bricks.
Houses had more than one floor.
Bathrooms and proper drains.
Red and black pottery was the characteristic pottery of the Harappan age.
Economy
Agriculture: wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame and various millets. Double
Cropping. Ploughs(Kalibangan). Canal and Well irrigation. Wheat primary crop. Rice
was discovered in Gujarat and Barley in Haryana. Cotton went outside India during
Harappan times.  Rangpur: Rice Husk.
Craft: Beed and ornament. Copper, bronze, Gold and Silver. Lapis lazuli. Pottery:
wheel made Pottery, perforated jars.
Knowledge of Cotton & Silk.
Trade: Mesopotamians (Sumer) and other cultures of India.  The mention of
“Meluhha” in the cuneiform inscriptions refers to the Indus region. A trading colony
in northern Afghanistan was set up to facilitate trade with Central Asia.
Harappans had developed proper weights and measures. Weights exhibit a binary
system.
Seals: Steatite, copper, terracotta and ivory.
Mother Goddess from different locations.
Sutkagendor, Lothal, Nageshwar are on Arabian Sea coast.
 Belief System: The Indus people worshipped nature. They worshipped the pipal tree. They
buried the dead. Burials were made elaborately and evidence of cremation is also
reported.  Belief in after life.
Polity: Uniformity in pottery, seals, weight and bricks: might have city-state type polity.
Script: Both Left to right and Right to left.
Iron Age
The Iron Age in North India was coeval with Painted Grey-ware Culture, and in South India
it was associated with Megalithic burial mounds.
Megaliths: In India, archaeologists trace the majority of the megaliths to the Iron Age
(1500 BC to 500 BC), though some sites precede the Iron Age, extending up to 2000 BC.
Found Pan-India but more at South India. Brahmagiri in Karnataka is famous for
Megaliths.
Vedic Period
The main collections of Vedic hymns are called Samhitas.
Samhita has added texts called Brahmanas: Commentaries on the hymns and rituals.
Brahmana has an Aranyaka (forest text) and an Upanishad. The Aranyakas contain
mystical ritual instructions to be undertaken in secret by the sages in the forests.
Upanishads deal with philosophical enquiries.
Vedangas are auxiliary disciplines of studying and understanding the Vedas. The six
Vedangas are Shiksha (Phonetics), Kalpa (Ritual), Vyakaran (Grammar), Nirukta
(Explanation), Chhanda (metrics of Veda), and Jyotisha (Astrology).
Ken, Katha and Muktika are the names of the Upanishads.
Tiger and Rhino which are tropical animals are not mentioned in Rigveda.(Both were
present in IVC)
There is no trace of urban way of life in Rig Veda.
Varna System: Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda
Rig Veda consists of 10 mandalas and 1028 hymns. Gayatri Mantra comes from the third
Mandala of the Rig Veda which was compiled in the praise of sun god Savitri. Rig Vedic
times the process was not accompanied by any ritual or sacrificial formulae. The most
prominent river of the Rig Veda is the Sindhu. Sapta Sindhu plays a prominent part in the
hymns of the Rig Veda.
The term for war in the Rig Veda was gavishthi which means search for cows.
Women Poet: Ghosa, Lopamudra, Maitreyi: Composed hymns during Rig Veda Period
The Sama Veda was composed in musical notes which are considered to constitute the
basis of Indian music.
The Yajur Veda has rituals and hymns.
The Atharva Veda contains charms and magical spells. Medicine related.
Vasudhauva kutumbakam: Maha Upnishad.
Dasyus or Dasas.
Sabha was the assembly of elders or the elites, Samiti was an assembly of people, and
Vidhata was the assembly of tribe.
Iron: It was called syama-ayasor krishna-ayas or the dark metal. Ayas==Metal
 Gold Coin: Niksha
There was no private property in land.
Early Vedic period:
Women respected but Society was patriarchal. Women attended assemblies and
offered sacrifices. Polyandry existed and Widow marriage known.
Early Vedic Period:There are only few references to Rudra or Siva.
Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) was prevalent during the Early Vedic Period
Five rivers are mentioned as the Panchajanah in the Rig-Veda.
Women could undergo the sacred thread ceremony known as 'Upanayana'.
Shadadru or shatudri River Sutlej
Askini Chenab
Parushni Ravi
Vidasta Jhelum
Vipas Beas
Drishadvati Ghaggar
Ganga & Yamuna Mentioned
Later Vedic Period
Later Vedic period Rise of Janapadas.
The idea of Gotra emerged in the later Vedic period. Women had been excluded from
rituals in the later Vedic period
Vedic gods Agni and Indra lost their importance. Prajapati became the main deity.
Rudra, the god of rituals, identified with Siva, became important.
The republic form of governance was prevalent during the later Vedic era.
Towards the very end of Later Vedic Age around 6th century BC, we see the
emergence of 2nd phase of Urbanization (1st being Indus Valley Civilization). Later
Vedic age marks the era of Eastern India expansion by Aryans into the metallic belt of
India ( present-day West Bengal and Jharkhand).
The kings assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth),
Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
Pravahana Jaivali: King of Panchala
Child marriages became common.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) was prevalent during the Middle & Later Vedic Period.
Age of MahaJanapadas
According to Puranic, Buddhist-Anguttara Nikaya and Jaina traditions 16 Mahajanapadas.
There were also Gana-sanghas-Republics. Vrikkis(vaishali). Both Mahavira and Buddha
belonged to Sangha or Gana. Mahavira was a prince of Licchavi (part of Vajji sangha).
 Northern Polished Black Ware (NPBW) types of pottery were associated with the
Mahajanapada period.
First Indian Punch marked Coins.The earliest coins, called the punch- marked coins,
were made largely of silver.
Vajji and Mala were the republics.
Assaka was southern-most in Maharastra.

Vatsa Banks of River Yamuna

Capital: Kaushambi
Ruler: Udayana
Annexed by Avanti
Avanti Capital: Ujjain
Ruler: Pradyota(Buddhism)
Annexed by Magadha
Kosala Capital: Ayodhya
Ruler: Prasenajit
Sister Married to Bimbisara
Annexed by Magadha
Magadha Capital: Rajagriha
Bimbisar and Ajatsatru
Haryanka Dynasty.
Pre Maurya Magdha(Rajagriha)
Eventually Magadha emerged as the dominant Mahajanapada & established the first
Indian empire.
The first known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty.
 Ajatashatru Killed and ascended to throne.
Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Mahavira and Buddha.
Ajatsatru Meeting with Buddha: Barhut Sculpture. First Buddhist council at Rajagriha.
Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by Shishunaga Dynasty.
After them came the Nandas in 326 BCE. Powerful king was Mahapadma Nanda- Ekarat.
Hathigumpha (elephant cave) from Udayagiri near Bhubaneshwar, Odisha by Kharvela
King, records the aqueduct built by King Nanda.
During the invasion of Alexander Dhana Nanda was the ruler.
Nandas were not popular among people.
Even before Alexander NW faced invasions from Persia(the Achaemenid Empire). Taxila
was part of Achaemenid Empire. Panini seems to have compiled his well- known work,
Ashtadhyayi, here.
Impact of Persian Contact: Kharosthi Script from Aramaic. Persian sigloi (silver coin) is
an imitation from the region. Indian Word for Coin- Karsa is  Persian origin.
Play Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta was written during the Gupta period, sometime
after the 4th century CE. It narrates Chandraguptaʼs accession to the throne of the
Magadha.
Alexander: 327-325 BCE: Watershed in Indian History. Beginning of the interaction
between India and the western world. Greek governors started to rule in India, introduction
of new styles of art & governance.  Fought with Porus, ruler of the region between Jhelum
and Beas.
Maurya: 326 BCE to 200 BCE
Hathigumpha inscription talks about the Mauryas and Nandas.
Mudrarakshasa-Vishakdatta narrates Chandraguptaʼs accession to the throne of
Magadha.
Sohgaura Copper Plate: Pre-Ashoken inscription: Famine relief.
Chandragupta: 321 BCE
Chandragupta defeated Seleucus. Seleucus sent Megasthenes(Wrote Indica).
According to the Jain tradition, Chandragupta spent his last years as an ascetic in
Chandragiri, near Sravanabelagola, in Karnataka.
Bindusara: Amitragatha. Supported Ajivikas.
Ashok:
Governor of Ujjain.
Edicts
33 Edicts. Kandahar, South India. Minor even in Nepal. Magadhi, Prakrit, Greek,
Aramaic.
Rock edict Dhauli Odisha. The rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli (Odisha) is one of
oldest monument in which the sculpted elephant faces east.
Minor Rock Edicts and Minor Pillar Edicts deal with Ashoka's early reign. The
Major Pillar Edicts treat the end of his reign, the Major Rock Edicts address
Ashoka's vision of peaceful existence through Dhamma.
 Kanganahalli: Ranyo Ashok: Only stone portrait. Buddhist Mahastupa.
Karnataka.
Muski Edictmentions Personal name of Ashoka: Devanampiya Priyadarsi.
Kalsi Inscription: Ashoka’s Human appraoch.
Lion pillars of Ashoka can be found at Sanchi(near the Stupa), Sarnath (national
emblem), Vaishali (one lion pillar), Laurya Nandhagarh, etc. The Ashoka's pillar
found at Sankissa illustrates an elephant pillar with a rocking elephant standing
on a lotus
Kalinga War: Rock Edict XIII.
Started the Bharut stupa and completed in the times of Sungas.
The only Asokan major rock edict present in Afghanistan is at Kandahar. 
Edicts not found beyond southern Karnataka.
Piller's
Use of Spotted red/white sandstone from Mathura & buff coloured hard
sandstone from Chunar.
Lion Capital: Sarnath
Built to commemorate historical event of Dhammachakrapravartana at
Sarnath.
Sandstone: 4 Lions sitting on an abacus with four animals proceeding
clockwise suggesting movement of Dhamma chakra, inverted lotus at base, a
crowning wheel representing Dhammachakrapravartana on a monolithic shaft.
Four Lions facing cardinal directions representing spread of Dhamma. Capital
without crowning wheel and lotus is adopted as National Emblem.
 Laurya Nandhagarh:

Bull capital of Rampurva

Sankissa illustrates an elephant pillar
Ajivika Caves: Lomus Rishi Caves: Barabar Hills
Yakshi: Didarganj & Yaksha: Parkam
Dhamma
Based on broad guidelines of Buddhism
Role of Upagupta in Ashok's Buddhist inclination.
3rd Buddhist council: Patliputra.: Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa
Children Mahina & Sanghamitta to SL.
Polity
Centralised.
Punishment: Quite severe.
All religions respected.
Provincial Governors: Members of royal family.
Municipal Governance.
Economy: Agriculture backbone of economy. Coins were known but barter system
prevalent. Silver Coin Named Pana. Arthsastra talks about coins.
Government officials were paid in cash. No iqta or Zamindari system.
Army paid in cash.
Regular Census.
Pindakara – A heap of taxes – It could suggest a tax collected jointly from a
village or a group of villages.
 Visti was a tax of different kind, which was paid in labour for the state.
Hiranya was a tax which was not paid in kind, but in cash.
Terms
Nagarika: City SP
Gopa: 5-10 Village administrator
Sthanika: District Administration
Rajukas: Rural Administration
Yuktas or subordinate officials
Kupya-dhyaksha: Forest Department
Samaharta: Revenue Collector.
Important functionaries were called as Tirthas.
Sitadhyaksha was the superintendent of the agriculture of crown lands or
government agricultural farms.
Adhyakshas: Market control
Dharamathikarin: Chief Justice
Art & Craft
Achaemenid/Persian Impact: The bell-shaped capital of the columns, especially
the lion capital of Sarnath pillar and the bell capital of Rampurval pillar, show
resemblance to designs found in the Achaemenid columns. the pillared remains of
the Palace in Pataliputra display a remarkable similarity to the pillared hall in the
Achaemenid capital. Linguistic similarity between Rig Veda & Avesta.
Brahmi Script deciphered by James Prinsep 1837.
Megasthenes speaks of the wooden structure at the Maurya capital
Pataliputra.
The Yaksha and Yakshini were the masterpiece of Mauryan art.
Post Mauryan Era
Sunga: Last Mauryan king was killed by Pushyamitra Sunga. Who was Commander-in-
chief of Mauryas. Followed Brahmanism.
Indo-Greeks: 200 BCE -0 C:
Menander: Hero of the Buddhist text, Milinda-pinha (questions of Milinda), in which
he is engaged in a question-and-answer discussion on Buddhism with the teacher
Nagasena in Sanskrit. Capita Sakala.
Antialcidas (or Antialkidas), his emissary, Heliodorus, who was sent to the court of
King Bhagabhadra erected a pillar or garuda- dhvaja with its capital adorned by a
figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna: Vidisha, MP. First Evidence of
Bhagavatism-Vishnu.
Besnagar Pillar Inscription: Worshipper of Vishnu.
Roman Coins: First to have to portrait of King on the Coins.
The Greeks introduced an administrative system called “Strategos": Military
Governorship.
Central Asian Tribes: Sakas (Scythians), Parthians and Kushanas
The Central Asian rulers patronized and cultivated the Sanskrit language.
 Sakas: 20 BCE to 40 CE
First king Maues/Moga. Powerful Azes.
Gandhara to Mathura
Sakas became assimilated into Hindu Society. Hindu Names and religious beliefs.
Hindu gods on coins.
One of the most famous of the Saka kshatrapas was Rudradaman(150 CE).
Junagadh rock inscription: Sanskrit Language.: Talks about the Sudarshan Lake by
Chandragupta. Also have inscription of Ashoka and Skandagupta.
Satavahanas and Shakas were involved in prolonged conflict. Rudradaman I, the
Sakas ruler of Saurashtra, defeated the Satavahanas twice.
Kushanas(43 CE-102 CE)
Yuchi Tribe
First Kujula Kadphises.
Kanishka: Saka Era: 78 CE. Buddhist. sent mission to China. Kushan Coins.
Mathura Headless Statue. Invaded Kashmir. 4th Buddhist council. Mahayan
Buddhism.
The Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale.
Various Greek, Persian, Bactrian and Indian deities were found on the coins. The
images of both Shiva and Buddha appeared on the Kushan coins.
The Shakas-Kushanas era led to the strengthening of the idea of the divine
origin of kingship.
Sathvahanas/Andhras: 1C BCE-3C CE
Deccan: Andhra, Maha, Karnataka, MP
Founder: Simuka
Name from Mother.
Hala: Gatha Sattasai. Maharshtri Prakrit.
Gautamiputra Satakarni Greatest Satvahana King. He took the title Ekabrahmana
and his achievements were mentioned in the Nasik inscription of his mother Gautami
Balasri which is called as queen mother edict.
The coinage system of Satavahanas period consisted of Gold, silver, copper,
lead(Max) and potin coins.
Satavahanas became the first native Indians who had issued the coins with
portraits of their kings. Silver Coin: Karshapannas.
Ports: Kalyani(west), Gandakasela, Ganjam(east)
Coins with a ship motif.
Gaulmikas were the head of the military regiment.
Satavahanas traded extensively with the Roman empire. Cotton and Spices exported.
The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahmanas.
The Satavahana Empire declined around the 3rd century CE and was replaced by the
Ikshvakus.
Amravati Architecture.
Sangam Age: 0 CE-3C CE
 Terms
Arasar: Ruling Class
Vanigars carried on trade and commerce
Vellalas: Rich Agriculturists
Pariyars were mainly the agricultural labourers.
Kizhar were the heads of the villages
Kurinji: Hilly Region.
Marutham: Riverine Tract
Mullai: Forest
Neythanl: Coastal.
Palai: Parched land.
They are secular in nature. Pandya Kings.
The Classical Sangam corpus consists of Tholkappiyam(Tamil Grammer) , the eight
anthologies (Ettuththokai), Paththuppattu. Pathinenkilkanakku:- 18 Works, Ethics and
Morals.
Tholkappiyam, attributed to Tholkappiyar, is the earliest extant Tamil grammatical text.
The narrative texts of the Sangam literature are called Melkannakku or Eighteen Major
Works. The didactic texts of the Sangam literature are called Pathinenkilkanakku or
eighteen Minor Works.
Women Poets were there in Sangam Age. Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar.
Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.
The chiefs did not collect regular taxes.
Tinai refers to the ecological classification of the Tamil region.
Puhar was an important port on the eastern coast and Tondi was an important port on the
western coast.
Muvendars: Three kings: Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas.
Cholas Uraiyur Tiger Karikalan is portrayed as
the greatest Chola of the
Sangam age. Pattinappalai
gives a vivid account of his
reign
Cheras Vanji Bow & Arrow Ports: Musiri(Muziris) and
Tondi
Pandyas Madurai Fish Rule of Women so
matriarchal society.
The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly between
c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known as the age of Kalabhras in the history of Tamil Land.
 Post- Sangam Period. Tamil work Tirukkural was written along with many other works
grouped as the eighteen minor works. The epics Silappathikaram and Manimekalai also
belong to this period.
Gupta: 3 CE-7 CE
First Ruler Sri Gupta.
Coins: Inscription in Sanskrit.
Chandargupta I
Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription.
Samudaragupta
Allahabad Pillar inscription (Allahabad prashasti- Jhangir also written on it) –
describing Samudraguptaʼs personality and achievements in 33 lines composed by
Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit in Nagari script.
Coin: Samudragupta playing Vina.
Follower of Vaishnavism but tolerant attitude towards Buddhism.
Kaviraj
CG II: Vikramaditya.
Defeated Sakas so Sakari
Navaratnas. Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, the Sanskrit scholar Harisena, the lexicographer
Amarasimha, and the physician Dhanvantari.
Chandragupta II was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins.
Fahien, the Buddhist scholar from China, visited India during his reign.
Mehrauli Inscription: Victory over Vanga.
Kumargupta
Established Nalanda University. Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by an army of
the Slave/Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khalji in c.1200 CE.
Mandsor Inscription by Vatsabhatti.
Administration
The Gupta administration was more decentralized, as compared to the Mauryan
administration.
Empire---> Deshas or Bhuktis--> Visayas.
The position of peasantry was undermined. They were reduced to the position of
serfs.
Mining and metallurgy was one of the most flourishing industries during the Gupta
period. Iron pillar is an example of that.
Gupta dynasty issued the largest number of gold coins which were called 'dinaras'
in their inscriptions. Silver Coin: Rupaka.
The Guptas issued many gold coins but comparatively few silver and copper coins.
However, the post-Gupta period saw a decline in the circulation of gold coins.
Vishti or forced labour became a source of state income and was looked upon as a
sort of taxation paid by the people.
The decline of long-distance trade.
Port: Tamralipti
 Culture
Golden Age
Development of Nagara and Dravida styles.
Rock Cut: Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh and Udaygiri(Odisha). Boar (Varaha) at the entrance
of a cave at Udayagiri.
Giant copper statue of Buddha originally found at Sultanganj. A copper image of
the Buddha about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar
The Guptas made Sanskrit the official language
Sanskrit grammar: Panini : Ashtadhyayi | Patanjali: Mahabhashya.
Puranas composed during this time.
Eran Inscription: First evidence of Sati in Gupta period.
Buddhist Literature in Sanskrit: Vasubandhu
Art
Buddhist Art reached to its climax.
Art is visible in variety of Gupta Coins.
Beginning of free-standing Hindu Temples.
Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh & Cave Temple Udaigiri
Numerous seared & Standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.
Ajanta & Bagh Caves
Images of Vishnu & Shiva made for first time.
Architecture was not advanced.
Literature
Remarkable production of secular literature
Bhasa wrote 13 plays
Kalidasa Wrote plays & Mahakavays.
Ornate style of Sanskrit was developed.
Amarsimha: Sanskrit Lexicon: Amarkosha. CG II.-Navratna
Religious: Compiled Ramayana, Mahabharata & Puranas.
Science
Aryabhatta Surya Siddanta, Aryabhatiya True cause of the solar eclipses. invention
of the theory of zero(Aryabhatiya).
Varahamihir Brihat Samhita (sixth century Physical geography, botany and natural
a CE). Panch Siddhantika and history.
Brihat Jataka. Varahamihira discussed the aspects of
agricultural practice
Brahmagupt Brahmasphuta-siddhanta and Gravity, Maths.
a Khanda-khadyaka.
Palakapya Hastya-yurveda Veterinary science
 Terms
Sarthavaha was a caravan trader
Vasti (Basti)was the habitable land while Khila(Khali) was waste land.
Aprahata was the forest land while Gapata Saraha was pastoral land.
The drain of treasury because of Hunsʼ invasion and the weak successors of later Guptas
led to the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.
Harsha(6 CE)
Thanesar: North of Delhi between Sutlej and Yamuna.
Harsha moved capital from Thanesar to Kanauj. 
The decline of Gupta empire gave rise to the Regional empires.
Banaʼs Harshacharita: The first formal biography of a king. Also wrote Kadambari.
Hieun Tsangʼs Si-Yu-ki: 13 years. Perfect L&O. Death penalty usually
avoided.Banishment and the cutting of limbs of the body were the usual punishments.
Hieun Tsang mentions the four divisions (chaturanga) of Harshaʼs army. Caste
system rigid but no tension. Women wore purdah but not high class. Sati in Practise.
Talked about Nalanda.
Harsha summoned two Buddhist assemblies (643 CE), one at Kanauj and another at
Prayag(Mahamoksha Parishad ).
Fought for sister with Deva Gupta. Rajyasri converted Harsha to Mahayana Buddhism.
Earlier Harsha Shiva.
Cordial Relation with China.
According to Rajatarangini, Harsha introduced into Kashmir a general dress befitting a
king. 
He wrote such as Priyadarsika, Rathnavali (Mention of Holi, Love story of King
Udayana)and Nagananda.
Chalukya King: Pulikeshin II defeated Harsha.
He stopped the practice of giving land grants to priests.
More Centralised administration.
Palas: 750-1100
First Gopala- Elected King.
Palas Controlled eastern Gangetic Plain.
Trade with SE Asia.
Buddhism in Bengal provided a link between eastern India and Java and Sumatra.
Mahayana Buddhism 
Dharmpala: Strongest
Patronage to Buddhism---> Vajrayana.
Founded Vikramsila University(Vajrayanism- Tantric) & the Somapura Mahaviharas
(Bangladesh): HIndu, Buddhist and Jainism.
He defeated Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta ruler.
Gave land to Sumatra King.
Monastery & Uni at Odantapuri in Bihar.
New monastery at Jharkhand found.
 After the death of Harsha, the Pratiharas (Jalore-Rajasthan), the Palas (Bengal) and
the Rashtrakutas (Deccan) engaged in a triangular contest for the control of the Ganga–
Yamuna doab and the lands adjoining it.
Chalukyas of Badami(Vatapi): 535-750 CE
Founder Pulikesin I
Karnataka.
Aihole was the first capital of Chalukyas
The capital Badami was founded by Kirtivarman (566-597)
Pulikesin II:
Inscription which found at Meguti Temple popularly known as Aihole inscription:
known as the Cradle of Indian architecture. Poet Ravikriti.
Defeated Harsha at the banks of Narmada.
NarasimhaVarman I (630-668), the Pallava King, attacked and occupied Badami.
Pulikesin II died
Administration highly centralised unlike Pallavas and Cholas.
Chalukyan kings claimed to rule according to dharma-sastra and niti- sastra.
Appointed royal ladies as provincial governors.  The image of Queen Rangapataka, the
queen of Rajasimha, is found in the inscription in Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram
The Chalukyas patronised both Saivism and Vaishnavism.
Wild Bore: Royal Insignia. 
Hiuen Tsang Visited.
Art
Developed the Vesara Style.
Historically, in Deccan, Chalukyas introduced the technique of building temples using
soft sandstones as medium.
Badami is known for both structural and excavated cave temples. Pattadakal and
Aihole are popular for structural temples.
Aihole: Stone temple Lad Khan temple. A temple dedicated to the goddess Durga
was built on the model of Buddha Chaitya. Also, Megudi Jain temple.
Pampa lived in the court of Chalukya Arikesari.
Malaprabha River @ Aihole.
Badami: Vishnu on the snake bed and Narasimha are exquisite examples of Chalukya
art.
Ajanta Caves. Mukteshwara Temple. Badami Cave temple. Ellora and Nasik.
Pattadakal: Virupaksha Temple.(Similar to Kailashnatha Temple Kanchipuram)
Chalukyas adopted the Vakataka style in painting.
In the mid- eighth century, the Badami Chalukyas were overpowered and replaced by the
Rashtrakutas.
Rashtrakutas(733-1000)
Feudatories of Western Chalukyas of Vatapi.
Titles like Param Bhattaraka, Chakravartin.
Capital: Malkhed.
 Kannada Origin.
Greatest ruler and Founder of the dynasty was Dandidurga. Defeated Kirthivarman II
(746–753 CE), the last Chalukya ruler of Vatapi.
Central and southern Gujarat and the whole of Madhya Pradesh and Berar.
During the reign of Dhruva (780–794 CE), the Rashtrakuta power reached its zenith.
Govinda III
Provinces called Rastras.
Land Tax was called Udranga or Bhagakara. 1/4.
Trade with Arabs.
Hereditary revenue officers, called nad gavundas or desa gramakutas. 
Art
Amoghavarsha: Himself a great poet and his Kavirajamarga is the earliest Kannada
work on poetics. Also, Prasnottara-malika, a Sanskrit work. Defeated by Dharmpala.
Jain but respected other religions.
Dakshin Ashoka.
The famous rock-cut Monolithic Shiva temple(Kailasha Temple) at Ellora was built by
Krishna I. Similar to Lokesvara temple build by Chalukya king. The sculptured panels
of Dasavatara Bhirava, Ravana shaking the Mount Kailasa, dancing Shiva and
Vishnu, and Lakshmi listening to music are the best specimens of sculpture inside
the temple.
Elephanta: Zenith of Rashtrakutta Art. Nataraja and Sadashiva Sculptures. 
Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurti are the other famous sculptures. Trimurti.
Kavirahsya: Halayudha
Adipurana: Gunabhadra
Ganita-saram: Viracharya: Maths. reign of Amoghavarsha I.
Rashtrakutas patronised Sanskrit and Kannada scholars.
The great apabharamsha poet, Svayambhu, and his son, lived at the Rashtrakutasʼ
court.
Kannada: Pampa and Ponna wrote Vikrama-sena-vijaya and Santi-purana
respectively. +Ranna: 3 Ratnas of Kannada lit.
Reasons of Disintegration
Defeat of Amoghavarsha by the Paramara King Siyaka Harsha.
Krishna III antagonised Kalachuris who were his allies.
Gujara-Prathiharas
Capital Bhinmal.
Mihirbhoj/ King Bhoj: 836.
Harishchandra.
According to the Arab travellers, the Pratihara rulers had the best cavalry in India.  Import
of Horses.
Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet), lived at the court of Mahipala, a grandson of Bhoja.
Al-Masudi, calls the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom al-Juzr.
Pallavas(550-750 CE)
Took power from Kalabhra.
Kanchipuram
Mahendravarman I: Converted to Shavism. Called himself Chettakari(Bulder of
temples) and Vichitrachitta.
Wrote Matta-vilasa-prahasanamin Sanskrit.
Narasimhavarman I (630-668) defeated Chalukyas.
Mamalla, Vatapikonda
Mainly all the rock cut structures at Mamallarpuram.
Kuram Copper Plates
Education: Ghatika of Kanchi.
Narasimhavarman II/ Rajasimha (695-722 AD)
Shore temple at Mamallapuram and Kailasanatha Temple Kanchipuram.
Sanskrit Scholar Dandin.
Started Structural Temples.
Administration
Kinship was held to be of divine origin and was hereditary.
The sabha was a formal institution but it worked closely with the urar, an informal
gathering of the entire village.
A special category of land, Eri-patti or tank land, was known only in south India.
Land grants recorded mainly on copperplates
State divided into Kottams
Growing popularity of Brahmanism and Sanskrit.
Also rise of Bhakti movement.
Art:
Beginning of Dravidian Style.
Mahendravarman I: Started Rock cut temples.
Narasimhavarman II/ Rajasimha (695-722 AD): Structural  Temple.
Sittannavasal Paintings: Jainism
Mamallapuram:
on the name of Narasimhavarman I /Mamalla. Built rock cut temple.
Five storeyed rock cut temple.
The Rathas there are known as the Panchapandava Rathas. Dharmaraja Ratha,
with a three-storied vimana and a square base.
The most important piece of carving in Mamallapuram is the Descent of the Ganga
(variously described as ‘Bhagirataʼs Penanceʼ or ‘Arjunaʼs Penanceʼ): Fresco
Painting in Stone.
Open Art Gallery.
Krishna's Butterball.
Shore temple during Narasimhavarman II/Rajasimha. Shiva & Vishnu both.
Hiuen tsang visited kanchipuram during the reign of pallava ruler Narsimhanvarman-
I(Mamalla).
Succeeded by Imperial Cholas.
Chola/Imperial Cholas 850-1279 CE
Re-emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya (850–871 CE)(earlier fiduciary of
Pandayas) conquering the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar. He built the city of Thanjavur
and established the Chola kingdom in 850.
Their core kingdom was concentrated in the Kaveri-fed delta called Cholamandalam.
Rajaraja I (985–1014)
Brihadishvarar temple at Thanjavur
In Sri Lanka built Rajarajesvara temple.
Successful Naval Expedition to Maldives.
Helped in the construction of Nagapattinam Monastery. Asked by Shrivijay King.
Rajendra I (1012–1044)
Naval operation extended as far as Kadaram/Sri Vijaya(southern
Sumatra)=>KadaramKonda
Whole Sri Lanka Made part of Chola empire.
Karantai Copper plate inscriptions
The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built to commemorate his victories in North
India. Build the Rajesvaram Temple. He defeated Mahipala I of Bengal.
Education: Religious+Maths. Temples and mathas also educated. Land given to these
institutes.
Port: Poompuhar.
Kambanʼs Ramayana is considered a classic in Tamil literature. Kamban is believed to have
lived at the court of a Chola king.
Administration:
Urar: Landloards .
Village autonomy(Variyam committee-male only). Nadu: council called Nattavai,
Heads Nattars. Process of electing members to various committees that administered
the affairs of a Brahmin settlement. A male, above 30 but below 70, having a share of
property and a house of his own, with knowledge of Vedas and bhasyas was
considered eligible. (Kudavolai System)
Ineligible: If member for past three years or committed sins or failed to submit
accounts
Water rights management.
Renati Chola: Telugu language. 7/8 C. Cuddaph District AP.
Uttaramerur inscriptions: Self-government
Dravidian style reached its Zenith under Chola(Started by Pallavas)
Development of Tamil Literature.
Use of Bronze.
The literary work Periyapuranam belong to this period.
A philosophical system called Saiva Siddhanta was founded during this period.
Italian traveller Marco Polo visited.
Buddhamitra wrote Virasoliyam
Darasuram Temple was built during the period of Rajaraja II (1146-1172).
 Terms:
Kaillola-perum-padai: Royal Troops
Velai-kkarar: King's Guard.
Kadagams: Military Cantonments.
Periya-nattar: Administrator of Valanadu
Peru-vazhis: Trunk road.
Bhakti Movement : 700 CE
Started in South India.
Vaishnava: Alvars. Songs: Prabandhas/ Nalayira Divviya-prabandham by Nadamuni.
Andalʼs(Woman) hymns.
Siva: Nayanars. Songs: Tevaram Stotras. Dravida Vedas. Poets: Appar, Sundarar,
Sambandar, Karaikkal. Sekkizhar.
Adi Sankara (788-820)
Sankaraʼs Advaita or non-dualism had its roots in Vedanta or Upanishadic philosophy.
He attempted to root out Buddhism.
Focus mainly on brahmanism.
Rise of Sanskrit.
Kerala.
Sri Ramanujar (1017-1138)
TN
He challenged the monist ideology of Adi Sankara and in his effort to widen the social
base to include social groups other than Brahmans.
Qualified monism, his philosophy of Visishtadvaita
Shankradeva: 1500:
Assam: Vaishnavite.
Eka-Sharna-naam-dharma
Worship through art approach
Dance -Sattriya, Music -Borgeet, Theatre: Bhauna.
Pandyas
Madurai
Prosecution of Jains.
Marco Polo, a Venetian (Italy) traveller who visited Pandya country lauded the king for fair
administration and generous hospitality for foreign merchants. In his travel account, he
also records the incidents of sati and the polygamy practiced by the kings.
Sittannavasal Temple : Rock Cut.
Kakatiya: 12-13 C
Kakatii Devi temple built by Kakatiya ruler Ganapati Deva in Dharanikota(Andhra
Pradesh) converted into an abode of local Goddess ‘Balusulammaʼ.
Coastal Region of Andhra: Warangal
Motupalli Seaport.
Earlier Fiduciary of Western Chalukyas
Ganpati Deva & Rudramadevi(Also called Rudradeva Maharaja: 1261-1295)
 Italian traveller Marco Polo visited the Kakatiya Kingdom sometime during
Rudramadeviʼs tenure as the ruler of the Kakatiya Dynasty and made note of her
administrative style; admiring her extensively.
Tank Irrigation.
Art
1000 pillar temple in Warangal: Surya, Shiv and Vishnu.
Koh-i-Noor Diamond minned.
Golconda fort constructed by them and latter taken by Qutub Shahi King.
Practiced Palayakkarar(Holding the Camp) system
Rudreshwara Ramappa Temple:
Sandbox technique
Marco Polo
Kakatya Tornam: State emblem of Telangana.
Pakhan Lake.
Cultural Spread to other Countries
Angkor Wat: Suryavaraman II
Indo-Java Art: Borobudar: Buddhist
Arabs & Turks: 900 CE-1526 CE
Hind Sahi Kingdom in NW
Locals were called Zimmis (protected subjects)
Mahmud of Ghazni: Mahmud is notorious for his invasion of the temple city of Somnath
(1025).
Firdausi: Shah Nama. Alberuni: Kitab-i-hind.
Muhammad Ghori through Gomul Pass in the 1180s and 1190s Ghori established garrisons
in the modern provinces of Punjab, Sind, and Haryana.  Battle of Tarain (1191) & 1192. 
Battle of Chandawar: Jayachandra. Ghoriʼs trusted general Qutb-ud-din Aibak was
appointed as his deputy in India. Laxmi Coins.
Slave Dynasty/Mumluk
Aibak: During his time  Muhammad Bin Bhakthiyar Khalji destroyed the Nalanda
University. Lahore Capital. Lakh Bakash. Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakthiyar. First ruler to
impose Jaziya.
Iltutmish
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, the slave and son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak,
Bandagan is the plural of banda, literally military slaves.
Iltutmish organized a Corps of Forty, Chahalgani system.
Daughter Rajiya: Declared her the crown princess.
Completed Kutub-minar.
Introduced Silver Tanka and Copper Jital. He also introduced pure Arabic Coin.
Introduced Arabic coinage in India. Silver Tanka became basis of Modern Rupee.
Introduced Iqta System. Iqta holders were holds Khuts or Muqti. Khusro called
them Zamindars.
Own Tomb.
 Balban
Had to fought with Corps of Forty.
New customs: Kissing the Sultan's feat.
Indian Muslims not given important posts.
He refused to entertain for important government posts anyone who did not
belong to a noble family.
Separate military department: Diwan-i-arz
Navroj Festival.
Khaljis 1290-1320
Jalaluddin Khalji
Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316)
Tolerant
Ferishta
Marriage alliances between families of noble men were permitted only with the
consent of the Sultan.
Sikender-e-Saani
The second city of Delhi, called 'Siri' was created by Alauddin Khilji.
First sultan who order measurement of land.
Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly from the cultivators.
Established postal system.
Principle of Kingship: Not called himself a sultan.
Cash salary to Soldiers. Stamping of the horses. Dagh and Huliya.
Intelligence network to curb black-marketing and hoarding. Secret agents called
Munhiyans.
Shahna for Market control.
Alai Darwaza(Qutub Minar).
Abolished Iqta System.
Water tank at Hauz Khas.
Dropped the name of Khalifa from his coins. Called himself righthand of
Khalifa.
Diwan-i-Riyasat: Market control department.
Tughlaq
Gjiyas-ud-din
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
Delhi Sultanate reached its peak.
Shift the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra, which he named
Daulatabad
Diplomatic relations with Egypt, China.
Token Currency: bronze
The Sultan established a separate department (Diwan-i-Amir Kohi) to take care
of agriculture. Loans to farmers.
Proposed Khurasan Expedition (1329)
 Qarachil Expedition (1330)
Taxation in the Doab.
He was the first Sultan who advocated meritocracy over noble origin.
Agriculture: Takkavi Loans. Diwan-i-Kohi
Ibn Battuta: Moroccan.
Firoz Shah
Timur's Invasion: 1400
Translation of Sanskrit musical work Rag Darpan into Persian
Made Iqta hereditary.
Use Ashokan Pillars.
Impeachment of Muslims.
Established Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.
Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451)
Tarikh-i- Mubarak Shahi by Sirhindi.Mubarak Shah.
Alam Shah: In the entire history of the Delhi Sultanate there was only one Sultan who
voluntarily abdicated his throne and moved to a small town away from Delhi, where he
lived for three full decades in contentment and peace.
Lodi (1451–1526 )
Bahlol Lodi- Founder(Khan-e-Khana in Mubrak Shah time).
Sikander Lodi (1489–1517) who shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra in 1506. Agra
City built 1504.
Gaz-i-Sikandari.
Sanskrit text translated in Persian.
Vasco da Gama came to India.
Last Ruler Ibrahim Lodi defeated in First battle of Panipat by Babur.(Noble Daulat
Khan invited Babur)
Battle of Khatauli: With Sanga.
Delhi Sultant: Administration
No clear rule of Succession.
Sultan>Naib>Wazir (Wazarat-Finance)> Diwani Ariz(Military)> Rasalt (religious
affairs) headed by Sadr> Correspondence-Insha.
Provinces-Iqtas(ruled by wali)> shiqs>parganas(headed by amil)>Village(headed
by muqqaddam)
Diwan-i-Amir Kohi: Agri: Land revenue 1/3.
Gold Coin: Dinars.
Arabs and Turks brought Purdah system.
Art
Introduced Sarangi, Rabab.
Khusro: Invention of Sitar. Ragas: Ghora and Sanam.
Raja Man Singh of Gwalior: Man Kautuhal.
Minhaj-us-Siraj: Tabaqat-i-Nasari
Art of Paper making introduced in India.
 Terms:
Iqta Land: Assigned to officials instead of Payment. Khalji abolished and Firuz Tughlaq
made hereditary. Reason of decline of Sultanate.
Khalisa Land: Direct control of King.
Inam Land: Assigned to religious leaders.
Diwan-i-Ariz: Defence
Diwan-i-Kohi: Agriculture
Diwan-i-risalat: Religious matters.
Diwan-i-insha: Correspondence.
Khuts: Landowners and Muqaddam: Village Headman.
The wakil-i-dar was responsible for maintaining the royal household.
Gold and silver Coins tankas and copper jitals.
The Sarrafs were money changers who issued suftajas.
Bhakti Movement in Medieval India
This period Bhakti movement was direct result of Spread of Islam.
Sufism
Founder: Al Hujwiri.
First Sufi Saint: Shaikh Ismail of Lahore.
The Chishti Order was established in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who came to
India around 1192, shortly after the defeat and death of Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
Silsilla: Chishti and Suhrawardi.
Importance of Pir/Guru.
Yoga, Breath control exercise.
Like Bhakti Saints 'Pir-Murid': Guru Shishya Tradition
Suhrawadi Silsilah: Closely aligned with rulling class.
The quotes of Farid-ud-Din (1300) was so broad and humane that some of his verses are
found quoted in the Adi-Granth of the Sikhs.
Bhakti
Advaita: World is illusion. Dvaita: World is real.
9th C: Shankara: Advaita or Monism
12th C: Ramanuja: Visishtadvaita or Qualified monism. God is Sagunbrahman.
Advocated Prabattimarga: Path of Surrender to God. Included lower strata to
Vaishanism.
13 C: Madhava: Dvaita: Dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma. He stated that there are
two types of reality i.e. Svatantra (independent reality) and Paratantra (dependent
reality). According to him, Brahman is the only independent reality. Souls and material
objects are dependent on Brahman. His philosophy is called Tatvavada.
Vallabha- His philosophical system of pure non-dualism (shuddhadvaita)  i.e., the
identity of God and the universe. Pushtimarga.
 Nimbarka - Nimbarkacharya came up with the theory of Dwait-adwaitabad that laid
the foundation of Nimbarka Sampradaya. Dwaita means dual and Adwaita means
unified or one. He suggested that all animate and inanimate objects are part of God
and all souls are part of the Supreme Soul.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: 1468
Founded Gaudiya Vaishnavism that promotes worship of Lord Vishnu
He composed eight slokas in writing which are known as the Siksastaka.
Achintya-bheda-abheda tattva
Surdas: Disciple of Vallabhacharya: Popularised Krishna cult in North India.
Tulsidas: Ramcharitmanas.
14-15C: Ramananda, Kabir(Bijak), Nanak
Namdev: Varkari Sect
Earlier Bandit.
Writing included in Guru Granth sahib.
Abhang Poet.
Chandrabhaga River.
Ramananda: Allahabad: He was first to employ vernacular for propagation of ideas.
Kabir, Raidas were his disciples.
Chaitanya: Popularised Krishna cult in Bengal.
Sankardev was a vaishnava saint-scholar, poet, playwright and a socio religious
reformer from Assam. He propagated the philosophy of Ekasarana Dharma (or one
god) in the form of Lord Krishna. 'Sattras' are institutional centres or monasteries
associated with Ekasarana Dharma. His famous works include Kirtan Ghosa, written
in Brajawali, which is a mixture of Maithili and Assamese.
Gnanadev: 13C: Maharashtra. Wrote commentary of Bhagavat Gita called
Gnaneswari.
Tukaram: Contemporary of Shivaji. He was responsible for creating background for
Maratha Nationalism. Abhanga & Kirtans. Vitthala.
A famine changed life of Tukaram.
Malayalam emerged as an independent language in the 14th century.
Contributions
Talked about how society should be organised
Broke the Boundaries of Caste in Hindu society
Universal brotherhood and communal harmony. Kabir
Equality of all: Langar-Common Kitchen
Opposed: Sati and female infanticide 
Development of regional language
Starting of Feminism.
Egalitarian Society
Hoysala(11C-14C)
Karnataka
Belur, Halebidu and Sringeri.
 Art
Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava
Temple at Somanathapura
Star Like structure. Stellate plan.
Jagati: Platform: One meter.
Soft stone-Schist.
Multiple Shrines around central pillared hall.
Walls in Zig-Zag pattern.
Proposed for UNESCO world Heritage site.
Vijaynagar(1336-1672)
Hari Har and Bukka.
Four Dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravida
Vijayanagara adopted the emblem of the ‘boar or varahaasʼ.
Vijaynagar empire and city founded by Haruhara and Bukka of Sangma. Vijaynagra is on
the banks of Tungbhadra.
Sayana: Mimamsa Scholar. Commentator on Vedas.
Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were
signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.
Vijaynagra Vs Bahmani for Raichur Doab: Krishna and Tungbhadra
Both wanted to conquer the port of Goa due to its importance for the import of
horses.
Golden Age of Telugu Literature.
Krishnadevarai(dies 1529): Andhrabhoj. Tuluva Dynasty. Wrote: Amukthamalyada.
Good relations with Portuguese
Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as the Ashtadiggajas.
Andhra kavita Pitamah: Allasani Peddanna. Wrote Manu-charitam and Hari-katha-
saram.
Built Vitthalswami(Shiva) and Hazara ramaswamy temple at Vijaynagar.
Pillar of victory at Simhachalam.
He founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram.
Dominigo Paes(Portugueses) visited at him time.
Tax rate on land was fixed depending on the quality of the land. Industries tax also
present.
The empire was divided into 6 provinces. A province was called Prant or Rajya.
Each province was under a viceroy or Nayak who was either a member of the royal
family or influential noble of the state. Every viceroy enjoyed civil, military and judiciary
powers within the province.
Uttara-hari-vamsam: Nachana Somanatha.
Pingali Surana Composed Raghava-panda-viyam.
Tenali Ramakrishna: Panduranga Mahatmayam: Telugu.
'Raya-vacha-kamu' gives interesting details about the Nayak system under his rule.
Harsh Punishments.
Devdasi System. Polygamy present. Sati was honoured.
Diamond mines at Kurnool and Anantapur.
Gold Coin: Varaha.
Coins: Barkur gadyanas, Bhatkal gadyanas.
Art of Shipbuilding.
Architecture style: Some scholars call it the Provida style.
Hampi
Tungbhadra(Pampa)
Last Capital of VE
Part of Mauryan Empire also.
Multi-religious. Hindu & Jain.
Aihole-Pattadakal+Indo-Islamic Style(Lotus Mahal).
Virupaksha Temple(Shiva), Vittal (Shiva) Temple. The Vitthala temple at Hampi has a
stepped tank called as Pushkarani.
Vijay Vittala Temple: Pillar with musical notes.
The wide Chariot streets is a unique feature of Hampi temples.
Hamkunt Hill:- Jain Temple
Vijayanagara temples were an amalgamation of Chola, Hoysala and Chalukyas
architectural style. Also, Indo- Islamic style of Bijapur.
Secular Building inside temple-> Lotus Mahal.
Temple Pillars-> Yeli engraved on them.
Gopurams on all sides.
The Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler
Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who left
valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire. Barbosa
also visited.
Mahanavami dibba is a platform from where Vijayanagara kings used to stand and watch
the processions of the Dasara festival.
Sri Lanka was invaded a number of times by the Vijayanagara rulers.
Decline: Fight between prospective rulers. Rebellion of military chiefs.
Battle of Talikota 1565: Rama Raja. End of VE. Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar
fought against VE.
Administration
Sometimes two rulers ruled at same time.--> Harihar and Bukka.
Nayaks was in charge of provinces called Prants.
Nayankar System: Rulers assigned a land in lieu of pay for military service.
Abdul Razzak: People belonging to one caste or profession lived at separate
quarters.
Sri Lanka Invaded number of Times.
Amara-Nayaka System: Similar to Iqta System of Sulatanate.
Ayagars were village servants/ functionaries/headmen
Devadanas were villages assigned to the temples.
Bahmani: 1347
Hasan Gangu
Mahmud Gawan: Persian Merchant. Chief minister in the court of King Muhammad III.
One of the most remarkable steps taken by Firuz Shah Bahmani, was the induction of the
Hindus in the administration on a large scale.
Half Gumbad in the Deccan is a unique example of Bahmani architecture.
Ferishta wrote about them.
Newcomers who were foreigners were called Afaqis, or Gharibs.
The title of Malik ut Tujjar was given to Khalaf Hasan Basri by Ahmad I.
Gulbarga fort was one of the earliest instances of the confluence of Indian and Persian
architectural styles.  Fortified by Al-ud-din Bahmani. The Jumma masjid is a particular
attraction in the complex.
The Bijapur school of architecture has unique features like 3-arched facade and
bulbous dome.
Bidar remained under the Barid Shahi.
Berar was ruled for a period by the Imad Shahi.
Ahmednagar : Nizamshahi
Bijapur: Adil shahis
Golconda: Qutub Shahi.Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah.
Mughals(1526-1706)
Babur(1526-30)
First battle of Panipat with Ibrahim Lodi: 1526
Battle of Khanwa with Rana Sanga: 1527. Title of Ghazi after battle.
Tuzuk-i-Babri in Turki
Humayun(1530-1540 & 1555-56)
Battle of Chausa against Sher shah Sur and Lost: 1539
Battle of Kanauj: 1540: Prince without a Kingdom.
He invited two Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, to establish a studio
in his court and carry out royal paintings.
Humayun founded the Nigaar Khana (The painting workshop)
Sher Shah Suri(1540-45)
Introduced new silver Coin "Dam". Modern Rupee.
Purana Quila Delhi & Mausoleum at Sasaram
Empire divided in 47 Sarkars.
Nobility in Sher Shah's court were drawn almost exclusively from the Afghans.
Jizyah continued to be collected from the Hindus.
Shiqdar: L&O and general administration.
Akbar(1556-1605)
Bairam Khan
Second Battle of Panipat against Hemu: 1556
Abolished Pilgrim Tax and Jiziya
Ibadat Khana at Fatepur Sikri: Discontinued.
 Din Ilahi
Land Revenue System: Zabati or Bandobast. Raja Todar Mal: Dashala System:
Land assessment based on last 10 years.
Land: Polaj>Parauti>Chachar>Banjar.
Introduced Mansabdari system: Not hereditary. Akbar Himself distributed. Zat(Status)
Sawar(Number of cavalrymen).
The Mansabdars did not actually reside in or administer their Jagirs.
The higher grade was the ‘Omrahʼ, described by the European travellers, like
Bernier.
Fatehpur Sikri: Gujarati and Bengali style buildings. Jama Masjid, Buland
Darwaza(Akbar's victory in Gujarat), Panch Mahal, Tomb of Sheikh Salim
Chisti(Marble).
Abul Fazal: Akabar Nama: 3 Parts: Third part is Ain-i-Akbari. The Ain-i-Akbari
gives detailed accounts of the physical layout of the provinces of Akbar's empire. It
gives us intricate quantitative information of those provinces.
Faizi: Translation department.
Mahabharta in Persion: Razm Namah.
Panchtantra: Yar-i-Danish.
Shipʼs camelʼ
Mausoleum of Akbar Buddhist architectural elements
Surdas.
Mian Tansen: Title Given by Raja Vikramjit of Gwalior.
Akbar wanted control over the Deccani states to check the Portuguese.
He followed a policy of persecution against the Shias and the Mahadavis.
Daswant and Basawan were two of the famous painters of Akbarʼs court.
Jahangir(1605-27)
5th Sikh Guru Arjun beheaded.
Nur Jahan- Itimadiddauala tomb at Agra: White marble.
Many traditions of Mughal architecture can be seen at Golden Temple.
Jahangir is famous for his golden chain of justice or zanjeer-e-adal.
Faridabad in the memory of Baba Farid.
Shah Jahan(1627-58)
Successful Deccan policy. Aurangzeb was appointed governor.
Adil Shah accepted the Mughal suzerainty.
Badshah Nama/Padshahnama: Abdul Hamid Lahori
Red Fort: Diwan-i-Am
Moti Masjid Agra
Jama Masjid Delhi.
Bernier, Tavernier and Peter Mundy
Aurangzeb(1658-1707)
Initial 25 years focuses on NW.
 But his Deccan policy/Ulcer ruined him. They were working a defence wall against
Maratha.
Separate department to enforce moral codes: Muhtasib.
Discontinued the celebrations and Jarokhadarshan. Celebration of Muharram Stoped
(hatred of the Shia faith)
Aurangzeb ended the practice of inscribing Kalima or Islamic articled of faith on coins.
Destroyed temples at Mathura & Benaras.
Dara Shukoh, translated the Upanishads into Persian- Sir-i-Akbar: Philosopher Prince
Administration
A uniform tax was levied on the goods at the point of their entry into the empire.
The Mughals minted silver rupees of high purity.
Mansabdar < rank below 500. 500-2500: Amir. 2500+: Amir-i-umda.
Jama-Dami: To assign a Jagir, the revenue department had to maintain a register
known as Jama-Dami. It indicated the assessed income (jama) from a jagir. This
account was indicated in dams which was calculated at the rate of 0f 40 dams to a
rupee.
Mir Bakshi: Head of Military Department: Came into existence during Mughals.
Kiroris: Officers for Lands which yield Crore tankas.
Qanungos: Hereditary land holders. Kiroris checked their accounts.
Amal guzar: Revenue Collection.
Chief sadr was responsible for all charitable and religious endowments.
Mir saman was in charge of the imperial household.
The Mughals borrowed the system of using coins in three metals from Sher Shah Suri
Marathas
Bhakti Movement fostered Social Unity: Tukkaram, Ramdas, Eknath.
Shivaji: 1627-80: Treaty of Purander(1665). Crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed
the title of Chatrapati. Council of ministers: Ashtapradhan.  Guru: Ramdas.
Treaty of Purandar: Shivaji and Raja Jai Singh 1665. Surrendered most of the forts to
Mughals.
Land Measurement through rod called Kathi.
Administrative system based on prevalent Deccan system.
Ashtapradhan: Ministers responsible to King. Started by Shivaji.
Peshwa: Finance and General Administration.
Sar-i-Naubat: Senapati
Wagenavis were responsible for intelligence, posts and household affairs.
Misardars: Similar to Zamindars during Marathas.
Chauth: 1/4 (25%) to avoid Maratha raid. Sardeshmukhi: 1/10 Land on which Maratha
claimed Hereditary right.---Entire Deccan.
Peshwa: Balaji Viswanath(1713): Hereditary.
 Sarfoji II: well known practitioner of western science and medicine; and also
establishment of printing press (for Marathi and Sanskrit). Serfoji II established
Dhanvantari Mahal, a research institution that produced herbal medicine for humans and
animals. He authored Kumara-sambhava Champu, Devendra Kuravanji, and Mudra
rakshaschaya. He introduced western musical instruments like clarinet, and violin in
Carnatic music. He is also credited with popularising the unique Thanjavur style of
painting.
Visitors
Fahien CG II The people do not kill any living creatures or
drink any intoxicant. Rich & Prosperous. Studied
at Nalanda
Huien Tsang 1. Harsha 1. 13 years. Perfect L&O. Death penalty
2. Pallava usually avoided. Hieun Tsang mentions the
3. Chaluky four divisions (chaturanga) of Harshaʼs
as of army. Caste system rigid but no tension.
Badami( Women wore purdah but not high class.
Vatapi) Sati in Practise. Talked about Nalanda. He
was attacked by robbers on the way.
Prayag and Kanauj in the doab had
become important. Patliputra and Vaishali
going down.
2. Visited kanchipuram during the reign of
pallava ruler Narsimhanvarman-
I(Mamalla).

Marco Polo, a 1. Pandya 1. Lauded the king for fair administration and
Venetian (Italy) 2. Kakatiya generous hospitality for foreign
traveller (Rudra merchants. In his travel account, he also
madeviʼ records the incidents of sati and the
s polygamy practiced by the kings.
tenure) 2. Ramapa Temple: Brightest star in medieval
3. Chola temples.
Empire.
 The Moroccan traveler Vijay Nagar Domingo Paes: During Krishnadeva rai
Ibn Battuta, Venetian Empire Ibn Battuta: Tughlaq dynasty
traveler Nicolo de
Conti, Persian traveler
Abdur Razzak and the
Portuguese traveler
Domingo Paes
François Bernier, Mughal 1656 Frenchman, was a doctor, political philosopher
and historian.
Described India in a bad light

Books & Literature

Kalpasutra Bhadrabhau 4th BCE. Biography of Lord Mahavira and other
tirthankaras.
Milinda Panho Nagasena Question of Milinda(Indo-Greek). Buddhism.
Gathasaptashati Hala Sathvahana
Mirchachhakatika Sudraka Love affair of rich merchant and daughter of
Courtesan.
Silappadikaram Ilango Love Story
Manimekalai Saathanaar Sequel to Silappadikaram. Anti-love story.
Manimeklai became buddhist.
Lilavati (The Bhaskaracharya Maths
Beautiful)
Buddhacharita Asvaghosha In Sanskrit. Also wrote first Sanskrit play,
Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts. During
Kanishka.
Nitisara Kamandaka Polity. 400 CE
Devichandraguptam Vishakadutta Provides details about the rise of the Guptas.
and Mudrarakshasam
Ashtadhyayi Panini Sanskrit grammar
Mahabhashya Patanjali Sanskrit grammar
Sakunthalam, Kalidasa Drama
Malavikagnimitram(Lo
ve story of Sunga
founder Agnimitra)
and
Vikramaurvashiyam
Mrichchhakatika Sudraka Gupta Period
Tarikh-i-Firoz Ziauddin Barani History of Delhi Sultanate up to Firuz Tughlaq
Shahi(1357)
Zainavilas Bhattavatara A history of the rulers of Kashmir based on
Firdausiʼs Shah Namah.
Kitab-ul-Hind Al-Biruni(Iranian) Arabic. Deals with a variety of subjects, inter alia,
philosophy, alchemy, social life, laws and
metrology. Patanjaliʼs work into Persian and the
works of Euclid (Greek mathematician) into
Sanskrit.  West Asia familiarised with Hindu
ideas.
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Minhaj us Siraj World Islamic History written in Arabic
Rihla Ibn Battuta
Akbar Nama Abul Fazal Ain-I-Akbari: Part of three volume book, talks
about Ancestors of Akbar and events during his
reign.
Tuti Nama Zia Nakhshabi Persian tranlation of Sanskrit Stories.
Gitagovinda Jayadeva Sanskrit
Amukthamalyada Krishnadeva Rai Andhrabhoj
Manu-charitam and Allasani Andhra kavita Pitamah
Hari-katha-saram Peddanna
Kanyasulkam Gurajada Tamil Play. PM talked about it.
Apparao
Sangeet Mimansa Rana Kumbha Music 15th C.